Exocytotic fusion pores are composed of both lipids and proteins

DeFrND: detergent-free reconstitution into native nanodiscs with designer membrane scaffold peptides

Membrane scaffold proteins-based nanodiscs (NDs) have facilitated unprecedented structural and biophysical analysis of membrane proteins in a near-native lipid environment. However, successful reconstitution of membrane proteins in NDs requires prior solubilization and purification in detergents, which may impact their physiological structure and function. Furthermore, the detergent-mediated reconstitution of NDs is unlikely to recapitulate the precise composition or asymmetry of native membranes. To circumvent this fundamental limitation of traditional ND technology, we herein describe the development of membrane-solubilizing peptides to directly extract membrane proteins from native cell membranes into nanoscale discoids. By systematically protein engineering and screening, we created a new class of chemically modified Apolipoprotein-A1 mimetic peptides to enable the formation of detergent-free NDs (DeFrNDs) with high efficiency. NDs generated with these engineered membrane scaffold peptides are suitable for obtaining high-resolution structures using single-particle cryo-EM with native lipids. To further highlight the versatility of DeFrNDs, we directly extract a sampling of membrane signaling proteins with their surrounding native membranes for biochemical and biophysical interrogations.

Synergistic regulation of fusion pore opening and dilation by SNARE and synaptotagmin-1

Fusion pore opening is a transient intermediate state of synaptic vesicle exocytosis, which is highly dynamic and precisely regulated by the soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE) complex and synaptotagmin-1 (Syt1). Yet, the regulatory mechanism is not fully understood. In this work, using single-channel membrane fusion electrophysiology, we determined that SNAREpins are important for driving fusion pore opening and dilation but incapable of regulating the dynamics. When Syt1 was added, the closing frequency of fusion pores significantly increased, while the radius of fusion pores mildly decreased. In response to Ca2+, SNARE/Syt1 greatly increased the radius of fusion pores and reduced their closing frequency. Moreover, the residue F349 in the C2B domain of Syt1, which mediates Syt1 oligomerization, was required for clamping fusion pore opening in the absence of Ca2+, probably by extending the distance between the two membranes. Finally, in Ca2+-triggered fusion, the primary interface between SNARE and Syt1 plays a critical role in stabilizing and dilating the fusion pore, while the polybasic region of Syt1 C2B domain has a mild effect on increasing the radius of the fusion pore. In summary, our results suggest that Syt1, SNARE, and the anionic membrane synergically orchestrate the dynamics of fusion pore opening in synaptic vesicle exocytosis.

Miniaturized Electrochemical Sensing Platforms for Quantitative Monitoring of Glutamate Dynamics in the Central Nervous System

Glutamate is one of the most important excitatory neurotransmitters within the mammalian central nervous system. The role of glutamate in regulating neural network signaling transmission through both synaptic and extra-synaptic paths highlights the importance of the real-time and continuous monitoring of its concentration and dynamics in living organisms. Progresses in multidisciplinary research have promoted the development of electrochemical glutamate sensors through the co-design of materials, interfaces, electronic devices, and integrated systems. This review summarizes recent works reporting various electrochemical sensor designs and their applicability as miniaturized neural probes to in vivo sensing within biological environments. We start with an overview of the role and physiological significance of glutamate, the metabolic routes, and its presence in various bodily fluids. Next, we discuss the design principles, commonly employed validation models/protocols, and successful demonstrations of multifunctional, compact, and bio-integrated devices in animal models. The final section provides an outlook on the development of the next generation glutamate sensors for neuroscience and neuroengineering, with the aim of offering practical guidance for future research.

Somatostatin modulation of initial fusion pores in Ca2+-triggered exocytosis from mouse chromaffin cells

Somatostatin, a peptide hormone that activates G-protein-coupled receptors, inhibits the secretion of many hormones. This study investigated the mechanisms of this inhibition using amperometry recording of Ca2+-triggered catecholamine secretion from mouse chromaffin cells. Two distinct stimulation protocols, high-KCl depolarization and caffeine, were used to trigger exocytosis, and confocal fluorescence imaging was used to monitor the rise in intracellular free Ca2+. Analysis of single-vesicle fusion events (spikes) resolved the action of somatostatin on fusion pores at different stages. Somatostatin reduced spike frequency, and this reduction was accompanied by prolongation of pre-spike feet and slowing of spike rise times. This indicates that somatostatin stabilizes initial fusion pores and slows their expansion. This action on the initial fusion pore impacted the release mode to favour kiss-and-run over full-fusion. During a spike the permeability of a fusion pore peaks, declines and then settles into a plateau. Somatostatin had no effect on the plateau, suggesting no influence on late-stage fusion pores. These actions of somatostatin were indistinguishable between exocytosis triggered by high-KCl and caffeine, and fluorescence imaging showed that somatostatin had no effect on stimulus-induced rises in cytosolic Ca2+. Our findings thus demonstrate that the signalling cascades activated by somatostatin target the exocytotic machinery that controls the initial and expanding stages of fusion pores, while having no effect on late-stage fusion pores. As a result of its stronger inhibition of full-fusion compared to kiss-and-run, somatostatin will preferentially inhibit the secretion of large peptides over the secretion of small catecholamines. KEY POINTS: Somatostatin inhibits the secretion of various hormones by activating G-protein-coupled receptors. In this study, we used amperometry to investigate the mechanism by which somatostatin inhibits catecholamine release from mouse chromaffin cells. Somatostatin increased pre-spike foot lifetime and slowed fusion pore expansion. Somatostatin inhibited full-fusion more strongly than kiss-and-run. Our results suggest that the initial fusion pore is the target of somatostatin-mediated regulation of hormone release. The stronger inhibition of full-fusion by somatostatin will result in preferential inhibition of peptide release.

Differential SNARE chaperoning by Munc13-1 and Munc18-1 dictates fusion pore fate at the release site

The regulated release of chemical messengers is crucial for cell-to-cell communication; abnormalities in which impact coordinated human body function. During vesicular secretion, multiple SNARE complexes assemble at the release site, leading to fusion pore opening. How membrane fusion regulators act on heterogeneous SNARE populations to assemble fusion pores in a timely and synchronized manner, is unknown. Here, we demonstrate the role of SNARE chaperones Munc13-1 and Munc18-1 in rescuing individual nascent fusion pores from their diacylglycerol lipid-mediated inhibitory states. At the onset of membrane fusion, Munc13-1 clusters multiple SNARE complexes at the release site and synchronizes release events, while Munc18-1 stoichiometrically interacts with trans-SNARE complexes to enhance N- to C-terminal zippering. When both Munc proteins are present simultaneously, they differentially access dynamic trans-SNARE complexes to regulate pore properties. Overall, Munc proteins' direct action on fusion pore assembly indicates their role in controlling quantal size during vesicular secretion.

Molecular mechanism underlying SNARE-mediated membrane fusion enlightened by all-atom molecular dynamics simulations

The SNAP receptor (SNARE) proteins syntaxin-1, SNAP-25, and synaptobrevin mediate neurotransmitter release by forming tight SNARE complexes that fuse synaptic vesicles with the plasma membranes in microseconds. Membrane fusion is generally explained by the action of proteins on macroscopic membrane properties such as curvature, elastic modulus, and tension, and a widespread model envisions that the SNARE motifs, juxtamembrane linkers, and C-terminal transmembrane regions of synaptobrevin and syntaxin-1 form continuous helices that act mechanically as semirigid rods, squeezing the membranes together as they assemble ("zipper") from the N to the C termini. However, the mechanism underlying fast SNARE-induced membrane fusion remains unknown. We have used all-atom molecular dynamics simulations to investigate this mechanism. Our results need to be interpreted with caution because of the limited number and length of the simulations, but they suggest a model of membrane fusion that has a natural physicochemical basis, emphasizes local molecular events over general membrane properties, and explains extensive experimental data. In this model, the central event that initiates fast (microsecond scale) membrane fusion occurs when the SNARE helices zipper into the juxtamembrane linkers which, together with the adjacent transmembrane regions, promote encounters of acyl chains from both bilayers at the polar interface. The resulting hydrophobic nucleus rapidly expands into stalk-like structures that gradually progress to form a fusion pore, aided by the SNARE transmembrane regions and without clearly discernible intermediates. The propensity of polyunsaturated lipids to participate in encounters that initiate fusion suggests that these lipids may be important for the high speed of neurotransmitter release.

Synaptobrevin2 monomers and dimers differentially engage to regulate the functional trans-SNARE assembly

The precise cell-to-cell communication relies on SNARE-catalyzed membrane fusion. Among ∼70 copies of synaptobrevin2 (syb2) in synaptic vesicles, only ∼3 copies are sufficient to facilitate the fusion process at the presynaptic terminal. It is unclear what dictates the number of SNARE complexes that constitute the fusion pore assembly. The structure-function relation of these dynamic pores is also unknown. Here, we demonstrate that syb2 monomers and dimers differentially engage in regulating the trans-SNARE assembly during membrane fusion. The differential recruitment of two syb2 structures at the membrane fusion site has consequences in regulating individual nascent fusion pore properties. We have identified a few syb2 transmembrane domain residues that control monomer/dimer conversion. Overall, our study indicates that syb2 monomers and dimers are differentially recruited at the release sites for regulating membrane fusion events.

Mechanisms of SNARE proteins in membrane fusion

Soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptors (SNAREs) are a family of small conserved eukaryotic proteins that mediate membrane fusion between organelles and with the plasma membrane. SNAREs are directly or indirectly anchored to membranes. Prior to fusion, complementary SNAREs assemble between membranes with the aid of accessory proteins that provide a scaffold to initiate SNARE zippering, pulling the membranes together and mediating fusion. Recent advances have enabled the construction of detailed models describing bilayer transitions and energy barriers along the fusion pathway and have elucidated the structures of SNAREs complexed in various states with regulatory proteins. In this Review, we discuss how these advances are yielding an increasingly detailed picture of the SNARE-mediated fusion pathway, leading from first contact between the membranes via metastable non-bilayer intermediates towards the opening and expansion of a fusion pore. We describe how SNARE proteins assemble into complexes, how this assembly is regulated by accessory proteins and how SNARE complexes overcome the free energy barriers that prevent spontaneous membrane fusion.

Membrane transformations of fusion and budding

Membrane fusion and budding mediate fundamental processes like intracellular trafficking, exocytosis, and endocytosis. Fusion is thought to open a nanometer-range pore that may subsequently close or dilate irreversibly, whereas budding transforms flat membranes into vesicles. Reviewing recent breakthroughs in real-time visualization of membrane transformations well exceeding this classical view, we synthesize a new model and describe its underlying mechanistic principles and functions. Fusion involves hemi-to-full fusion, pore expansion, constriction and/or closure while fusing vesicles may shrink, enlarge, or receive another vesicle fusion; endocytosis follows exocytosis primarily by closing Ω-shaped profiles pre-formed through the flat-to-Λ-to-Ω-shape transition or formed via fusion. Calcium/SNARE-dependent fusion machinery, cytoskeleton-dependent membrane tension, osmotic pressure, calcium/dynamin-dependent fission machinery, and actin/dynamin-dependent force machinery work together to generate fusion and budding modes differing in pore status, vesicle size, speed and quantity, controls release probability, synchronization and content release rates/amounts, and underlies exo-endocytosis coupling to maintain membrane homeostasis. These transformations, underlying mechanisms, and functions may be conserved for fusion and budding in general.

Membrane compression by synaptic vesicle exocytosis triggers ultrafast endocytosis

Compensatory endocytosis keeps the membrane surface area of secretory cells constant following exocytosis. At chemical synapses, clathrin-independent ultrafast endocytosis maintains such homeostasis. This endocytic pathway is temporally and spatially coupled to exocytosis; it initiates within 50 ms at the region immediately next to the active zone where vesicles fuse. However, the coupling mechanism is unknown. Here, we demonstrate that filamentous actin is organized as a ring, surrounding the active zone at mouse hippocampal synapses. Assuming the membrane area conservation is due to this actin ring, our theoretical model suggests that flattening of fused vesicles exerts lateral compression in the plasma membrane, resulting in rapid formation of endocytic pits at the border between the active zone and the surrounding actin-enriched region. Consistent with model predictions, our data show that ultrafast endocytosis requires sufficient compression by exocytosis of multiple vesicles and does not initiate when actin organization is disrupted, either pharmacologically or by ablation of the actin-binding protein Epsin1. Our work suggests that membrane mechanics underlie the rapid coupling of exocytosis to endocytosis at synapses.

Designer Nanodiscs to Probe and Reprogram Membrane Biology in Synapses

Signal transduction at the synapse is mediated by a variety of protein-lipid interactions, which are vital for the spatial and temporal regulation of synaptic vesicle biogenesis, neurotransmitter release, and postsynaptic receptor activation. Therefore, our understanding of synaptic transmission cannot be completed until the elucidation of these critical protein-lipid interactions. On this front, recent advances in nanodiscs have vastly expanded our ability to probe and reprogram membrane biology in synapses. Here, we summarize the progress of the nanodisc toolbox and discuss future directions in this exciting field.

Computational Advances of Protein/Neurotransmitter-membrane Interactions Involved in Vesicle Fusion and Neurotransmitter Release

Vesicle fusion is of crucial importance to neuronal communication at neuron terminals. The exquisite but complex fusion machinery for neurotransmitter release is tightly controlled and regulated by protein/neurotransmitter-membrane interactions. Computational 'microscopies', in particular molecular dynamics simulations and related techniques, have provided notable insight into the physiological process over the past decades, and have made enormous contributions to fields such as neurology, pharmacology and pathophysiology. Here we review the computational advances of protein/neurotransmitter-membrane interactions related to presynaptic vesicle-membrane fusion and neurotransmitter release, and outline the in silico challenges ahead for understanding this important physiological process.

The function of VAMP2 in mediating membrane fusion: An overview

Vesicle-associated membrane protein 2 (VAMP2, also known as synaptobrevin-2), encoded by VAMP2 in humans, is a key component of the soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE) complex. VAMP2 combined with syntaxin-1A (SYX-1A) and synaptosome-associated protein 25 (SNAP-25) produces a force that induces the formation of fusion pores, thereby mediating the fusion of synaptic vesicles and the release of neurotransmitters. VAMP2 is largely unstructured in the absence of interaction partners. Upon interaction with other SNAREs, the structure of VAMP2 stabilizes, resulting in the formation of four structural domains. In this review, we highlight the current knowledge of the roles of the VAMP2 domains and the interaction between VAMP2 and various fusion-related proteins in the presynaptic cytoplasm during the fusion process. Our summary will contribute to a better understanding of the roles of the VAMP2 protein in membrane fusion.

Energetics, kinetics, and pathways of SNARE assembly in membrane fusion

Fusion of transmitter-containing vesicles with plasma membranes at the synaptic and neuromuscular junctions mediates neurotransmission and muscle contractions, respectively, thereby underlying all thoughts and actions. The fusion process is driven by the coupled folding and assembly of three synaptic SNARE proteins--syntaxin-1 and SNAP-25 on the target plasma membrane (t-SNAREs) and VAMP2 on the vesicular membrane (v-SNARE) into a four-helix bundle. Their assembly is chaperoned by Munc18-1 and many other proteins to achieve the speed and accuracy required for neurotransmission. However, the physiological pathway of SNARE assembly and its coupling to membrane fusion remains unclear. Here, we review recent progress in understanding SNARE assembly and membrane fusion, with a focus on results obtained by single-molecule manipulation approaches and electric recordings of single fusion pores. We describe two pathways of synaptic SNARE assembly, their associated intermediates, energetics, and kinetics. Assembly of the three SNAREs in vitro begins with the formation of a t-SNARE binary complex, on which VAMP2 folds in a stepwise zipper-like fashion. Munc18-1 significantly alters the SNARE assembly pathway: syntaxin-1 and VAMP2 first bind on the surface of Munc18-1 to form a template complex, with which SNAP-25 associates to conclude SNARE assembly and displace Munc18-1. During membrane fusion, multiple trans-SNARE complexes cooperate to open a dynamic fusion pore in a manner dependent upon their copy number and zippering states. Together, these results demonstrate that stepwise and cooperative SNARE assembly drive stagewise membrane fusion.

Synaptic Secretion and Beyond: Targeting Synapse and Neurotransmitters to Treat Neurodegenerative Diseases

The nervous system is important, because it regulates the physiological function of the body. Neurons are the most basic structural and functional unit of the nervous system. The synapse is an asymmetric structure that is important for neuronal function. The chemical transmission mode of the synapse is realized through neurotransmitters and electrical processes. Based on vesicle transport, the abnormal information transmission process in the synapse can lead to a series of neurorelated diseases. Numerous proteins and complexes that regulate the process of vesicle transport, such as SNARE proteins, Munc18-1, and Synaptotagmin-1, have been identified. Their regulation of synaptic vesicle secretion is complicated and delicate, and their defects can lead to a series of neurodegenerative diseases. This review will discuss the structure and functions of vesicle-based synapses and their roles in neurons. Furthermore, we will analyze neurotransmitter and synaptic functions in neurodegenerative diseases and discuss the potential of using related drugs in their treatment.

The beginning and the end of SNARE-induced membrane fusion

Membrane fusion is not a spontaneous process. Physiologically, the formation of coiled-coil protein complexes, the SNAREpins, bridges the membrane of a vesicle and a target membrane, brings them in close contact, and provides the energy necessary for their fusion. In this review, we utilize results from in vitro experiments and simple physics and chemistry models to dissect the kinetics and energetics of the fusion process from the encounter of the two membranes to the full expansion of a fusion pore. We find three main energy barriers that oppose the fusion process: SNAREpin initiation, fusion pore opening, and expansion. SNAREpin initiation is inherent to the proteins and makes in vitro fusion kinetic experiments rather slow. The kinetics are physiologically accelerated by effectors. The energy barriers that precede pore opening and pore expansion can be overcome by several SNAREpins acting in concert.

Circularized fluorescent nanodiscs for probing protein-lipid interactions

Protein–lipid interactions are vital for numerous transmembrane signaling pathways. However, simple tools to characterize these interactions remain scarce and are much needed to advance our understanding of signal transduction across lipid bilayers. To tackle this challenge, we herein engineer nanodisc as a robust fluorescent sensor for reporting membrane biochemical reactions. We circularize nanodiscs via split GFP and thereby create an intensity-based fluorescent sensor (isenND) for detecting membrane binding and remodeling events. We show that isenND responds robustly and specifically to the action of a diverse array of membrane-interacting proteins and peptides, ranging from synaptotagmin and synuclein involved in neurotransmission to viral fusion peptides of HIV-1 and SARS-CoV-2. Together, isenND can serve as a versatile biochemical reagent useful for basic and translational research of membrane biology.

A fluorescent probe for detecting membrane protein binding and remodeling events is presented, which relies on split-GFP technology to generate circularized nanodiscs useful in membrane protein biophysics and structural biology.

Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Neurotransmitter Release

Major recent advances and previous data have led to a plausible model of how key proteins mediate neurotransmitter release. In this model, the soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor (NSF) attachment protein (SNAP) receptor (SNARE) proteins syntaxin-1, SNAP-25, and synaptobrevin form tight complexes that bring the membranes together and are crucial for membrane fusion. NSF and SNAPs disassemble SNARE complexes and ensure that fusion occurs through an exquisitely regulated pathway that starts with Munc18-1 bound to a closed conformation of syntaxin-1. Munc18-1 also binds to synaptobrevin, forming a template to assemble the SNARE complex when Munc13-1 opens syntaxin-1 while bridging the vesicle and plasma membranes. Synaptotagmin-1 and complexin bind to partially assembled SNARE complexes, likely stabilizing them and preventing fusion until Ca²⁺ binding to synaptotagmin-1 causes dissociation from the SNARE complex and induces interactions with phospholipids that help trigger release. Although fundamental questions remain about the mechanism of membrane fusion, these advances provide a framework to investigate the mechanisms underlying presynaptic plasticity.

One-step construction of circularized nanodiscs using SpyCatcher-SpyTag

Circularized nandiscs (cNDs) exhibit superb monodispersity and have the potential to transform functional and structural studies of membrane proteins. In particular, cNDs can stabilize large patches of lipid bilayers for the reconstitution of complex membrane biochemical reactions, enabling the capture of crucial intermediates involved in synaptic transmission and viral entry. However, previous methods for building cNDs require multiple steps and suffer from low yields. We herein introduce a simple, one-step approach to ease the construction of cNDs using the SpyCatcher-SpyTag technology. This approach increases the yield of cNDs by over 10-fold and is able to rapidly generates cNDs with diameters ranging from 11 to over 100 nm. We demonstrate the utility of these cNDs for mechanistic interrogations of vesicle fusion and protein-lipid interactions that are unattainable using small nanodiscs. Together, the remarkable performance of SpyCatcher-SpyTag in nanodisc circularization paves the way for the use of cNDs in membrane biochemistry and structural biology.

An active tethering mechanism controls the fate of vesicles

Vesicle tethers are thought to underpin the efficiency of intracellular fusion by bridging vesicles to their target membranes. However, the interplay between tethering and fusion has remained enigmatic. Here, through optogenetic control of either a natural tether-the exocyst complex-or an artificial tether, we report that tethering regulates the mode of fusion. We find that vesicles mainly undergo kiss-and-run instead of full fusion in the absence of functional exocyst. Full fusion is rescued by optogenetically restoring exocyst function, in a manner likely dependent on the stoichiometry of tether engagement with the plasma membrane. In contrast, a passive artificial tether produces mostly kissing events, suggesting that kiss-and-run is the default mode of vesicle fusion. Optogenetic control of tethering further shows that fusion mode has physiological relevance since only full fusion could trigger lamellipodial expansion. These findings demonstrate that active coupling between tethering and fusion is critical for robust membrane merger.

α-Synuclein kinetically regulates the nascent fusion pore dynamics

α-Synuclein (α-syn_FL) is central to the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD), in which its nonfunctional oligomers accumulate and result in abnormal neurotransmission. The normal physiological function of this intrinsically disordered protein is still unclear. Although several previous studies demonstrated α-syn_FL's role in various membrane fusion steps, they produced conflicting outcomes regarding vesicular secretion. Here, we assess α-syn_FL's role in directly regulating individual exocytotic release events. We studied the micromillisecond dynamics of single recombinant fusion pores, the crucial kinetic intermediate of membrane fusion that tightly regulates the vesicular secretion in different cell types. α-Syn_FL accessed v-SNARE within the trans-SNARE complex to form an inhibitory complex. This activity was dependent on negatively charged phospholipids and resulted in decreased open probability of individual pores. The number of trans-SNARE complexes influenced α-syn_FL's inhibitory action. Regulatory factors that arrest SNARE complexes in different assembly states differentially modulate α-syn_FL's ability to alter fusion pore dynamics. α-Syn_FL regulates pore properties in the presence of Munc13-1 and Munc18, which stimulate α-SNAP/NSF-resistant SNARE complex formation. In the presence of synaptotagmin1(syt1), α-syn_FL contributes with apo-syt1 to act as a membrane fusion clamp, whereas Ca²⁺•syt1 triggered α-syn_FL-resistant SNARE complex formation that rendered α-syn_FL inactive in modulating pore properties. This study reveals a key role of α-syn_FL in controlling vesicular secretion.

Fusion pores with low conductance are cation selective

Many neurotransmitters are organic ions that carry a net charge, and their release from secretory vesicles is therefore an electrodiffusion process. The selectivity of early exocytotic fusion pores is investigated by combining electrodiffusion theory, measurements of amperometric foot signals from chromaffin cells with anion substitution, and molecular dynamics simulation. The results reveal that very narrow fusion pores are cation selective, but more dilated fusion pores become anion permeable. The transition occurs around a fusion pore conductance of ~300 pS. The cation selectivity of a narrow fusion pore accelerates the release of positively charged transmitters such as dopamine, noradrenaline, adrenaline, serotonin, and acetylcholine, while glutamate release may require a more dilated fusion pore.

For transmission, a fusion pore forms when vesicle and target membranes are brought together by SNARE proteins. Delacruz et al. demonstrate that selectivity of the pore accelerates release of positively charged transmitters such as dopamine, noradrenaline, adrenaline, serotonin, and acetylcholine, while glutamate release may require a more dilated fusion pore.

Chaperoning SNARE Folding and Assembly

SNARE proteins and Sec1/Munc18 (SM) proteins constitute the core molecular engine that drives nearly all intracellular membrane fusion and exocytosis. While SNAREs are known to couple their folding and assembly to membrane fusion, the physiological pathways of SNARE assembly and the mechanistic roles of SM proteins have long been enigmatic. Here, we review recent advances in understanding the SNARE-SM fusion machinery with an emphasis on biochemical and biophysical studies of proteins that mediate synaptic vesicle fusion. We begin by discussing the energetics, pathways, and kinetics of SNARE folding and assembly in vitro. Then, we describe diverse interactions between SM and SNARE proteins and their potential impact on SNARE assembly in vivo. Recent work provides strong support for the idea that SM proteins function as chaperones, their essential role being to enable fast, accurate SNARE assembly. Finally, we review the evidence that SM proteins collaborate with other SNARE chaperones, especially Munc13-1, and briefly discuss some roles of SNARE and SM protein deficiencies in human disease.

Developing Nanodisc-ID for label-free characterizations of membrane proteins

Membrane proteins (MPs) influence all aspects of life, such as tumorigenesis, immune response, and neural transmission. However, characterization of MPs is challenging, as it often needs highly specialized techniques inaccessible to many labs. We herein introduce nanodisc-ID that enables quantitative analysis of membrane proteins using a gel electrophoresis readout. By leveraging the power of nanodiscs and proximity labeling, nanodisc-ID serves both as scaffolds for encasing biochemical reactions and as sensitive reagents for detecting membrane protein-lipid and protein-protein interactions. We demonstrate this label-free and low-cost tool by characterizing a wide range of integral and peripheral membrane proteins from prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Efflux Transporters' Engineering and Their Application in Microbial Production of Heterologous Metabolites

Metabolic engineering of microbial hosts for the production of heterologous metabolites and biochemicals is an enabling technology to generate meaningful quantities of desired products that may be otherwise difficult to produce by traditional means. Heterologous metabolite production can be restricted by the accumulation of toxic products within the cell. Efflux transport proteins (transporters) provide a potential solution to facilitate the export of these products, mitigate toxic effects, and enhance production. Recent investigations using knockout lines, heterologous expression, and expression profiling of transporters have revealed candidates that can enhance the export of heterologous metabolites from microbial cell systems. Transporter engineering efforts have revealed that some exhibit flexible substrate specificity and may have broader application potentials. In this Review, the major superfamilies of efflux transporters, their mechanistic modes of action, selection of appropriate efflux transporters for desired compounds, and potential transporter engineering strategies are described for potential applications in enhancing engineered microbial metabolite production. Future studies in substrate recognition, heterologous expression, and combinatorial engineering of efflux transporters will assist efforts to enhance heterologous metabolite production in microbial hosts.

Cholesterol stabilizes recombinant exocytic fusion pores by altering membrane bending rigidity

SNARE-mediated membrane fusion proceeds via the formation of a fusion pore. This intermediate structure is highly dynamic and can flicker between open and closed states. In cells, cholesterol has been reported to affect SNARE-mediated exocytosis and fusion pore dynamics. Here, we address the question of whether cholesterol directly affects the flickering rate of reconstituted fusion pores in vitro. These experiments were enabled by the recent development of a nanodisc⋅black lipid membrane recording system that monitors dynamic transitions between the open and closed states of nascent recombinant pores with submillisecond time resolution. The fusion pores formed between nanodiscs that bore the vesicular SNARE synaptobrevin 2 and black lipid membranes that harbored the target membrane SNAREs syntaxin 1A and SNAP-25B were markedly affected by cholesterol. These effects include strong reductions in flickering out of the open state, resulting in a significant increase in the open dwell-time. We attributed these effects to the known role of cholesterol in altering the elastic properties of lipid bilayers because manipulation of phospholipids to increase membrane stiffness mirrored the effects of cholesterol. In contrast to the observed effects on pore kinetics, cholesterol had no effect on the current that passed through individual pores and, hence, did not affect pore size. In conclusion, our results show that cholesterol dramatically stabilizes fusion pores in the open state by increasing membrane bending rigidity.

Structural Roles for the Juxtamembrane Linker Region and Transmembrane Region of Synaptobrevin 2 in Membrane Fusion

Formation of the trans-SNARE complex is believed to generate a force transfer to the membranes to promote membrane fusion, but the underlying mechanism remains elusive. In this study, we show that helix-breaking and/or length-increasing insertions in the juxtamembrane linker region of synaptobrevin-2 exert diverse effects on liposome fusion, in a manner dependent on the insertion position relative to the two conserved tryptophan residues (W⁸⁹/W⁹⁰). Helical extension of synaptobrevin-2 to W⁸⁹/W⁹⁰ is a prerequisite for initiating membrane merger. The transmembrane region of synaptobrevin-2 enables proper localization of W⁸⁹/W⁹⁰ at the membrane interface to gate force transfer. Besides, our data indicate that the SNARE regulatory components Munc18-1 and Munc13-1 impose liposome fusion strong demand on tight coupling between the SNARE motif and the transmembrane region of synaptobrevin-2.

Pulse-Chase Proteomics of the App Knockin Mouse Models of Alzheimer's Disease Reveals that Synaptic Dysfunction Originates in Presynaptic Terminals

Compromised protein homeostasis underlies accumulation of plaques and tangles in Alzheimer's disease (AD). To observe protein turnover at early stages of amyloid beta (Aβ) proteotoxicity, we performed pulse-chase proteomics on mouse brains in three genetic models of AD that knock in alleles of amyloid precursor protein (APP) prior to the accumulation of plaques and during disease progression. At initial stages of Aβ accumulation, the turnover of proteins associated with presynaptic terminals is selectively impaired. Presynaptic proteins with impaired turnover, particularly synaptic vesicle (SV)-associated proteins, have elevated levels, misfold in both a plaque-dependent and -independent manner, and interact with APP and Aβ. Concurrent with elevated levels of SV-associated proteins, we found an enlargement of the SV pool as well as enhancement of presynaptic potentiation. Together, our findings reveal that the presynaptic terminal is particularly vulnerable and represents a critical site for manifestation of initial AD etiology. A record of this paper's transparent peer review process is included in the Supplemental Information.

Fusion Pore Expansion and Contraction during Catecholamine Release from Endocrine Cells

Amperometry recording reveals the exocytosis of catecholamine from individual vesicles as a sequential process, typically beginning slowly with a prespike foot, accelerating sharply to initiate a spike, reaching a peak, and then decaying. This complex sequence reflects the interplay between diffusion, flux through a fusion pore, and possibly dissociation from a vesicle's dense core. In an effort to evaluate the impacts of these factors, a model was developed that combines diffusion with flux through a static pore. This model accurately recapitulated the rapid phase of a spike but generated relations between spike shape parameters that differed from the relations observed experimentally. To explore the possible role of fusion pore dynamics, a transformation of amperometry current was introduced that yields fusion pore permeability divided by vesicle volume (g/V). Applying this transform to individual fusion events yielded a highly characteristic time course. g/V initially tracks the current, increasing ∼15-fold from the prespike foot to the spike peak. After the peak, g/V unexpectedly declines and settles into a plateau that indicates the presence of a stable postspike pore. g/V of the postspike pore varies greatly between events and has an average that is ∼3.5-fold below the peak value and ∼4.5-fold above the prespike value. The postspike pore persists and is stable for tens of milliseconds, as long as catecholamine flux can be detected. Applying the g/V transform to rare events with two peaks revealed a stepwise increase in g/V during the second peak. The g/V transform offers an interpretation of amperometric current in terms of fusion pore dynamics and provides a, to our knowledge, new frameworkfor analyzing the actions of proteins that alter spike shape. The stable postspike pore follows from predictions of lipid bilayer elasticity and offers an explanation for previous reports of prolonged hormone retention within fusing vesicles.

Synergistic actions of v-SNARE transmembrane domains and membrane-curvature modifying lipids in neurotransmitter release

Vesicle fusion is mediated by assembly of SNARE proteins between opposing membranes. While previous work suggested an active role of SNARE transmembrane domains (TMDs) in promoting membrane merger (Dhara et al., 2016), the underlying mechanism remained elusive. Here, we show that naturally-occurring v-SNARE TMD variants differentially regulate fusion pore dynamics in mouse chromaffin cells, indicating TMD flexibility as a mechanistic determinant that facilitates transmitter release from differentially-sized vesicles. Membrane curvature-promoting phospholipids like lysophosphatidylcholine or oleic acid profoundly alter pore expansion and fully rescue the decelerated fusion kinetics of TMD-rigidifying VAMP2 mutants. Thus, v-SNARE TMDs and phospholipids cooperate in supporting membrane curvature at the fusion pore neck. Oppositely, slowing of pore kinetics by the SNARE-regulator complexin-2 withstands the curvature-driven speeding of fusion, indicating that pore evolution is tightly coupled to progressive SNARE complex formation. Collectively, TMD-mediated support of membrane curvature and SNARE force-generated membrane bending promote fusion pore formation and expansion.

Nanodiscs as a New Tool to Examine Lipid-Protein Interactions

The interactions between lipids and proteins are one of the most fundamental processes in living organisms, responsible for critical cellular events ranging from replication, cell division, signaling, and movement. Enabling the central coupling responsible for maintaining the functionality of the breadth of proteins, receptors, and enzymes that find their natural home in biological membranes, the fundamental mechanisms of recognition of protein for lipid, and vice versa, have been a focal point of biochemical and biophysical investigations for many decades. Complexes of lipids and proteins, such as the various lipoprotein factions, play central roles in the trafficking of important proteins, small molecules and metabolites and are often implicated in disease states. Recently an engineered lipoprotein particle, termed the nanodisc, a modified form of the human high density lipoprotein fraction, has served as a membrane mimetic for the investigation of membrane proteins and studies of lipid-protein interactions. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge regarding this self-assembling lipid-protein complex and provide examples for its utility in the investigation of a large number of biological systems.

Fusion Pores Live on the Edge

Biological transmission of vesicular content occurs by opening of a fusion pore. Recent experimental observations have illustrated that fusion pores between vesicles that are docked by an extended flat contact zone are located at the edge (vertex) of this zone. We modeled this experimentally observed scenario by coarse-grained molecular simulations and elastic theory. This revealed that fusion pores experience a direct attraction toward the vertex. The size adopted by the resulting vertex pore strongly depends on the apparent contact angle between the adhered vesicles even in the absence of membrane surface tension. Larger contact angles substantially increase the equilibrium size of the vertex pore. Because the cellular membrane fusion machinery actively docks membranes, it facilitates a collective expansion of the contact zone and increases the contact angle. In this way, the fusion machinery can drive expansion of the fusion pore by free energy equivalents of multiple tens of k_BT from a distance and not only through the fusion proteins that reside within the fusion pore.

Resolving kinetic intermediates during the regulated assembly and disassembly of fusion pores

The opening of a fusion pore during exocytosis creates the first aqueous connection between the lumen of a vesicle and the extracellular space. Soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptors (SNAREs) mediate the formation of these dynamic structures, and their kinetic transitions are tightly regulated by accessory proteins at the synapse. Here, we utilize two single molecule approaches, nanodisc-based planar bilayer electrophysiology and single-molecule FRET, to address the relationship between SNARE complex assembly and rapid (micro-millisecond) fusion pore transitions, and to define the role of accessory proteins. Synaptotagmin (syt) 1, a major Ca²⁺-sensor for synaptic vesicle exocytosis, drove the formation of an intermediate: committed trans-SNARE complexes that form large, stable pores. Once open, these pores could only be closed by the action of the ATPase, NSF. Time-resolved measurements revealed that NSF-mediated pore closure occurred via a complex ‘stuttering’ mechanism. This simplified system thus reveals the dynamic formation and dissolution of fusion pores.

SNAREs mediate the formation of a fusion pore during exocytosis which connects the lumen of a vesicle with the extracellular space. Here, authors use single molecule approaches to define the role of synaptotagmin 1 and NSF in synaptic pore formation and dissolution.

Intracellular Vesicle Fusion Requires a Membrane-Destabilizing Peptide Located at the Juxtamembrane Region of the v-SNARE

Intracellular vesicle fusion is mediated by soluble N-ethylmaleimide sensitive factor attachment protein receptors (SNAREs) and Sec1/Munc18 (SM) proteins. It is generally accepted that membrane fusion occurs when the vesicle and target membranes are brought into close proximity by SNAREs and SM proteins. In this work, we demonstrate that, for fusion to occur, membrane bilayers must be destabilized by a conserved membrane-embedded motif located at the juxtamembrane region of the vesicle-anchored v-SNARE. Comprised of basic and hydrophobic residues, the juxtamembrane motif perturbs the lipid bilayer structure and promotes SNARE-SM-mediated membrane fusion. The juxtamembrane motif can be functionally substituted with an unrelated membrane-disrupting peptide in the membrane fusion reaction. These findings establish the juxtamembrane motif of the v-SNARE as a membrane-destabilizing peptide. Requirement of membrane-destabilizing peptides is likely a common feature of biological membrane fusion.

Synaptotagmin 1 clamps synaptic vesicle fusion in mammalian neurons independent of complexin

Synaptic vesicle (SV) exocytosis is mediated by SNARE proteins. Reconstituted SNAREs are constitutively active, so a major focus has been to identify fusion clamps that regulate their activity in synapses: the primary candidates are synaptotagmin (syt) 1 and complexin I/II. Syt1 is a Ca2+ sensor for SV release that binds Ca2+ via tandem C2-domains, C2A and C2B. Here, we first determined whether these C2-domains execute distinct functions. Remarkably, the C2B domain profoundly clamped all forms of SV fusion, despite synchronizing residual evoked release and rescuing the readily-releasable pool. Release was strongly enhanced by an adjacent C2A domain, and by the concurrent binding of complexin to trans-SNARE complexes. Knockdown of complexin had no impact on C2B-mediated clamping of fusion. We postulate that the C2B domain of syt1, independent of complexin, is the molecular clamp that arrests SVs prior to Ca2+-triggered fusion.

Fusion pore regulation by cAMP/Epac2 controls cargo release during insulin exocytosis

Regulated exocytosis establishes a narrow fusion pore as initial aqueous connection to the extracellular space, through which small transmitter molecules such as ATP can exit. Co-release of polypeptides and hormones like insulin requires further expansion of the pore. There is evidence that pore expansion is regulated and can fail in diabetes and neurodegenerative disease. Here, we report that the cAMP-sensor Epac2 (Rap-GEF4) controls fusion pore behavior by acutely recruiting two pore-restricting proteins, amisyn and dynamin-1, to the exocytosis site in insulin-secreting beta-cells. cAMP elevation restricts and slows fusion pore expansion and peptide release, but not when Epac2 is inactivated pharmacologically or in Epac2^-/- (Rapgef4^-/-) mice. Consistently, overexpression of Epac2 impedes pore expansion. Widely used antidiabetic drugs (GLP-1 receptor agonists and sulfonylureas) activate this pathway and thereby paradoxically restrict hormone release. We conclude that Epac2/cAMP controls fusion pore expansion and thus the balance of hormone and transmitter release during insulin granule exocytosis.

Insulin is the hormone that signals to the body to take up sugar from the blood. Specialized cells in the pancreas – known as β-cells – release insulin after a meal. Before that, insulin molecules are stored in tiny granules inside the β-cells; these granules must fuse with the cells’ surface membranes to release their contents. The first step in this process creates a narrow pore that allows small molecules, but not the larger insulin molecules, to seep out. The pore then widens to release the insulin. Since the small molecules are known to act locally in the pancreas, it is possible that this “molecular sieve” is biologically important. Yet it is not clear how the pore widens.

One of the problems for people with type 2 diabetes is that they release less insulin into the bloodstream. Two kinds of drugs used to treat these patients work by stimulating β-cells to release their insulin. One way to achieve this is by raising the levels of a small molecule called cAMP, which is well known to help prepare insulin granules for release. The cAMP molecule also seems to slow the widening of the pore, and Gucek et al. have now investigated how this happens at a molecular level.

By observing individual granules of human β-cells using a special microscope, Gucek et al. could watch how different drugs affect pore widening and content release. They also saw that cAMP activated a protein called Epac2, which then recruited two other proteins – amisyn and dynamin – to the small pores. These two proteins together then closed the pore, rather than expanding it to let insulin out. Type 2 diabetes patients sometimes have high levels of amisyn in their β-cells, which could explain why they do not release enough insulin. The microscopy experiments also revealed that two common anti-diabetic drugs activate Epac2 and prevent the pores from widening, thereby counteracting their positive effect on insulin release. The combined effect is likely a shift in the balance between insulin and the locally acting small molecules.

These findings suggest that two common anti-diabetic drugs activate a common mechanism that may lead to unexpected outcomes, possibly even reducing how much insulin the β-cells can release. Future studies in mice and humans will have to investigate these effects in whole organisms.

Multiscale Simulations of Biological Membranes: The Challenge To Understand Biological Phenomena in a Living Substance

Biological membranes are tricky to investigate. They are complex in terms of molecular composition and structure, functional over a wide range of time scales, and characterized by nonequilibrium conditions. Because of all of these features, simulations are a great technique to study biomembrane behavior. A significant part of the functional processes in biological membranes takes place at the molecular level; thus computer simulations are the method of choice to explore how their properties emerge from specific molecular features and how the interplay among the numerous molecules gives rise to function over spatial and time scales larger than the molecular ones. In this review, we focus on this broad theme. We discuss the current state-of-the-art of biomembrane simulations that, until now, have largely focused on a rather narrow picture of the complexity of the membranes. Given this, we also discuss the challenges that we should unravel in the foreseeable future. Numerous features such as the actin-cytoskeleton network, the glycocalyx network, and nonequilibrium transport under ATP-driven conditions have so far received very little attention; however, the potential of simulations to solve them would be exceptionally high. A major milestone for this research would be that one day we could say that computer simulations genuinely research biological membranes, not just lipid bilayers.

Extracellular and intracellular sphingosine-1-phosphate distinctly regulates exocytosis in chromaffin cells

Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is an essential bioactive sphingosine lipid involved in many neurological disorders. Sphingosine kinase 1 (SphK1), a key enzyme for S1P production, is concentrated in presynaptic terminals. However, the role of S1P/SphK1 signaling in exocytosis remains elusive. By detecting catecholamine release from single vesicles in chromaffin cells, we show that a dominant negative SphK1 (SphK1^DN ) reduces the number of amperometric spikes and increases the duration of foot, which reflects release through a fusion pore, implying critical roles for S1P in regulating the rate of exocytosis and fusion pore expansion. Similar phenotypes were observed in chromaffin cells obtained from SphK1 knockout mice compared to those from wild-type mice. In addition, extracellular S1P treatment increased the number of amperometric spikes, and this increase, in turn, was inhibited by a selective S1P3 receptor blocker, suggesting extracellular S1P may regulate the rate of exocytosis via activation of S1P3. Furthermore, intracellular S1P application induced a decrease in foot duration of amperometric spikes in control cells, indicating intracellular S1P may regulate fusion pore expansion during exocytosis. Taken together, our study represents the first demonstration that S1P regulates exocytosis through distinct mechanisms: extracellular S1P may modulate the rate of exocytosis via activation of S1P receptors while intracellular S1P may directly control fusion pore expansion during exocytosis. OPEN SCIENCE BADGES: This article has received a badge for *Open Materials* because it provided all relevant information to reproduce the study in the manuscript. The complete Open Science Disclosure form for this article can be found at the end of the article. More information about the Open Practices badges can be found at https://cos.io/our-services/open-science-badges/.

Chromogranin A, the major lumenal protein in chromaffin granules, controls fusion pore expansion

Upon fusion of the secretory granule with the plasma membrane, small molecules are discharged through the immediately formed narrow fusion pore, but protein discharge awaits pore expansion. Recently, fusion pore expansion was found to be regulated by tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a protein present within the lumen of chromaffin granules in a subpopulation of chromaffin cells. Here, we further examined the influence of other lumenal proteins on fusion pore expansion, especially chromogranin A (CgA), the major and ubiquitous lumenal protein in chromaffin granules. Polarized TIRF microscopy demonstrated that the fusion pore curvature of granules containing CgA-EGFP was long lived, with curvature lifetimes comparable to those of tPA-EGFP-containing granules. This was surprising because fusion pore curvature durations of granules containing exogenous neuropeptide Y-EGFP (NPY-EGFP) are significantly shorter (80% lasting <1 s) than those containing CgA-EGFP, despite the anticipated expression of endogenous CgA. However, quantitative immunocytochemistry revealed that transiently expressed lumenal proteins, including NPY-EGFP, caused a down-regulation of endogenously expressed proteins, including CgA. Fusion pore curvature durations in nontransfected cells were significantly longer than those of granules containing overexpressed NPY but shorter than those associated with granules containing overexpressed tPA, CgA, or chromogranin B. Introduction of CgA to NPY-EGFP granules by coexpression converted the fusion pore from being transient to being longer lived, comparable to that found in nontransfected cells. These findings demonstrate that several endogenous chromaffin granule lumenal proteins are regulators of fusion pore expansion and that alteration of chromaffin granule contents affects fusion pore lifetimes. Importantly, the results indicate a new role for CgA. In addition to functioning as a prohormone, CgA plays an important role in controlling fusion pore expansion.

Molecular mechanism of fusion pore formation driven by the neuronal SNARE complex

Release of neurotransmitters from synaptic vesicles begins with a narrow fusion pore, the structure of which remains unresolved. To obtain a structural model of the fusion pore, we performed coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations of fusion between a nanodisc and a planar bilayer bridged by four partially unzipped SNARE complexes. The simulations revealed that zipping of SNARE complexes pulls the polar C-terminal residues of the synaptobrevin 2 and syntaxin 1A transmembrane domains to form a hydrophilic core between the two distal leaflets, inducing fusion pore formation. The estimated conductances of these fusion pores are in good agreement with experimental values. Two SNARE protein mutants inhibiting fusion experimentally produced no fusion pore formation. In simulations in which the nanodisc was replaced by a 40-nm vesicle, an extended hemifusion diaphragm formed but a fusion pore did not, indicating that restricted SNARE mobility is required for rapid fusion pore formation. Accordingly, rapid fusion pore formation also occurred in the 40-nm vesicle system when SNARE mobility was restricted by external forces. Removal of the restriction is required for fusion pore expansion.

Stability, affinity, and chromatic variants of the glutamate sensor iGluSnFR

Single-wavelength fluorescent reporters allow visualization of specific neurotransmitters with high spatial and temporal resolution. We report variants of intensity-based glutamate-sensing fluorescent reporter (iGluSnFR) that are functionally brighter; detect submicromolar to millimolar amounts of glutamate; and have blue, cyan, green, or yellow emission profiles. These variants could be imaged in vivo in cases where original iGluSnFR was too dim, resolved glutamate transients in dendritic spines and axonal boutons, and allowed imaging at kilohertz rates.

Toward a unified picture of the exocytotic fusion pore

Neurotransmitter and hormone release involve calcium-triggered fusion of a cargo-loaded vesicle with the plasma membrane. The initial connection between the fusing membranes, called the fusion pore, can evolve in various ways, including rapid dilation to allow full cargo release, slow expansion, repeated opening-closing and resealing. Pore dynamics determine the kinetics of cargo release and the mode of vesicle recycling, but how these processes are controlled is poorly understood. Previous reconstitutions could not monitor single pores, limiting mechanistic insight they could provide. Recently developed nanodisc-based fusion assays allow reconstitution and monitoring of single pores with unprecedented detail and hold great promise for future discoveries. They recapitulate various aspects of exocytotic fusion pores, but comparison is difficult because different approaches suggested very different exocytotic fusion pore properties, even for the same cell type. In this Review, I discuss how most of the data can be reconciled, by recognizing how different methods probe different aspects of the same fusion process. The resulting picture is that fusion pores have broadly distributed properties arising from stochastic processes which can be modulated by physical constraints imposed by proteins, lipids and membranes.

Grazing-Angle Neutron Diffraction Study of the Water Distribution in Membrane Hemifusion: From the Lamellar to Rhombohedral Phase

The water distribution between lipid bilayers is important in understanding the role of the hydration force at different steps of the membrane fusion pathway. In this study, we used grazing-angle neutron diffraction to map out the water distribution in lipid bilayers transiting from a lamellar structure to the hemifusion "stalk" structure in a rhombohedral phase. Under osmotic pressure exerted by different levels of relative humidity, the lipid membrane sample was maintained in equilibrium at different lattices suitable for neutron diffraction. The D₂O used to hydrate the lipid membrane sample stood out from the lipid in the reconstructed structure because of its much higher coherent neutron scattering length density. The density map indicates that water dissociated from the headgroup in the lamellar phase. In the rhombohedral phase, water was significantly reduced and was squeezed into pockets around the stalk. This study complements earlier structural studies by grazing-angle X-ray diffraction, which is sensitive to only the parts of the structure with high electron density (such as phosphors). The experiment also demonstrated that the recently developed time-of-flight small-angle neutron scattering beamline at the Spallation Neutron Source is suitable for grazing-angle neutron diffraction to provide the structures of large unit cells on the order of a few nanometers, such as biomembrane structures.

Phases of the exocytotic fusion pore

Membrane fusion and fission are fundamental processes in living organisms. Membrane fusion occurs through the formation of a fusion pore, which is the structure that connects two lipid membranes during their fusion. Fusion pores can form spontaneously, but cells endow themselves with a set of proteins that make the process of fusion faster and regulatable. The fusion pore starts with a narrow diameter and dilates relatively slowly; it may fluctuate in size or can even close completely, producing a transient vesicle fusion (kiss-and-run), or can finally expand abruptly to release all vesicle contents. A set of proteins control the formation, dilation, and eventual closure of the fusion pore and, therefore, the velocity at which the contents of secretory vesicles are released to the extracellular medium. Thus, the regulation of fusion pore expansion or closure is key to regulate the release of neurotransmitters and hormones. Here, we review the phases of the fusion pore and discuss the implications in the modes of exocytosis.

Lipid-dependence of target membrane stability during influenza viral fusion

Although influenza kills about a half million people each year, even after excluding pandemics, there is only one set of antiviral drugs: neuraminidase inhibitors. By using a new approach utilizing giant unilamellar vesicles and infectious X-31 influenza virus, and testing for the newly identified pore intermediate of membrane fusion, we observed ∼30-87% poration, depending upon lipid composition. Testing the hypothesis that spontaneous curvature (SC) of the lipid monolayer controls membrane poration, our Poisson model and Boltzmann energetic considerations suggest a transition from a leaky to a non-leaky fusion pathway depending on the SC of the target membrane. When the target membrane SC is below approximately -0.20 nm^-1 fusion between influenza virus and target membrane is predominantly non-leaky while above that fusion is predominantly leaky, suggesting that influenza hemagglutinin (HA)-catalyzed topological conversion of target membranes during fusion is associated with a loss of membrane integrity.

Reciprocal link between cell biomechanics and exocytosis

A cell is able to sense the biomechanical properties of the environment such as the rigidity of the extracellular matrix and adapt its tension via regulation of plasma membrane and underlying actomyosin meshwork properties. The cell's ability to adapt to the changing biomechanical environment is important for cellular homeostasis and also cell dynamics such as cell growth and motility. Membrane trafficking has emerged as an important mechanism to regulate cell biomechanics. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of the role of cell mechanics in exocytosis, and reciprocally, the role of exocytosis in regulating cell mechanics. We also discuss how cell mechanics and membrane trafficking, particularly exocytosis, can work together to regulate cell polarity and motility.

The Transmembrane Domain of Synaptobrevin Influences Neurotransmitter Flux through Synaptic Fusion Pores

The soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment receptor (SNARE) proteins synaptobrevin (Syb), syntaxin, and SNAP-25 function in Ca²⁺-triggered exocytosis in both endocrine cells and neurons. The transmembrane domains (TMDs) of Syb and syntaxin span the vesicle and plasma membrane, respectively, and influence flux through fusion pores in endocrine cells as well as fusion pores formed during SNARE-mediated fusion of reconstituted membranes. These results support a model for exocytosis in which SNARE TMDs form the initial fusion pore. The present study sought to test this model in synaptic terminals. Patch-clamp recordings of miniature EPSCs (mEPSCs) were used to probe fusion pore properties in cultured hippocampal neurons from mice of both sexes. Mutants harboring tryptophan at four different sites in the Syb TMD reduced the rate-of-rise of mEPSCs. A computer model that simulates glutamate diffusion and receptor activation kinetics could account for this reduction in mEPSC rise rate by slowing the flux of glutamate through synaptic fusion pores. TMD mutations introducing positive charge also reduced the mEPSC rise rate, but negatively charged residues and glycine, which should have done the opposite, had no effect. The sensitivity of mEPSCs to pharmacological blockade of receptor desensitization was enhanced by a mutation that slowed the mEPSC rate-of-rise, suggesting that the mutation prolonged the residence of glutamate in the synaptic cleft. The same four Syb TMD residues found here to influence synaptic release were found previously to influence endocrine release, leading us to propose that a similar TMD-lined fusion pore functions widely in Ca²⁺-triggered exocytosis in mammalian cells.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT SNARE proteins function broadly in biological membrane fusion. Evidence from non-neuronal systems suggests that SNARE proteins initiate fusion by forming a fusion pore lined by transmembrane domains, but this model has not yet been tested in synapses. The present study addressed this question by testing mutations in the synaptic vesicle SNARE synaptobrevin for an influence on the rise rate of miniature synaptic currents. These results indicate that synaptobrevin's transmembrane domain interacts with glutamate as it passes through the fusion pore. The sites in synaptobrevin that influence this flux are identical to those shown previously to influence flux through endocrine fusion pores. Thus, SNARE transmembrane domains may function in the fusion pores of Ca²⁺-triggered exocytosis of both neurotransmitters and hormones.

Vesicular stomatitis virus G protein transmembrane region is crucial for the hemi-fusion to full fusion transition

Viral fusion proteins are essential for enveloped virus infection. These proteins mediate fusion between the virus envelope and host cellular membrane to release the viral genome into cells. Vesicular stomatitis virus G (VSV G) protein is a typical type III viral fusion protein. To study the mechanism of VSV G protein mediated membrane fusion, we set up a cell-cell fusion system in which cells are marked by different fluorescent proteins. Taking advantage of this system, we performed real-time recording and quantitative analysis of the cell fusion mediated by VSV G. We found that the time scale required for VSV G mediated cell-cell fusion was approximately 1–2 minutes. Next, we specifically examined the function of the transmembrane (TM) region of VSV G protein in membrane fusion by replacing the TM region with those of other fusion proteins. The TM region replacements dramatically impaired VSV G protein function in the cell-cell fusion assay and diminished VSV G mediated lentivirus and recombinant VSV infection efficiency. Further experiments implied that the TM region played a role in the transition from hemi-fusion to full fusion. Several residues within the TM region were identified as important for membrane fusion. Overall, our findings unraveled the important function of the TM region in VSV G mediated viral fusion.