The role of SRY-related HMG box transcription factor 4 (SOX4) in tumorigenesis and metastasis: friend or foe?

Resolution of Acinar Dedifferentiation Regulates Tissue Remodeling in Pancreatic Injury and Cancer Initiation

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Acinar-to-ductal metaplasia (ADM) is crucial in the development of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. However, our understanding of the induction and resolution of ADM remains limited. We conducted comparative transcriptome analyses to identify conserved mechanisms of ADM in mouse and human.

METHODS

We identified Sox4 among the top up-regulated genes. We validated the analysis by RNA in situ hybridization. We performed experiments in mice with acinar-specific deletion of Sox4 (Ptf1a: CreER; Rosa26-LSL-YFPLSL-YFP; Sox4fl/fl) with and without an activating mutation in Kras (KrasLSL-G12D/+). Mice were given caerulein to induce pancreatitis. We performed phenotypic analysis by immunohistochemistry, tissue decellularization, and single-cell RNA sequencing.

RESULTS

We demonstrated that Sox4 is reactivated in ADM and pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasias. Contrary to findings in other tissues, Sox4 actually counteracts cellular dedifferentiation and helps maintain tissue homeostasis. Moreover, our investigations unveiled the indispensable role of Sox4 in the specification of mucin-producing cells and tuft-like cells from acinar cells. We identified Sox4-dependent non-cell-autonomous mechanisms regulating the stromal reaction during disease progression. Notably, Sox4-inferred targets are activated upon KRAS inactivation and tumor regression.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that our transcriptome analysis can be used to investigate conserved mechanisms of tissue injury. We demonstrate that Sox4 restrains acinar dedifferentiation and is necessary for the specification of acinar-derived metaplastic cells in pancreatic injury and cancer initiation and is activated upon Kras ablation and tumor regression in mice. By uncovering novel potential strategies to promote tissue homeostasis, our findings offer new avenues for preventing the development of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma.

Unraveling the role of CD24 in Hepatocellular carcinoma: Involvement of inactivated Hippo signaling and SOX4-mediated regulation

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a prevalent type of liver cancer, and CD24 gene is reportedly involved in HCC progression. However, the precise regulatory mechanisms of CD24 in HCC remain unclear. In this study, we established a primary HCC mouse model and observed that CD24, induced by inactivation of the Hippo pathway, was highly expressed in HCC. Using a systematic molecular and genomic approach, we identified the Hippo-YAP1-SOX4 pathway as the mechanism through which YAP1 induces CD24 upregulation in HCC cells. CD24 knockdown significantly attenuated YAP1 activation-induced HCC. These findings shed light on the link between CD24 and HCC progression, particularly in the Hippo-inactivated subclass of HCC. Therefore, CD24 may serve as a potential target for specific treatment of this HCC subclass.

A pyrazolopyridine as a novel AhR signaling activator with anti-breast cancer properties in vitro and in vivo

Breast cancer is one of the main causes of malignancy-related deaths globally and has a significant impact on women's quality of life. Despite significant therapeutic advances, there is a medical need for targeted therapies in breast cancer. Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), a ligand-dependent transcription factor mediates responses to environment stimuli, is emerging as a unique pleiotropic target. Herein, a combined molecular simulation and in vitro investigations identified 3-(3-fluorophenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridine (3FPP) as a novel AhR ligand in T47D and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. Its agonistic effects induced formation of the AhR-AhR nuclear translocator (Arnt) heterodimer and prompted its binding to the penta-nucleotide sequence, called xenobiotic-responsive element (XRE) motif. Moreover, 3FPP augmented the promoter-driven luciferase activities and expression of AhR-regulated genes encoding cytochrome P450 1A1 (CYP1A1) and microRNA (miR)-212/132 cluster. It reduced cell viability, migration, and invasion of both cell lines through AhR signaling. These anticancer properties were concomitant with reduced levels of B-cell lymphoma 2 (BCL-2), SRY-related HMG-box4 (SOX4), snail family zinc finger 2 (SNAI2), and cadherin 2 (CDH2). In vivo, 3FPP suppressed tumor growth and activated AhR signaling in an orthotopic mouse model. In conclusion, our results introduce the fused pyrazolopyridine 3FPP as a novel AhR agonist with AhR-specific anti-breast cancer potential in vitro and in vivo.

Establishment and characterization of cisplatin-resistant cell lines from canine mammary gland tumors

The development of cisplatin resistance is one of the major causes of mammary cancer treatment failure, and is associated with changes in Sox4 gene expression. To investigate the characteristic changes that occur in canine mammary gland tumor (CMGT) cells following the development of acquired cisplatin resistance, along with the relationship between these changes and the Sox4 gene. We constructed cisplatin-resistant cell line, CHMpCIS, from the cell line CHMp, which was isolated from the primary lesion of a malignant CMGT. The biological characteristics of these cells were examined by Western blot analysis, Transwell assays, and mammosphere formation assays. Compared to CHMp cells, CHMpCIS cells exhibited elevated cisplatin resistance, apoptotic escape ability, enhanced epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and cancer stem cell (CSC) features, in addition to over-activation of the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway and increased Sox4 protein. In CMGT cases, CMGT tissues (CMGTT) expressed higher levels of Sox4 protein and mRNA compared to adjacent tissues (CAMGTT). We found that these changes were inhibited by silencing of Sox4 expression in CHMpCIS cells. Furthermore, activation of the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway increased Sox4 expression levels through a positive feedback loop. These results suggested that CHMpCIS cells circumvented the damage caused by cisplatin through altering the expression of the Sox4 gene and activating the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, thereby changing the cellular biological characteristics.

Clinical Significance of SOX10 Expression in Human Pathology

The embryonic development of neural crest cells and subsequent tissue differentiation are intricately regulated by specific transcription factors. Among these, SOX10, a member of the SOX gene family, stands out. Located on chromosome 22q13, the SOX10 gene encodes a transcription factor crucial for the differentiation, migration, and maintenance of tissues derived from neural crest cells. It plays a pivotal role in developing various tissues, including the central and peripheral nervous systems, melanocytes, chondrocytes, and odontoblasts. Mutations in SOX10 have been associated with congenital disorders such as Waardenburg-Shah Syndrome, PCWH syndrome, and Kallman syndrome, underscoring its clinical significance. Furthermore, SOX10 is implicated in neural and neuroectodermal tumors, such as melanoma, malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors (MPNSTs), and schwannomas, influencing processes like proliferation, migration, and differentiation. In mesenchymal tumors, SOX10 expression serves as a valuable marker for distinguishing between different tumor types. Additionally, SOX10 has been identified in various epithelial neoplasms, including breast, ovarian, salivary gland, nasopharyngeal, and bladder cancers, presenting itself as a potential diagnostic and prognostic marker. However, despite these associations, further research is imperative to elucidate its precise role in these malignancies.

SOX4 is a pivotal regulator of tumorigenesis in differentiated thyroid cancer

The SOX family consists of about 20 transcription factors involved in embryonic development, reprogramming, and cell fate determination. In this study, we demonstrated that SOX4 was significantly upregulated in differentiated thyroid cancer. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed that high SOX4 expression was associated with papillary histology, extrathyroidal extension, lymph node metastasis, and advanced disease stage. Patients whose tumors exhibited high SOX4 expression had a shorter recurrence-free survival, though significance was lost in multivariate Cox regression analysis. SOX4 silencing in thyroid cancer cells slowed cell growth, attenuated clonogenicity, and suppressed anoikis resistance. Additionally, SOX4 knockdown impeded xenograft tumor growth in nude mice. Knockdown of SOX4 expression was accompanied by reduced phosphorylation of AKT and ERK. Furthermore, CRABP2 expression correlated with SOX4 expression, and SOX4 silencing decreased CRABP2 expression and its downstream effectors such as integrin β1 and β4. These results indicate that SOX4 has both prognostic and therapeutic implications in differentiated thyroid cancer, and targeting SOX4 may modulate tumorigenic processes in the thyroid.

Transfer RNAs as dynamic and critical regulators of cancer progression

Transfer RNAs (tRNAs) have been historically viewed as non-dynamic adaptors that decode the genetic code into proteins. Recent work has uncovered dynamic regulatory roles for these fascinating molecules. Advances in tRNA detection methods have revealed that specific tRNAs can become modulated upon DNA copy number and chromatin alterations and can also be perturbed by oncogenic signalling and transcriptional regulators in cancer cells or the tumour microenvironment. Such alterations in the levels of specific tRNAs have been shown to causally impact cancer progression, including metastasis. Moreover, sequencing methods have identified tRNA-derived small RNAs that influence various aspects of cancer progression, such as cell proliferation and invasion, and could serve as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers or putative therapeutic targets in various cancers. Finally, there is accumulating evidence, including from genetic models, that specific tRNA synthetases - the enzymes responsible for charging tRNAs with amino acids - can either promote or suppress tumour formation. In this Review, we provide an overview of how deregulation of tRNAs influences cancer formation and progression.

miR-3195 suppresses the malignant progression of osteosarcoma cells via targeting SOX4

BACKGROUND

Osteosarcoma (OS) is a highly invasive primary malignancy of the bone that is common in children and adolescents. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are novel diagnostic and predictive biomarkers for cancers. The miRNA miR-3195 is aberrantly expressed in multiple types of tumors. However, the expression levels and biological functions of miR-3195 in OS remain unclear.

METHODS

Two Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) datasets (GSE69470 and GSE16088) were used to analyze differentially expressed miRNAs and mRNAs in osteosarcoma cell lines and OS tissues. Quantitative RT-PCR was used to detect the expression levels of miR-3195 and the SRY-box transcription factor 4 (SOX4) mRNA in OS tissues and cell lines. The relationship between miR-3195 and the 3'-upstream region (3'-UTR) in the SOX4 mRNA (predicted through bioinformatics) was analyzed using Pearson's correlation analysis and confirmed by a dual-luciferase reporter gene experiment. Cell counting kit-8 assays, colony formation assays, flow cytometry, wound healing assays, transwell assays, and western blotting were performed to explore the effects of miR-3195 levels on SOX4 affected OS cell biological behavior.

RESULTS

Our results revealed that miR-3195 was the most down-regulated miRNA and SOX4 was the most up-regulated mRNA by Bioinformatic analysis. It was further confirmed miR-3195 had low expression, and SOX4 had high expression levels in clinical OS tissue samples; the expression levels of both genes were negatively correlated with each other in OS tissues. Overexpression of miR-3195 in OS cell lines significantly inhibited cell proliferation, migration, and invasiveness, while promoting apoptosis; all these effects were reversed by increasing SOX4 expression levels. We also found that miR-3195 could directly bind with the SOX4 gene and down-regulate SOX4 expression.

CONCLUSIONS

miR-3195 can modulate proliferation, migration, invasiveness, and apoptosis in OS cells by regulating the SOX4 gene. Thus, the miR-3195/SOX4 signaling may be a novel therapeutic target in OS treatment.

Growth differentiation factor myostatin regulates epithelial-mesenchymal transition genes and enhances invasion by increasing serine protease inhibitors E1 and E2 in human trophoblast cells

Placental insufficiency disorders, including preeclampsia and intrauterine growth restriction, are major obstetric complications that can have devastating effects on both the mother and the fetus. These syndromes have underlying poor placental trophoblast cell invasion into uterine tissues. Placental invasion is controlled by many hormones and growth factors. Myostatin (MSTN) is a transforming growth factor-β superfamily member recognized for its important role in muscle growth control. MSTN has also been shown to be secreted and functioning in the placenta, and its serum and/or placental levels were found to be upregulated in preeclampsia and intrauterine growth restriction. Considering that the mechanistic role of MSTN in placentation remains poorly understood, we hypothesized that MSTN uses ALK4/5-SMAD2/3/4 signaling to increase human trophoblast invasion through a group of epithelial-mesenchymal transition genes including SERPINE2, PAI-1, and SOX4. mRNA sequencing of control and MSTN-treated primary human trophoblast cells (n = 5) yielded a total of 610 differentially expressed genes (false discovery rate <0.05) of which 380 genes were upregulated and 230 were downregulated. These differentially expressed genes were highly enriched in epithelial-mesenchymal transition genes, and a subset including SERPINE2, PAI-1, and SOX4 was investigated for its role in MSTN-induced trophoblast cell invasion. We found that MSTN induced upregulation of SERPINE2 via ALK4/5-SMAD2/3/4 signaling; however, SMAD2 was not involved in MSTN-induced PAI-1 upregulation. SOX4 was involved in MSTN-induced upregulation of SERPINE2, but not PAI-1. Collectively, this study discovers novel molecular mechanisms of MSTN-induced human trophoblast cell invasion and provides insight into the functional consequences of its dysregulation in placental insufficiency disorders.

SOX4-SMARCA4 complex promotes glycolysis-dependent TNBC cell growth through transcriptional regulation of Hexokinase 2

Tumor cells rely on increased glycolytic capacity to promote cell growth and progression. While glycolysis is known to be upregulated in the majority of triple negative (TNBC) or basal-like subtype breast cancers, the mechanism remains unclear. Here, we used integrative genomic analyses to identify a subset of basal-like tumors characterized by increased expression of the oncogenic transcription factor SOX4 and its co-factor the SWI/SNF ATPase SMARCA4. These tumors are defined by unique gene expression programs that correspond with increased tumor proliferation and activation of key metabolic pathways, including glycolysis. Mechanistically, we demonstrate that the SOX4-SMARCA4 complex mediates glycolysis through direct transcriptional regulation of Hexokinase 2 (HK2) and that aberrant HK2 expression and altered glycolytic capacity are required to mediate SOX4-SMARCA4-dependent cell growth. Collectively, we have defined the SOX4-SMARCA4-HK2 signaling axis in basal-like breast tumors and established that this axis promotes metabolic reprogramming which is required to maintain tumor cell growth.

The Influence of Race/Ethnicity on the Transcriptomic Landscape of Uterine Fibroids

The objective of this study was to determine if the aberrant expression of select genes could form the basis for the racial disparity in fibroid characteristics. The next-generation RNA sequencing results were analyzed as fold change [leiomyomas/paired myometrium, also known as differential expression (DF)], comparing specimens from White (n = 7) and Black (n = 12) patients. The analysis indicated that 95 genes were minimally changed in tumors from White (DF ≈ 1) but were significantly altered by more than 1.5-fold (up or down) in Black patients. Twenty-one novel genes were selected for confirmation in 69 paired fibroids by qRT-PCR. Among these 21, coding of transcripts for the differential expression of FRAT2, SOX4, TNFRSF19, ACP7, GRIP1, IRS4, PLEKHG4B, PGR, COL24A1, KRT17, MMP17, SLN, CCDC177, FUT2, MYO5B, MYOG, ZNF703, CDC25A, and CDCA7 was significantly higher, while the expression of DAB2 and CAV2 was significantly lower in tumors from Black or Hispanic patients compared with tumors from White patients. Western blot analysis revealed a greater differential expression of PGR-A and total progesterone (PGR-A and PGR-B) in tumors from Black compared with tumors from White patients. Collectively, we identified a set of genes uniquely expressed in a race/ethnicity-dependent manner, which could form the underlying mechanisms for the racial disparity in fibroids and their associated symptoms.

miRNome expression analysis in canine diffuse large B-cell lymphoma

Introduction

Lymphoma is a common canine cancer with translational relevance to human disease. Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is the most frequent subtype, contributing to almost fifty percent of clinically recognized lymphoma cases. Identifying new biomarkers capable of early diagnosis and monitoring DLBCL is crucial for enhancing remission rates. This research seeks to advance our knowledge of the molecular biology of DLBCL by analyzing the expression of microRNAs, which regulate gene expression by negatively impacting gene expression via targeted RNA degradation or translational repression. The stability and accessibility of microRNAs make them appropriate biomarkers for the diagnosis, prognosis, and monitoring of diseases.

Methods

We extracted and sequenced microRNAs from ten fresh-frozen lymph node tissue samples (six DLBCL and four non-neoplastic).

Results

Small RNA sequencing data analysis revealed 35 differently expressed miRNAs (DEMs) compared to controls. RT-qPCR confirmed that 23/35 DEMs in DLBCL were significantly upregulated (n = 14) or downregulated (n = 9). Statistical significance was determined by comparing each miRNA's average expression fold-change (2-Cq) between the DLCBL and healthy groups by applying the unpaired parametric Welch's 2-sample t-test and false discovery rate (FDR). The predicted target genes of the DEMs were mainly enriched in the PI3K-Akt-MAPK pathway.

Discussion

Our data point to the potential value of miRNA signatures as diagnostic biomarkers and serve as a guideline for subsequent experimental studies to determine the targets and functions of these altered miRNAs in canine DLBCL.

Long non‑coding RNAs as potential therapeutic targets in non‑small cell lung cancer (Review)

Non‑small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is one of the most common malignancies with a high morbidity and mortality rate. Long non‑coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been reported to be closely associated with the occurrence and progression of NSCLC. In addition, lncRNAs have been documented to participate in the development of drug resistance and radiation sensitivity in patients with NSCLC. Due to their extensive functional characterization, high tissue specificity and sex specificity, lncRNAs have been proposed to be novel biomarkers and therapeutic targets for NSCLC. Therefore, in the current review, the functional classification of lncRNAs were presented, whilst the potential roles of lncRNAs in NSCLC were also summarized. Various physiological aspects, including proliferation, invasion and drug resistance, were all discussed. It is anticipated that the present review will provide a perspective on lncRNAs as potential diagnostic molecular biomarkers and therapeutic targets for NSCLC.

Genome-wide mapping of cancer dependency genes and genetic modifiers of chemotherapy in high-risk hepatoblastoma

A lack of relevant genetic models and cell lines hampers our understanding of hepatoblastoma pathogenesis and the development of new therapies for this neoplasm. Here, we report an improved MYC-driven hepatoblastoma-like murine model that recapitulates the pathological features of embryonal type of hepatoblastoma, with transcriptomics resembling the high-risk gene signatures of the human disease. Single-cell RNA-sequencing and spatial transcriptomics identify distinct subpopulations of hepatoblastoma cells. After deriving cell lines from the mouse model, we map cancer dependency genes using CRISPR-Cas9 screening and identify druggable targets shared with human hepatoblastoma (e.g., CDK7, CDK9, PRMT1, PRMT5). Our screen also reveals oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes in hepatoblastoma that engage multiple, druggable cancer signaling pathways. Chemotherapy is critical for human hepatoblastoma treatment. A genetic mapping of doxorubicin response by CRISPR-Cas9 screening identifies modifiers whose loss-of-function synergizes with (e.g., PRKDC) or antagonizes (e.g., apoptosis genes) the effect of chemotherapy. The combination of PRKDC inhibition and doxorubicin-based chemotherapy greatly enhances therapeutic efficacy. These studies provide a set of resources including disease models suitable for identifying and validating potential therapeutic targets in human high-risk hepatoblastoma.

Suppression of preadipocyte determination by SOX4 limits white adipocyte hyperplasia in obesity

Preadipocyte determination expanding the pool of preadipocytes is a vital process in adipocyte hyperplasia, but the molecular mechanisms underlying this process are yet to be elucidated. Herein, SRY-related HMG box transcription factor 4 (SOX4) was identified as a critical target in response to BMP4- and TGFβ-regulated preadipocyte determination. SOX4 deficiency is sufficient to promote preadipocyte determination in mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and acquisition of preadipocyte properties in nonadipogenic lineages, while its overexpression impairs the adipogenic capacity of preadipocytes and converts them into nonadipogenic lineages. Mechanism studies indicated that SOX4 activates and cooperates with LEF1 to retain the nuclear localization of β-catenin, thus mediating the crosstalk between TGFβ/BMP4 signaling pathway and Wnt signaling pathway to regulate the preadipocyte determination. In vivo studies demonstrated that SOX4 promotes the adipogenic-nonadipogenic conversion and suppresses the adipocyte hyperplasia. Together, our findings highlight the importance of SOX4 in regulating the adipocyte hyperplasia in obesity.

E2F7 enhances hepatocellular carcinoma growth by preserving the SP1/SOX4/Anillin axis via repressing miRNA-383-5p transcription

E2F family participates in most human malignancies by activating the transcription of the cell cycle-related genes. Whereas, as a specifical atypical member of this family, E2F7 was described as a repressor against its downstream genes and exerted oscillatory and controversial functions in cancers. Our previous study identified a molecular interaction promoting hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) growth induced by SOX4 and Anillin. Meanwhile, we preliminarily identified SP1 as the upstream activator of SOX4. Intriguingly, we observed that the repressive E2F7 presents a remarkable high expression in HCC, and is positively correlated and involved in the same pathway with the potentially SP1/SOX4/Anillin axis. However, their exact interaction or mechanism controlling tumor progress between these genes has not been illustrated. Thus, we focused on this point in this study and attempted to improve the potential regulating axis in HCC cell proliferation and tumor growth for promoting tumor prevention and control. The expression profile of E2F7 in HCC tissues and tumor cells was detected along with the related candidate genes, through real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction assay, the Western blot analysis, and the immunohistochemistry assay, combined with bioinformatics analysis of the HCC information from the the Cancer Genome Altas and Gene Expression Omnibus data sets. The correlation between E2F7 and HCC patients' clinicopathologic features was explored. Gain-of and loss-of-function assays were conducted both in vitro and in vivo along with the rescue experiment, for revealing the relative genes' functions in HCC progress. The ChIP and the dual-luciferase reporter assays were performed to verify the transcriptional regulating profile between E2F7 and SP1/SOX4/Anillin axis. E2F7 was upregulated in HCC and significantly correlated with SP1/SOX4/Anillin axis. High E2F7 expression is associated with dismal clinicopathologic features and poor survival of the patients. E2F7 depletion potently impaired SP1/SOX4/Anillin expression and significantly inhibited HCC growth. Furthermore, intensive exploration demonstrated that E2F7 preserves high SP1 levels by abrogating miR-383-5p in a transcriptional way. Atypical E2F7 is an important repressive transcription factor commonly upregulated in the HCC environment. E2F7 facilitates HCC growth by repressing miR-383-5p transcription and sequentially promoting SP1/SOX4/Anillin axis. Our findings provide us with probable targets for HCC prevention and therapeutic treatment.

The Penicillium chrysogenum tom1 Gene a Major Target of Transcription Factor MAT1-1-1 Encodes a Nuclear Protein Involved in Sporulation

Fungal mating-type loci (MAT) encode transcription factors (TFs) MAT1-1-1 and MAT1-2-1, which govern sexual reproduction as well as other developmental processes. In Penicillium chrysogenum, the major producer of the beta-lactam antibiotic penicillin, a recent chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by sequencing (ChIP-seq) analysis identified 254 genes as direct targets of MAT1-1-1, many of which encode thus far uncharacterized proteins. Here, we characterized one of the major targets of MAT1-1-1, the tom1 gene, which encodes a protein highly conserved within the group of Eurotiomycetes fungi. Using fluorescence microscopy, we demonstrated binding of MAT1-1-1 to the tom1 promoter by reporter gene analysis. Extensive electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSAs) further showed that the promoter sequence of tom1 is bound in vitro by both MAT1-1-1 and MAT1-2-1. This indicated an interaction between the two TFs, which was verified by yeast two-hybrid analysis. The sequence of tom1 carries a nuclear localization sequence, and indeed its nuclear localization was verified by fluorescence microscopy. The in vivo function of tom1 was investigated using tom1 deletion strains, as well as a complementing strain where the wild-type tom1 gene was reintroduced. We found a clear sporulation defect in the deletion strain, which became more evident when the fungi were grown at an elevated temperature of 31°C.

USP20 regulates the stability of EMT transcription factor SOX4 and influences colorectal cancer metastasis

BACKGROUND

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a familiar malignancy accompanied by higher morbidity and mortality. The deubiquitination enzyme USP20 has been discovered to be one key factor in several cancers progression. SOX4 is a critical transcription factor to regulate the expression of various genes, and participates into the occurrence and progression of cancers. In this study, it was aimed to illustrate the role of USP20 and the regulatory relationship between USP20 and SOX4 in CRC.

METHODS

The protein expressions of USP20, SOX4, E-cadherin, N-cadherin, Snail and slug were tested through western blot. The cell proliferation ability was verified through CCK-8 assay. The migration and invasion abilities were detected through Transwell assay. The mRNA expression of SOX4 was confirmed through RT-qPCR. The interaction between USP20 and SOX4 was notarized through Co-IP assay.

RESULT

Our study demonstrated that USP20 displayed higher expression, and facilitated CRC progression through regulating cell proliferation, migration, invasion and EMT process markers. USP20 was found to modulate SOX4 protein expression. Next, it was verified that USP20 regulated SOX4 degradation through deubiquitination. Finally, through rescue assays, we revealed that USP20 mediated SOX4 expression to accelerate CRC progression.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, USP20 regulated the stability of EMT transcription factor SOX4 and aggravated colorectal cancer metastasis. This finding might highlight the function of USP20 in the treatment of CRC.

Chronic superphysiologic AMH promotes premature luteinization of antral follicles in human ovarian xenografts

Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) is produced by growing ovarian follicles and provides a diagnostic measure of reproductive reserve in women; however, the impact of AMH on folliculogenesis is poorly understood. We cotransplanted human ovarian cortex with control or AMH-expressing endothelial cells in immunocompromised mice and recovered antral follicles for purification and downstream single-cell RNA sequencing of granulosa and theca/stroma cell fractions. A total of 38 antral follicles were observed (19 control and 19 AMH) at long-term intervals (>10 weeks). In the context of exogenous AMH, follicles exhibited a decreased ratio of primordial to growing follicles and antral follicles of increased diameter. Transcriptomic analysis and immunolabeling revealed a marked increase in factors typically noted at more advanced stages of follicle maturation, with granulosa and theca/stroma cells also displaying molecular hallmarks of luteinization. These results suggest that superphysiologic AMH alone may contribute to ovulatory dysfunction by accelerating maturation and/or luteinization of antral-stage follicles.

Advance of SOX Transcription Factors in Hepatocellular Carcinoma: From Role, Tumor Immune Relevance to Targeted Therapy

Simple Summary

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the deadliest human health burdens worldwide. However, the molecular mechanism of HCC development is still not fully understood. Sex determining region Y-related high-mobility group box (SOX) transcription factors not only play pivotal roles in cell fate decisions during development but also participate in the initiation and progression of cancer. Given the significance of SOX factors in cancer and their ‘undruggable’ properties, we summarize the role and molecular mechanism of SOX family members in HCC and the regulatory effect of SOX factors in the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) of various cancers. For the first time, we analyze the association between the levels of SOX factors and that of immune components in HCC, providing clues to the pivotal role of SOX factors in the TIME of HCC. We also discuss the opportunities and challenges of targeting SOX factors for cancer.

Abstract

Sex determining region Y (SRY)-related high-mobility group (HMG) box (SOX) factors belong to an evolutionarily conserved family of transcription factors that play essential roles in cell fate decisions involving numerous developmental processes. In recent years, the significance of SOX factors in the initiation and progression of cancers has been gradually revealed, and they act as potential therapeutic targets for cancer. However, the research involving SOX factors is still preliminary, given that their effects in some leading-edge fields such as tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) remain obscure. More importantly, as a class of ‘undruggable’ molecules, targeting SOX factors still face considerable challenges in achieving clinical translation. Here, we mainly focus on the roles and regulatory mechanisms of SOX family members in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), one of the fatal human health burdens worldwide. We then detail the role of SOX members in remodeling TIME and analyze the association between SOX members and immune components in HCC for the first time. In addition, we emphasize several alternative strategies involved in the translational advances of SOX members in cancer. Finally, we discuss the alternative strategies of targeting SOX family for cancer and propose the opportunities and challenges they face based on the current accumulated studies and our understanding.

SOX4 induces drug resistance of colorectal cancer cells by downregulating CYLD through transcriptional activation of microRNA-17

Exposure to high doses of anticancer drugs can induce the emergence of a subpopulation of weakly proliferative and drug-tolerant cells. Drug tolerance can reduce the benefits obtained from canonical treatment and reduce the survival rate of patients. Regulation of SRY-related HMG box transcription factor 4 (SOX4) has been proved to affect drug sensitivity. The current study aimed to explore the role of SOX4 in drug resistance of colorectal cancer (CRC) cells as well as the related molecular mechanisms. Expression patterns of SOX4, microRNA-17 (miR-17), and CYLD in both CRC tissues and cells were determined with their relationship analyzed by bioinformatics analysis, dual-luciferase reporter gene assay, and ChIP. Loss- and gain-function assays were performed to ascertain the effect of SOX4, miR-17, and CYLD on biological cellular processes and drug resistance to 5-FU. SOX4 and miR-17 were found to be highly expressed while CYLD was poorly expressed in CRC tissues and cells. Silencing of SOX4 resulted in the suppression of cellular proliferation, invasion, migration as well as a reduction in CRC drug resistance. Mechanically, CYLD was specifically targeted by miR-17, while SOX4 upregulated the expression of miR-17. Functionally, SOX4 triggered drug resistance of CRC cells to 5-FU through the miR-17/CYLD axis. Taken together, the key findings of the present study provides evidence suggesting that SOX4 elevates miR-17 to decrease CYLD, thus inducing chemotherapy resistance of CRC cells.

Global Gene Expression Regulation Mediated by TGFβ Through H3K9me3 Mark

Background:

Epigenetic alterations play an important part in carcinogenesis. Different biological responses, including cell proliferation, migration, apoptosis, invasion, and senescence, are affected by epigenetic alterations in cancer. In addition, growth factors, such as transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) are important regulators of tumorigenesis. Our understanding of the interplay between the epigenetic bases of tumorigenesis and growth factor signaling in tumorigenesis is rudimentary. Some studies suggest a link between TGFβ signaling and the heterochromatinizing histone mark H3K9me3. There is evidence for signal-dependent interactions between R-Smads and histone methyltransferases. However, the effects of TGFβ signaling on genome wide H3K9me3 landscape remains unknown. Our research examines TGFβ -induced genome-wide H3K9me3 in prostate cancer.

Method:

Chromatin-Immunoprecipitation followed by sequencing was performed to analyze genome-wide association of H3K9me3 epigenetic mark. DAVID Functional annotation tool was utilized to understand the involvement of different Biological Processes and Molecular Function. MEME-ChIP tool was also used to analyze known and novel DNA-binding motifs.

Results:

H3K9me3 occupancy appears to increase at intronic regions after short-term (6 hours) TGFβ stimulation and at distal intergenic regions during long-term stimulation (24 hours). We also found evidence for a possible association of SLC transporters with H3K9me3 mark in presence of TGFβ during tumorigenesis. No direct correlation was found between the occupancy of H3K9me3 mark and the expression of various genes. The epigenetic mechanisms-mediated regulation of gene expression by TGFβ was concentrated at promoters rich in SRY and FOXJ3 binding sites.

Conclusion:

Our results point toward a positive association of oncogenic function of TGFβ and the H3K9me3 mark and provide a context to the role of H3K9me3 in TGFβ-induced cell migration and cell adhesion. Interestingly, these functions of TGFβ through H3K9me3 mark regulation seem to depend on transcriptional activation in contrast to the conventionally known repressive nature of H3K9me3.

miR-335-laden B Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles Promote SOX4-Dependent Apoptosis in Human Multiple Myeloma Cells

Multiple myeloma (MM) is characterized by the accumulation of malignant plasma cells in the bone marrow. Despite novel therapies, MM still remains an incurable cancer and new strategies are needed. Increased expression of the transcription factor Sex-determining region Y-related high-mobility-group box transcription factor 4 (SOX4) has been correlated with tumor development and progression through a variety of distinct processes, including inhibition of apoptosis, increased cell invasion and metastasis, and induction and maintenance of cancer-initiating cells. The role of SOX4 in MM is largely unknown. Since SOX4 is a known target of miR-335, we used miR-335 to assess whether SOX4 modulation could promote apoptosis in MM cells. Using an MM cell model we show that miR-335 acts both on SOX4-related genes (AKT, PI3K) and hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha (Hif1-α). In addition, we show miR-335-laden extracellular vesicles induced in B cells (iEVs) are also effective in targeting SOX4, causing apoptosis. Collectively, we propose that miR-335-laden iEVs could be developed as a novel form of gene therapy in MM.

Transcription factor SOX4 facilitates BMP2-regulated gene expression during invasive trophoblast differentiation

The interplay between growth factors, signaling pathways and transcription factors during placental development is key to controlling trophoblast differentiation. Bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP2) has been implicated in trophoblast invasion and spiral artery remodeling during early placental development. However, the molecular mechanisms by which these are accomplished have not been fully elucidated, particularly for transcriptional regulation of key transcription factors. Here, we identified SOX4 as a direct target gene induced by BMP2 in first-trimester placental trophoblasts. Analysis of single-cell RNA-seq data from first-trimester placentas and decidua tissues revealed that SOX4 expression is mainly localized in extravillous trophoblast and decidual stromal cells. Moreover, gain- and loss-of-function approaches demonstrated that SOX4 exerts a pro-invasive role in human trophoblasts, and this effect contributes to BMP2-enhanced trophoblast invasion. Importantly, we found that SOX4 was required for BMP2-induced regulation of a subset of genes associated with cell migration and extracellular matrix organization. We also show that SOX4-dependent regulation of the BMP2 target SERPINE2 occurs via binding of SOX4 to regulatory elements such as enhancers, thereby promoting BMP2-induced trophoblast invasion. In conclusion, these findings uncover a novel mechanism involving SOX4 that shapes the BMP2-regulated transcriptional network during invasive trophoblast development.

Regulation of a progenitor gene program by SOX4 is essential for mammary tumor proliferation

In breast cancer the transcription factor SOX4 has been shown to be associated with poor survival, increased tumor size and metastasis formation. This has mostly been attributed to the ability of SOX4 to regulate Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal-Transition (EMT). However, SOX4 regulates target gene transcription in a context-dependent manner that is determined by the cellular and epigenetic state. In this study we have investigated the loss of SOX4 in mammary tumor development utilizing organoids derived from a PyMT genetic mouse model of breast cancer. Using CRISPR/Cas9 to abrogate SOX4 expression, we found that SOX4 is required for inhibiting differentiation by regulating a subset of genes that are highly activated in fetal mammary stem cells (fMaSC). In this way, SOX4 re-activates an oncogenic transcriptional program that is regulated in many progenitor cell-types during embryonic development. SOX4-knockout organoids are characterized by the presence of more differentiated cells that exhibit luminal or basal gene expression patterns, but lower expression of cell cycle genes. In agreement, primary tumor growth and metastatic outgrowth in the lungs are impaired in SOX4KO tumors. Finally, SOX4KO tumors show a severe loss in competitive capacity to grow out compared to SOX4-proficient cells in primary tumors. Our study identifies a novel role for SOX4 in maintaining mammary tumors in an undifferentiated and proliferative state. Therapeutic manipulation of SOX4 function could provide a novel strategy for cancer differentiation therapy, which would promote differentiation and inhibit cycling of tumor cells.

LINC00992 exerts oncogenic activities in prostate cancer via regulation of SOX4

OBJECTIVE

The critical role of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) has been implicated in prostate cancer (PCa). As one of them, LINC00992 (LNC992) has been revealed by bioinformatics prediction to be significantly overexpressed in PCa. However, the underlying mechanism of LNC992 in PCa has not been well investigated.

METHODS

First, gene expression microarrays of prostate adenocarcinoma (PRAD) were downloaded from the GEO database, and differentially expressed genes were analyzed. Subsequently, we assessed the LNC992 expression in PCa patients. PCa cells with overexpression or low expression of LNC992 were generated, followed by the examination of proliferation, invasion and migration in vitro and in vivo. The differentially expressed genes were analyzed by microarrays after altering LNC992 expression in PCa cells, and the downstream regulatory mechanisms of LNC992 were analyzed by bioinformatics analysis and validated by RIP and RNA pull-down assays.

RESULTS

LNC992 was highly expressed in the PRAD database and in cancer tissues from PCa patients, serving as a poor prognostic factor for PCa patients. Knockdown of LNC992 significantly inhibited PCa cell growth, metastasis, and angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, we found that knockdown of LNC992 significantly suppressed SOX4 expression in cells and that LNC992 could bind to EIF4A3 and promote the translation of SOX4. Inhibition of either EIF4A3 or SOX4 significantly suppressed the growth and metastasis of PCa cells.

CONCLUSIONS

LNC992 elevates SOX4 expression by binding to SOX4 mRNA and recruiting translation initiation factor EIF4A3, thereby promoting the growth and metastasis of PCa cells in vitro and in vivo.

SOX transcription factors and glioma stem cells: Choosing between stemness and differentiation

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common, most aggressive and deadliest brain tumor. Recently, remarkable progress has been made towards understanding the cellular and molecular biology of gliomas. GBM tumor initiation, progression and relapse as well as resistance to treatments are associated with glioma stem cells (GSCs). GSCs exhibit a high proliferation rate and self-renewal capacity and the ability to differentiate into diverse cell types, generating a range of distinct cell types within the tumor, leading to cellular heterogeneity. GBM tumors may contain different subsets of GSCs, and some of them may adopt a quiescent state that protects them against chemotherapy and radiotherapy. GSCs enriched in recurrent gliomas acquire more aggressive and therapy-resistant properties, making them more malignant, able to rapidly spread. The impact of SOX transcription factors (TFs) on brain tumors has been extensively studied in the last decade. Almost all SOX genes are expressed in GBM, and their expression levels are associated with patient prognosis and survival. Numerous SOX TFs are involved in the maintenance of the stemness of GSCs or play a role in the initiation of GSC differentiation. The fine-tuning of SOX gene expression levels controls the balance between cell stemness and differentiation. Therefore, innovative therapies targeting SOX TFs are emerging as promising tools for combatting GBM. Combatting GBM has been a demanding and challenging goal for decades. The current therapeutic strategies have not yet provided a cure for GBM and have only resulted in a slight improvement in patient survival. Novel approaches will require the fine adjustment of multimodal therapeutic strategies that simultaneously target numerous hallmarks of cancer cells to win the battle against GBM.

Detailed characterization of the transcriptome of single B cells in mantle cell lymphoma suggesting a potential use for SOX4

Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a malignancy arising from naive B lymphocytes with common bone marrow (BM) involvement. Although t(11;14) is a primary event in MCL development, the highly diverse molecular etiology and causal genomic events are still being explored. We investigated the transcriptome of CD19⁺ BM cells from eight MCL patients at single-cell level. The transcriptomes revealed marked heterogeneity across patients, while general homogeneity and clonal continuity was observed within the patients with no clear evidence of subclonal involvement. All patients were SOX11⁺CCND1⁺CD20⁺. Despite monotypic surface immunoglobulin (Ig) κ or λ protein expression in MCL, 10.9% of the SOX11 + malignant cells expressed both light chain transcripts. The early lymphocyte transcription factor SOX4 was expressed in a fraction of SOX11 + cells in two patients and co-expressed with the precursor lymphoblastic marker, FAT1, in a blastoid case, suggesting a potential prognostic role. Additionally, SOX4 was found to identify non-malignant SOX11^– pro-/pre-B cell populations. Altogether, the observed expression of markers such as SOX4, CD27, IgA and IgG in the SOX11⁺ MCL cells, may suggest that the malignant cells are not fixed in the differentiation state of naïve mature B cells, but instead the patients carry B lymphocytes of different differentiation stages.

Hypermethylation of MIR129-2 Regulates SOX4 Transcription and Associates with Metastasis in Patients with Colorectal Cancer

BACKGROUND

MicroRNA-129-2 (miR-129-2), targeting SOX4, has been shown to be involved in the pathogenesis of different cancers. Here in this study, we examined the methylation levels of the promoter region of MIR19-2 gene as well as transcription of miR-129-2 and mRNA expression of SOX4 in the tumoral tissues from colorectal cancer (CRC) patients and compared those in the normal marginal tissues.

METHODS

Fifty CRC patients with Iranian Azari ethnicity were recruited. Genomic DNAs were extracted from the tumoral and normal tissues and the methylation level of the promoter regions of the MIR129-2 gene was determined using methylation-specific PCR (MSP) by evaluating 100 CG sites. The RNA content of the samples was isolated and the transcript levels of miR-129-2 and SOX4 were measured using quantitative real-time PCR.

RESULTS

Methylation level of the MIR192-2 promoter was significantly higher in the tumoral tissues compared to that in the normal marginal tissues (84% vs. 28%; P = 0.0041). The expression level of miR-192-2 was significantly downregulated (fold change = 0.34, P = 0.028) but SOX4 mRNA expression was upregulated (fold change = 2.7, P = 0.019) in the tumoral tissues compared to that in the normal marginal tissues. There was a significant correlation between the methylation level of the MIR192-2 promoter and the expression levels of miR-192-2 and SOX4 in the tumoral tissues. Associations were observed between the methylation of the MIR192-2 promoter and lymph node and liver metastasis.

CONCLUSIONS

It seems that MIR192-2 promoter hypermethylation might regulate the expression of SOX4 and therefore modulate metastasis in CRC.

Apobec1 complementation factor overexpression promotes hepatic steatosis, fibrosis, and hepatocellular cancer

The RNA-binding protein Apobec1 complementation factor (A1CF) regulates posttranscriptional ApoB mRNA editing, but the range of RNA targets and the long-term effect of altered A1CF expression on liver function are unknown. Here we studied hepatocyte-specific A1cf-transgenic (A1cf+/Tg), A1cf+/Tg Apobec1-/-, and A1cf-/- mice fed chow or high-fat/high-fructose diets using RNA-Seq, RNA CLIP-Seq, and tissue microarrays from human hepatocellular cancer (HCC). A1cf+/Tg mice exhibited increased hepatic proliferation and steatosis, with increased lipogenic gene expression (Mogat1, Mogat2, Cidea, Cd36) associated with shifts in polysomal RNA distribution. Aged A1cf+/Tg mice developed spontaneous fibrosis, dysplasia, and HCC, and this development was accelerated on a high-fat/high-fructose diet and was independent of Apobec1. RNA-Seq revealed increased expression of mRNAs involved in oxidative stress (Gstm3, Gpx3, Cbr3), inflammatory response (Il19, Cxcl14, Tnfα, Ly6c), extracellular matrix organization (Mmp2, Col1a1, Col4a1), and proliferation (Kif20a, Mcm2, Mcm4, Mcm6), and a subset of mRNAs (including Sox4, Sox9, Cdh1) were identified in RNA CLIP-Seq. Increased A1CF expression in human HCC correlated with advanced fibrosis and with reduced survival in a subset with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. In conclusion, we show that hepatic A1CF overexpression selectively alters polysomal distribution and mRNA expression, promoting lipogenic, proliferative, and inflammatory pathways leading to HCC.

Multi-Omics Analysis of SOX4, SOX11, and SOX12 Expression and the Associated Pathways in Human Cancers

The Sry-related HMG BOX (SOX) gene family encodes transcription factors containing highly conserved high-mobility group domains that bind to the minor groove in DNA. Although some SOX genes are known to be associated with tumorigenesis and cancer progression, their expression and prognostic value have not been systematically studied. We performed multi-omic analysis to investigate the expression of SOX genes in human cancers. Expression and phylogenetic tree analyses of the SOX gene family revealed that the expression of three closely related SOX members, SOX4, SOX11, and SOX12, was increased in multiple cancers. Expression, mutation, and alteration of the three SOX members were evaluated using the Oncomine and cBioPortal databases, and the correlation between these genes and clinical outcomes in various cancers was examined using the Kaplan–Meier, PrognoScan, and R2 database analyses. The genes commonly correlated with the three SOX members were categorized in key pathways related to the cell cycle, mitosis, immune system, and cancer progression in liver cancer and sarcoma. Additionally, functional protein partners with three SOX proteins and their probable signaling pathways were explored using the STRING database. This study suggests the prognostic value of the expression of three SOX genes and their associated pathways in various human cancers.

Propofol Suppresses Gastric Cancer Progression by Regulating circPDSS1/miR-1324/SOX4 Axis

Background

Propofol is a common intravenous anesthetic that exerts an antitumor role in human cancers. Circular RNAs (circRNAs) play crucial roles in the progression of various cancers. However, the relationship between propofol and circRNA decaprenyl diphosphate synthase subunit 1 (circPDSS1) in gastric cancer (GC) remains unclear.

Methods

Cell proliferation was evaluated by Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8), colony formation, and 5-ethynyl-2ʹ-deoxyuridine (EdU) assays. Cell migration and invasion were assessed by transwell assay. Cell apoptosis was determined by flow cytometry. All protein levels were detected by Western blot assay. The expression levels of circPDSS1, microRNA-1324 (miR-1324), and SRY-box transcription factor 4 (SOX4) mRNA were determined by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR). The interaction between miR-1324 and circPDSS1 or SOX4 was confirmed by dual-luciferase reporter and RNA pull-down assays. The mice xenograft model was established to investigate the role of propofol and circPDSS1 in vivo.

Results

Propofol inhibited cell proliferation, migration and invasion and induced apoptosis in GC cells, which could be reversed by upregulating circPDSS1. MiR-1324 was a target of circPDSS1, and circPDSS1 promoted cell proliferation, migration and invasion and reduced apoptosis in propofol-treated cells by sponging miR-1324. Moreover, SOX4 was a direct target of miR-1324, and miR-1324 exerted anticancer role by targeting SOX4 in propofol-treated cells. CircPDSS1 acted as a sponge of miR-1324 to regulate SOX4 expression. Additionally, circPDSS1 overexpression weakened the anticancer role of propofol in vivo.

Conclusion

Propofol exerted anticancer role in GC through regulating circPDSS1/miR-1324/SOX4 axis, indicating that propofol might be an effective therapeutic medicine for GC treatment.

Multi-omic profiling reveals widespread dysregulation of innate immunity and hematopoiesis in COVID-19

Our understanding of protective versus pathological immune responses to SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), is limited by inadequate profiling of patients at the extremes of the disease severity spectrum. Here, we performed multi-omic single-cell immune profiling of 64 COVID-19 patients across the full range of disease severity, from outpatients with mild disease to fatal cases. Our transcriptomic, epigenomic, and proteomic analyses revealed widespread dysfunction of peripheral innate immunity in severe and fatal COVID-19, including prominent hyperactivation signatures in neutrophils and NK cells. We also identified chromatin accessibility changes at NF-κB binding sites within cytokine gene loci as a potential mechanism for the striking lack of pro-inflammatory cytokine production observed in monocytes in severe and fatal COVID-19. We further demonstrated that emergency myelopoiesis is a prominent feature of fatal COVID-19. Collectively, our results reveal disease severity-associated immune phenotypes in COVID-19 and identify pathogenesis-associated pathways that are potential targets for therapeutic intervention.

AID overexpression leads to aggressive murine CLL and nonimmunoglobulin mutations that mirror human neoplasms

Most cancers become more dangerous by the outgrowth of malignant subclones with additional DNA mutations that favor proliferation or survival. Using chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), a disease that exemplifies this process and is a model for neoplasms in general, we created transgenic mice overexpressing the enzyme activation-induced deaminase (AID), which has a normal function of inducing DNA mutations in B lymphocytes. AID not only allows normal B lymphocytes to develop more effective immunoglobulin-mediated immunity, but is also able to mutate nonimmunoglobulin genes, predisposing to cancer. In CLL, AID expression correlates with poor prognosis, suggesting a role for this enzyme in disease progression. Nevertheless, direct experimental evidence identifying the specific genes that are mutated by AID and indicating that those genes are associated with disease progression is not available. To address this point, we overexpressed Aicda in a murine model of CLL (Eμ-TCL1). Analyses of TCL1/AID mice demonstrate a role for AID in disease kinetics, CLL cell proliferation, and the development of cancer-related target mutations with canonical AID signatures in nonimmunoglobulin genes. Notably, our mouse models can accumulate mutations in the same genes that are mutated in human cancers. Moreover, some of these mutations occur at homologous positions, leading to identical or chemically similar amino acid substitutions as in human CLL and lymphoma. Together, these findings support a direct link between aberrant AID activity and CLL driver mutations that are then selected for their oncogenic effects, whereby AID promotes aggressiveness in CLL and other B-cell neoplasms.

UTX maintains the functional integrity of the murine hematopoietic system by globally regulating aging-associated genes

Epigenetic regulation is essential for the maintenance of the hematopoietic system, and its deregulation is implicated in hematopoietic disorders. In this study, UTX, a demethylase for lysine 27 on histone H3 (H3K27) and a component of COMPASS-like and SWI/SNF complexes, played an essential role in the hematopoietic system by globally regulating aging-associated genes. Utx-deficient (UtxΔ/Δ) mice exhibited myeloid skewing with dysplasia, extramedullary hematopoiesis, impaired hematopoietic reconstituting ability, and increased susceptibility to leukemia, which are the hallmarks of hematopoietic aging. RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) analysis revealed that Utx deficiency converted the gene expression profiles of young hematopoietic stem-progenitor cells (HSPCs) to those of aged HSPCs. Utx expression in hematopoietic stem cells declined with age, and UtxΔ/Δ HSPCs exhibited increased expression of an aging-associated marker, accumulation of reactive oxygen species, and impaired repair of DNA double-strand breaks. Pathway and chromatin immunoprecipitation analyses coupled with RNA-seq data indicated that UTX contributed to hematopoietic homeostasis mainly by maintaining the expression of genes downregulated with aging via demethylase-dependent and -independent epigenetic programming. Of note, comparison of pathway changes in UtxΔ/Δ HSPCs, aged muscle stem cells, aged fibroblasts, and aged induced neurons showed substantial overlap, strongly suggesting common aging mechanisms among different tissue stem cells.

Clinicopathological significance of the EMT-related proteins and their interrelationships in prostate cancer. An immunohistochemical study

The chronic inflammation influences a microenvironment, where as a result of losing control over tissue homeostatic mechanisms, the carcinogenesis process may be induced. Inflammatory response cells can secrete a number of factors that support both initiation and progression of cancer and also they may consequently induct an epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), the process responsible for development of distant metastasis. Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) acts as a pro-inflammatory cytokine that is considered as a link between chronic inflammation and tumor development. MIF can function as a modulator of important cancer-related genes expression, as well as an activator of signaling pathways that promotes the development of prostate cancer. The study was performed on FFPE tissues resected from patients who underwent radical prostatectomy. To investigate the relationship of studied proteins with involvement in tumor progression and initiation of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process, we selected clinicopathological parameters related to tumor progression. Immunohistochemical analyses of MIF, SOX-4, β-catenin and E-cadherin were performed on TMA slides. We found a statistically significant correlation of overall β-catenin expression with the both lymph node metastasis (p<0.001) and presence of angioinvasion (p = 0.012). Membrane β-catenin expression was associated with distant metastasis (p = 0.021). In turn, nuclear MIF was correlated with lymph node metastasis (p = 0.003). The positive protein-protein correlations have been shown between the total β-catenin protein expression level with level of nuclear SOX-4 protein expression (r = 0.27; p<0.05) as well as negative correlation of β-catenin expression with level of nuclear MIF protein expression (r = -0.23; p<0.05). Our results seem promising and strongly highlight the potential role of MIF in development of nodal metastases as well as may confirm an involvement of β-catenin in disease spread in case of prostate cancer.

Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition Associated with Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinomas: A Review

Head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCCs) are aggressive, recurrent, and metastatic neoplasms with a high occurrence around the world and can lead to death when not treated appropriately. Several molecules and signaling pathways are involved in the malignant conversion process. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) has been described in HNSCCs, a major type of aggressive carcinoma. EMT describes the development of epithelial cells into mesenchymal cells, which depends on several molecular interactions and signaling pathways that facilitate mesenchymal conversion. This is related to interactions with the microenvironment of the tumor, hypoxia, growth factors, matrix metalloproteinases, and the presence of viral infections. In this review, we focus on the main molecules related to EMT, their interactions with the tumor microenvironment, plasticity phenomena, epigenetic regulation, hypoxia, inflammation, their relationship with immune cells, and the inhibition of EMT in the context of HNSCCs.

Clinicopathological significance of SOX4 and epithelial-mesenchymal transition markers in patients with laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma

OBJECTIVE

Sex-determining region-Y-related high-mobility-group box 4 (SOX4) is associated with the metastasis and prognosis of many cancer types. However, studies on the role of SOX4 in laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma (LSCC) are few, and hence the mechanism is unclear. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) allows neoplastic cells to gain the plasticity and motility required for tumor progression and metastasis. This study aimed to analyze the relationship between SOX4 and EMT, and their relationship with clinicopathological factors and related prognosis.

METHODS

Immunohistochemical staining was used to detect the positive expression of SOX4 protein, EMT-related transcription factor protein, and related marker protein in 127 LSCC tissue samples. At the same time, data on various parameters of clinical pathology and postoperative survival were collected.

RESULTS

The positive expression rate of SOX4 and Slug in LSCC was related to pathological differentiation, Lymph node metastasis (LNM), and pathological TNM of a tumor. The expression rates of ZEB1, E-cadherin, N-cadherin, and β-catenin in LSCC correlated with LNM and pTNM. The expression of SOX4, combined expression of SOX4 and ZEB1, and LNM were independent prognostic factors for the total survival time of patients with LSCC.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, SOX4 was vital in the LSCC EMT process, which might be mediated by transcription factor ZEB1. SOX4 and ZEB1 might serve as potential biomarkers of metastasis and prognosis, as well as promising therapeutic targets of LSCC.

SOX4 as biomarker in hepatitis B virus-associated hepatocellular carcinoma

Background: Hepatitis B virus infection is associated with liver disease, including cancers. In this study, we assessed the power of sex-determining region Y (SRY)-related high-mobility group (HMG)-box 4(SOX4) gene to predict the clinical course of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).

Methods: To evaluate the differential expression of SOX4 and its diagnostic and prognostic potential in HCC, we analyzed the GSE14520 dataset. Stratified analysis and joint-effect analysis were done using SOX4 and clinical factor. We then designed a nomogram for predicting the clinical course of HCC. Differential SOX4 expression and its correlation with tumor stage as well as its diagnostic and prognostic value were analyzed on the oncomine and GEPIA websites. Gene set enrichment analysis was explored as well as candidate gene ontology and metabolic pathways modulated by in SOX4 HCC.

Results: Our analysis revealed that the level of SOX4 was significantly upregulated in tumor issue (P <0.001). This observation was validated through oncomine dataset and MERAV analysis (all P <0.05). Diagnostic receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis of SOX4 suggested it has diagnostic potential in HCC (GSE14520 dataset: P <0.001, area under curve (AUC) = 0.782; Oncomine: (Wurmbach dataset) P = 0.002, AUC = 0.831 and (Mas dataset) P <0.001, AUC = 0.947). In addition, SOX4 exhibited high correlation with overall survival of HBV-associated HCC (adjusted P = 0.004, hazard ratio (HR) (95% confidence interval (CI)) = 2.055 (1.261-3.349) and recurrence-free survival (adjusted P = 0.008, HR (95% CI) = 1.721 (1.151-2.574). These observations which were verified by GEPIA analysis for overall survival (P = 0.007) and recurrence-free survival (P= 0.096). Gene enrichment analysis revealed that affected processes included lymphocyte differentiation, pancreatic endocrine pathways, and insulin signaling pathway. SOX4 prognostic value was evaluated using nomogram analysis for HCC 1, 3, and 5-year, survival.

Conclusion: Differential SOX4 expression presents an avenue of diagnosing and predicting clinical course of HCC. In HCC, SOX4 may affect TP53 metabolic processes, lymphocyte differentiation and the insulin signaling pathway.

SOX4 and SMARCA4 cooperatively regulate PI3k signaling through transcriptional activation of TGFBR2

Dysregulation of PI3K/Akt signaling is a dominant feature in basal-like or triple-negative breast cancers (TNBC). However, the mechanisms regulating this pathway are largely unknown in this subset of aggressive tumors. Here we demonstrate that the transcription factor SOX4 is a key regulator of PI3K signaling in TNBC. Genomic and proteomic analyses coupled with mechanistic studies identified TGFBR2 as a direct transcriptional target of SOX4 and demonstrated that TGFBR2 is required to mediate SOX4-dependent PI3K signaling. We further report that SOX4 and the SWI/SNF ATPase SMARCA4, which are uniformly overexpressed in basal-like tumors, form a previously unreported complex that is required to maintain an open chromatin conformation at the TGFBR2 regulatory regions in order to mediate TGFBR2 expression and PI3K signaling. Collectively, our findings delineate the mechanism by which SOX4 and SMARCA4 cooperatively regulate PI3K/Akt signaling and suggest that this complex may play an essential role in TNBC genesis and/or progression.

Clinicopathological significance of SOX4 and epithelial-mesenchymal transition markers in patients with laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Sex-determining region-Y-related high-mobility-group box 4 (SOX4) is associated with the metastasis and prognosis of many cancer types. However, studies on the role of SOX4 in laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma (LSCC) are few, and hence the mechanism is unclear. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) allows neoplastic cells to gain the plasticity and motility required for tumor progression and metastasis. This study aimed to analyze the relationship between SOX4 and EMT, and their relationship with clinicopathological factors and related prognosis.

METHODS

Immunohistochemical staining was used to detect the positive expression of SOX4 protein, EMT-related transcription factor protein, and related marker protein in 127 LSCC tissue samples. At the same time, data on various parameters of clinical pathology and postoperative survival were collected.

RESULTS

The positive expression rate of SOX4 and Slug in LSCC was related to pathological differentiation, lymphatic invasion, and pathological tumor node metastasis (TNM) of a tumor. The expression rates of ZEB1, Twist, E-cadherin, N-cadherin, and β-catenin in LSCC correlated with lymphatic invasion and pathological tumor node metastasis. The expression of SOX4, combined expression of SOX4 and ZEB1, and lymphatic invasion were independent prognostic factors for the total survival time of patients with LSCC.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, SOX4 was vital in the LSCC EMT process, which might be mediated by transcription factor ZEB1. SOX4 and ZEB1 might serve as potential biomarkers of metastasis and prognosis, as well as promising therapeutic targets of LSCC.

SOX4 Serves an Oncogenic Role in the Tumourigenesis of Human Breast Adenocarcinoma by Promoting Cell Proliferation, Migration and Inhibiting Apoptosis

BACKGROUND

Breast cancer is among the most common malignant cancers worldwide, and breast adenocarcinoma in glandular tissue cells has excessive metastasis and invasion capability. However, little is known on the molecular process by which this disease develops and progresses.

OBJECTIVE

In this study, we explored the effects of sex-determining region Y-box 4 (SOX4) protein on proliferation, migration, apoptosis and tumourigenesis of breast adenocarcinoma and its possible mechanisms.

METHODS

The SOX4 overexpression or knockdown Michigan Cancer Foundation-7 (MCF-7) cell lines were established. Among the SOX4 overexpression or MCF-7 knockdown cell lines, proliferation, migration ability and apoptosis rate were detected. The expression levels of apoptosis-related proteins (Bax and Cleaved caspase-3) were analysed using Western blot. The effect of SOX4 on tumourigenesis was analysed using the clone formation assay in vitro and tumour xenograft experiment in nude mice.

RESULTS

Compared with the overexpression of control cells, proliferation and migration ability of SOX4 overexpression cells significantly increased, the apoptosis rate significantly decreased in addition to the expression levels of Bax and Cleaved caspase-3 (P < 0.05). Compared with the knockdown of control cells, proliferation and migration ability of SOX4 knockdown cells significantly decreased, and the apoptosis rate and expression levels of Bax and Cleaved caspase-3 significantly increased (P < 0.05). Clone formation and tumour growth abilities of SOX4 overexpression cells were significantly higher than those of the control cells (P < 0.05), whereas SOX4 knockdown cells had the opposite effect.

CONCLUSION

SOX4 plays an oncogenic role in breast adenocarcinoma tumourigenesis by promoting cell proliferation, migration and inhibiting apoptosis. It can be used as a potential molecular target for breast cancer gene therapy.

Integrin αvβ6-TGFβ-SOX4 Pathway Drives Immune Evasion in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Cancer immunotherapy shows limited efficacy against many solid tumors that originate from epithelial tissues, including triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). We identify the SOX4 transcription factor as an important resistance mechanism to T cell-mediated cytotoxicity for TNBC cells. Mechanistic studies demonstrate that inactivation of SOX4 in tumor cells increases the expression of genes in a number of innate and adaptive immune pathways important for protective tumor immunity. Expression of SOX4 is regulated by the integrin αvβ6 receptor on the surface of tumor cells, which activates TGFβ from a latent precursor. An integrin αvβ6/8-blocking monoclonal antibody (mAb) inhibits SOX4 expression and sensitizes TNBC cells to cytotoxic T cells. This integrin mAb induces a substantial survival benefit in highly metastatic murine TNBC models poorly responsive to PD-1 blockade. Targeting of the integrin αvβ6-TGFβ-SOX4 pathway therefore provides therapeutic opportunities for TNBC and other highly aggressive human cancers of epithelial origin.

Hypoxia-sensitive long noncoding RNA CASC15 promotes lung tumorigenesis by regulating the SOX4/β-catenin axis

Background

Accumulating evidence has demonstrated that long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are involved in the hypoxia-related cancer process and play pivotal roles in enabling malignant cells to survive under hypoxic stress. However, the molecular crosstalk between lncRNAs and hypoxia signaling cascades in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) remains largely elusive.

Methods

Firstly, we identified differentially expressed lncRNA cancer susceptibility candidate 15 (CASC15) as associated with NSCLC based on bioinformatic data. The clinical significance of CASC15 in lung cancer was investigated by Kaplan-Meier survival analysis. Then, we modulated CASC15 expression in NSCLC cell lines by RNAi. CCK-8 and transwell assays were carried out to examine the effects of CASC15 on proliferation and migration of NSCLC cells. Upstream activator and downstream targets of CASC15 were validated by luciferase reporter assay, qRT-PCR, Western blotting, and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP). Lastly, RNA in situ hybridization (RNA-ISH) and immunohistochemistry (IHC) were performed to confirm the genetic relationships between CASC15 and related genes in clinical samples.

Results

CASC15 was highly expressed in NSCLC tissues and closely associated with poor prognosis. Loss-of-function analysis demonstrated that CASC15 was essential for NSCLC cell migration and growth. Mechanistic study revealed that CASC15 was transcriptionally activated by hypoxia signaling in NSCLC cells. Further analysis showed that hypoxia-induced CASC15 transactivation was mainly dependent on hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α) and hypoxia response elements (HREs) located in CASC15 promoter. CASC15 promotes the expression of its chromosomally nearby gene, SOX4. Then SOX4 functions to stabilize β-catenin protein, thereby enhancing the proliferation and migration of NSCLC cells. HIF-1α/CASC15/SOX4/β-catenin pathway was activated in a substantial subset of NSCLC patients.

Conclusions

HIF-1α/CASC15/SOX4/β-catenin axis plays an essential role in the development and progression of NSCLC. The present work provides new evidence that lncRNA CASC15 holds great promise to be used as novel biomarkers for NSCLC. Blocking the HIF-1α/CASC15/SOX4/β-catenin axis can serve as a potential therapeutic strategy for treating NSCLC.

SOX4 promotes the growth and metastasis of breast cancer

Purpose

Increasing evidence has shown that the transcription factor SOX4 is closely associated with the development and progression of many malignant tumors. However, the effect of SOX4 on breast cancer is unclear. In this study, we purposed to investigate the role of SOX4 in the growth and metastasis in breast cancer and the underlying mechanism. Moreover, the effect of SOX4 on cancer cell resistance to chemotherapeutic agents was also evaluated in vitro and in vivo.

Methods

We used lentivirus technique to ectopically express SOX4 in MDA-MB-231 and SUM149 cells or knockdown SOX4 in BT474 cells, and examined the effect of these changes on various cellular functions. MTT assay was used to determine the cell viability as well as resistance to chemotherapeutic agents. The regulation of SOX4 on epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT)-related genes was analyzed using qRT-PCR. The binding of SOX4 to the CXCR7 gene was demonstrated using chromatin immunoprecipitation assay and dual-luciferase reporter activity assay. The effect of SOX4/CXCR7 axis on metastasis was examined using Transwell migration and Matrigel invasion assays. The expression of SOX4/CXCR7 in primary tumors and metastatic foci in lymph nodes was assessed using immunohistochemistry. Cellular morphology was investigated under phase contrast microscope and transmission electron microscopy. Moreover, the effect of SOX4 on tumor growth, metastasis, and resistance to chemotherapy was also studied in vivo by using bioluminescent imaging.

Results

SOX4 increased breast cancer cell viability, migration, and invasion in vitro and enhanced tumor growth and metastasis in vivo. It regulated EMT-related genes and bound to CXCR7 promoter to upregulate CXCR7 transcription. Both SOX4 and CXCR7 were highly expressed in human primary tumors and metastatic foci in lymph nodes. Treatment of breast cancer cells with the CXCR7 inhibitor CCX771 reversed the SOX4 effect on cell migration and invasion. Ectopic expression of SOX4 increased the susceptibility of cells to paclitaxel.

Conclusions

SOX4 plays an important role in the growth and metastasis of breast cancer. SOX4/CXCR7 may serve as potential therapeutic targets for the treatment. Paclitaxel may be a good therapeutic option if the expression level of SOX4 is high.

Age-induced accumulation of methylmalonic acid promotes tumour progression

From age 65 onwards, the risk of cancer incidence and associated mortality is substantially higher^1–6. Nonetheless, our understanding of the complex relationship between age and cancer is still in its infancy^2,3,7,8. For decades, this link has largely been attributed to increased exposure time to mutagens in older individuals. However, this view does not account for the well-established role of diet, exercise and small molecules that target the pace of metabolic aging^9–12. Here, we show that metabolic alterations that occur with age can render a systemic environment favorable to progression and aggressiveness of tumors. Specifically, we show that methylmalonic acid (MMA), a by-product of propionate metabolism, is significantly up-regulated in the serum of older people, and functions as a mediator of tumor progression. We traced this to MMA’s ability to induce SOX4 and consequently eliciting a transcriptional reprogramming that can endow cancer cells with aggressive properties. Thus, accumulation of MMA represents a novel link between aging and cancer progression, implicating MMA as a novel therapeutic target for advanced carcinomas.

lncRNA PCNAP1 predicts poor prognosis in breast cancer and promotes cancer metastasis via miR‑340‑5p‑dependent upregulation of SOX4

The high metastatic rate of breast cancer is the significant cause of its poor prognosis. The long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) proliferating cell nuclear antigen pseudogene 1 (PCNAP1) plays important roles in the initiation and progression of cancers; however, its regulatory function and molecular mechanism in breast cancer metastasis remains unknown. Therefore, we investigated the roles of lncRNA PCNAP1 in breast cancer metastasis by modulating the microRNA (miR)‑340‑5p/SOX4 axis using quantitative real‑time PCR, in vivo mouse models, nucleo‑cytoplasmic separation, western blot analysis, scratch assays, Transwell assays, luciferase reporter assays and MS2‑RIP, in vitro and in vivo. lncRNA PCNAP1 was found to be upregulated in human breast cancer tissues, and high lncRNA PCNAP1 levels predicted poor overall survival. Function assays showed that knockdown of lncRNA PCNAP1 suppressed the migration and invasion of breast cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistically, lncRNA PCNAP1 functioned as a competing endogenous (ce)RNA for miR‑340‑5p to facilitate the expression of its target gene SRY‑box transcription factor 4 (SOX4), promoting migration and invasion of breast cancer cells. Overall, we found that lncRNA PCNAP1 predicted a poor prognosis in breast cancer and promoted cancer metastasis via miR‑340‑5p‑dependent upregulation of SOX4 expression. These results suggest that lncRNA PCNAP1 has potential as an alternative therapeutic target to suppress breast cancer metastasis.