SOCS3-mediated regulation of inflammatory cytokines in PTEN and p53 inactivated triple negative breast cancer model

Synergistic effect of bazedoxifene and abemaciclib co‑treatment in triple‑negative breast cancer cells in vitro

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an aggressive disease with the capability of metastasizing quickly. However, treatment options for patients with TNBC still remain limited. CDK4/6 inhibitors have been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and are administered for the treatment of hormone receptor-positive breast cancer subtypes, but not yet for TNBC. Although pre-clinical research is being conducted on their efficacy in treating TNBC, acquired resistance to CDK4/6 inhibitors is now a growing clinical problem. One of the identified resistance mechanisms is through the IL-6/STAT3 signaling pathway. In the present study, the CDK4/6 inhibitor, abemaciclib, was tested in combination with the IL-6 inhibitor, bazedoxifene, on human (SUM159 and MDA-MB-231) and murine (4T1) TNBC cell lines. Both abemaciclib and bazedoxifene monotherapies inhibited cell cycle progression and cell viability, migration and invasion, and induced apoptosis; however, the combination treatment exerted a greater effect than either monotherapy. These findings support the concept of CDK4/6 and IL-6 dual inhibition as a novel targeted therapy against TNBC.

P53 Status Influences the Anti-proliferative Effect Induced by IFITM1 Inhibition in Estrogen Receptor-positive Breast Cancer Cells

BACKGROUND/AIM

Interferon-induced trans-membrane protein 1 (IFITM1) is known to be involved in breast cancer progression. We aimed to investigate its role in estrogen receptor (ER)-positive breast cancer cells with wild-type p53 and tamoxifen-resistant breast cancer cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The ER-positive breast cancer cell lines, MCF-7 with wild-type p53 and T47D with mutant p53, were used. We established an MCF-7-derived tamoxifen-resistant cell line (TamR) by long-term culture of MCF-7 cells with 4-hydroxytamoxifen.

RESULTS

IFITM1 inhibition in MCF-7 cells significantly decreased cell growth and migration. MCF-7 cells with suppression of IFITM1 using siRNA or ruxolitinib showed reduced cell viability after tamoxifen treatment compared with that in the control MCF-7 cells. Unexpectedly, mRNA and protein levels of IFITM1 were decreased in TamR cells compared with those in MCF-7 cells. TamR cells with suppression of IFITM1 using siRNA or ruxolitinib showed no change in cell viability after treatment with tamoxifen. P53 knockdown using siRNA reduced the mRNA levels of IRF9 and increased mRNA and protein levels of SOCS3 in MCF-7 cells, suggesting that loss or mutation of p53 can affect the induction of IFITM1 via the JAK/STAT signaling pathway in breast cancer. Furthermore, MCF-7 cells with p53 knockdown using siRNA showed no decrease in cell viability after tamoxifen treatment or IFITM1 inhibition, indicating that p53 status may be important for cell death after tamoxifen treatment or IFITM1 inhibition.

CONCLUSION

IFITM1 inhibition may enhance the sensitivity to tamoxifen based on p53-dependent enhancement of IFN signaling in wild-type p53, ER-positive breast cancer cells.

Are peptidomimetics the compounds of choice for developing new modulators of the JAK-STAT pathway?

Protein-protein interactions (PPIs) play critical roles in a wide range of biological processes including the dysregulation of cellular pathways leading to the loss of cell function, which in turn leads to diseases. The dysfunction of several signaling pathways is linked to the insurgence of pathological processes such as inflammation, cancer development and neurodegeneration. Thus, there is an urgent need for novel chemical modulators of dysregulated PPIs to drive progress in targeted therapies. Several PPIs have been targeted by bioactive compounds, and, often, to properly cover interacting protein regions and improve the biological activities of modulators, a particular focus concerns the employment of macrocycles as proteomimetics. Indeed, for their physicochemical properties, they occupy an intermediate space between small organic molecules and macromolecular proteins and are prominent in the drug discovery process. Peptide macrocycles can modulate fundamental biological mechanisms and here we will focus on peptidomimetics active on the Janus kinase/signal transducers and activators of transcription (JAK-STAT) pathways.

Naringenin: its chemistry and roles in neuroprotection

According to epidemiological research, as the population ages, neurological illnesses are becoming a bigger issue. Despite improvements in the treatment of these diseases, there are still widespread worries about how to find a long-lasting remedy. Several neurological diseases can be successfully treated with natural substances. As a result, current research has been concentrated on finding effective neuroprotective drugs with improved efficacy and fewer side effects. Naringenin is one potential treatment for neurodegenerative diseases. Many citrus fruits, tomatoes, bergamots, and other fruits are rich in naringenin, a flavonoid. This phytochemical is linked to a variety of biological functions. Naringenin has attracted a lot of interest for its ability to exhibit neuroprotection through several mechanisms. In the current article, we present evidence from the literature that naringenin reduces neurotoxicity and oxidative stress in brain tissues. Also, the literatures that are currently accessible shows that naringenin reduces neuroinflammation and other neurological anomalies. Additionally, we found several studies that touted naringenin as a promising anti-amyloidogenic, antidepressant, and neurotrophic treatment option. This review's major goal is to reflect on advancements in knowledge of the molecular processes that underlie naringenin's possible neuroprotective effects. Furthermore, this article also provides highlights of Naringenin with respect to its chemistry and pharmacokinetics.

Integrating plasma proteomes with genome-wide association data for causal protein identification in multiple myeloma

BACKGROUND

Multiple myeloma (MM) is a severely debilitating and fatal B-cell neoplastic disease. The discovery of disease-associated proteins with causal genetic evidence offers a chance to uncover novel therapeutic targets.

METHODS

First, we comprehensively investigated the causal association between 2994 proteins and MM through two-sample mendelian randomization (MR) analysis using summary-level data from public genome-wide association studies of plasma proteome (N = 3301 healthy individuals) and MM (598 cases and 180,756 controls). Sensitivity analyses were performed for these identified causal proteins. Furthermore, we pursued the exploration of enriched biological pathways, prioritized the therapeutic proteins, and evaluated their druggability using the KEGG pathway analysis, MR-Bayesian model averaging analysis, and cross-reference with current databases, respectively.

RESULTS

We identified 13 proteins causally associated with MM risk (false discovery rate corrected P < 0.05). Six proteins were positively associated with the risk of MM, including nicotinamide phosphoribosyl transferase (NAMPT; OR [95% CI]: 1.35 [1.18, 1.55]), tyrosine kinase with immunoglobulin-like and EGF-like domains 1 (TIE1; 1.14 [1.06, 1.22]), neutrophil cytosol factor 2 (NCF2; 1.27 [1.12, 1.44]), carbonyl reductase 1, cAMP-specific 3',5'-cyclic phosphodiesterase 4D (PDE4D), platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolase IB subunit beta (PAFAH1B2). Seven proteins were inversely associated with MM, which referred to suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 (SOCS3; 0.90 [0.86, 0.94]), Fc-gamma receptor III-B (FCGR3B; 0.75 [0.65,0.86]), glypican-1 (GPC1; 0.69 [0.58,0.83]), follistatin-related protein 1, protein tyrosine phosphatase non-receptor type 4 (PTPN4), granzyme B, complement C1q subcomponent subunit C (C1QC). Three of the causal proteins, SOCS3, FCGR3B, and NCF2, were enriched in the osteoclast differentiation pathway in KEGG enrichment analyses while GPC1 (marginal inclusion probability (MIP):0.993; model averaged causal effects (MACE): - 0.349), NAMPT (MIP:0.433; MACE: - 0.113), and NCF2 (MIP:0.324; MACE:0.066) ranked among the top three MM-associated proteins according to MR-BMA analyses. Furthermore, therapeutics targeting four proteins are currently under evaluation, five are druggable and four are future breakthrough points.

CONCLUSIONS

Our analysis revealed a set of 13 novel proteins, including six risk and seven protective proteins, causally linked to MM risk. The discovery of these MM-associated proteins opens up the possibility for identifying novel therapeutic targets, further advancing the integration of genome and proteome data for drug development.

Multidimensional quantitative phenotypic and molecular analysis reveals neomorphic behaviors of p53 missense mutants

Mutations in the TP53 tumor suppressor gene occur in >80% of the triple-negative or basal-like breast cancer. To test whether neomorphic functions of specific TP53 missense mutations contribute to phenotypic heterogeneity, we characterized phenotypes of non-transformed MCF10A-derived cell lines expressing the ten most common missense mutant p53 proteins and observed a wide spectrum of phenotypic changes in cell survival, resistance to apoptosis and anoikis, cell migration, invasion and 3D mammosphere architecture. The p53 mutants R248W, R273C, R248Q, and Y220C are the most aggressive while G245S and Y234C are the least, which correlates with survival rates of basal-like breast cancer patients. Interestingly, a crucial amino acid difference at one position-R273C vs. R273H-has drastic changes on cellular phenotype. RNA-Seq and ChIP-Seq analyses show distinct DNA binding properties of different p53 mutants, yielding heterogeneous transcriptomics profiles, and MD simulation provided structural basis of differential DNA binding of different p53 mutants. Integrative statistical and machine-learning-based pathway analysis on gene expression profiles with phenotype vectors across the mutant cell lines identifies quantitative association of multiple pathways including the Hippo/YAP/TAZ pathway with phenotypic aggressiveness. Further, comparative analyses of large transcriptomics datasets on breast cancer cell lines and tumors suggest that dysregulation of the Hippo/YAP/TAZ pathway plays a key role in driving the cellular phenotypes towards basal-like in the presence of more aggressive p53 mutants. Overall, our study describes distinct gain-of-function impacts on protein functions, transcriptional profiles, and cellular behaviors of different p53 missense mutants, which contribute to clinical phenotypic heterogeneity of triple-negative breast tumors.

Identification of potential diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers for breast cancer based on gene expression omnibus

BACKGROUND

Breast cancer is regarded as a highly malignant neoplasm in the female population, posing a significant risk to women's overall well-being. The prevalence of breast cancer has been observed to rise in China, accompanied by an earlier age of onset when compared to Western countries. Breast cancer continues to be a prominent contributor to cancer-related mortality and morbidity among women, primarily due to its limited responsiveness to conventional treatment modalities. The diagnostic process is challenging due to the presence of non-specific clinical manifestations and the suboptimal precision of conventional diagnostic tests. There is a prevailing uncertainty regarding the most effective screening method and target populations, as well as the specificities and execution of screening programs.

AIM

To identify diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers for breast cancer.

METHODS

Overlapping differentially expressed genes were screened based on Gene Expression Omnibus (GSE36765, GSE10810, and GSE20086) and The Cancer Genome Atlas datasets. A protein-protein interaction network was applied to excavate the hub genes among these differentially expressed genes. Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway analyses, as well as gene set enrichment analyses, were conducted to examine the functions of these genes and their potential mechanisms in the development of breast cancer. For clarification of the diagnostic and prognostic roles of these genes, Kaplan-Meier and Cox proportional hazards analyses were conducted.

RESULTS

This study demonstrated that calreticulin, heat shock protein family B member 1, insulin-like growth Factor 1, interleukin-1 receptor 1, Krüppel-like factor 4, suppressor of cytokine signaling 3, and triosephosphate isomerase 1 are potential diagnostic biomarkers of breast cancer as well as potential treatment targets with clinical implications.

CONCLUSION

The screening of biomarkers is of guiding significance for the diagnosis and prognosis of the diseases.

Pharmacologic inhibition of IL11/STAT3 signaling increases MHC-I expression and T cell infiltration

BACKGROUND

Recent studies have discovered an emerging role of IL11 in various colitis-associated cancers, suggesting that IL11 mainly promotes tumor cell survival and proliferation in regulating tumorigenesis. Herein we aimed to reveal a novel function of IL-11 through STAT3 signaling in regulating tumor immune evasion.

METHODS

AOM/DSS model in Il11^-/- and Apc^min/+/Il11^-/- mice were used to detect tumor growth and CD8⁺ T infiltration. STAT1/3 phosphorylation and MHC-I, CXCL9, H2-K1 and H2-D1 expression were detected in MC38 cells and intestine organoids treated with/without recombinant IL11 to explore effect of IL11/STAT3 signaling, with IL11 mutein used to competitively inhibit IL11 and rescue inhibited STAT1 activation. Correlation between IL11 and CD8⁺ T infiltration was analyzed using TIMER2.0 website. IL11 expression and survival prognosis was analyzed in clinical data of patient cohort from Nanfang Hospital.

RESULTS

IL11 is highly expressed in CRC and indicates unfavorable prognosis. IL11 knockout increased CD8⁺ T cell infiltration and reduced intestinal and colon formation. Tumors were significantly suppressed while MHC-I and CXCL9 expression for CD8⁺ T infiltration were remarkably increased in the tumor tissues of Apc^min/+/Il11^-/- mice or Il11^-/- mice induced by AOM/DSS. IL11/STAT3 signaling downregulated MHC-I and CXCL9 by inhibiting IFNγ-induced STAT1 phosphorylation. IL11 mutein competitively inhibit IL11 to upregulate CXCL9 and MHC-I in tumor and attenuated tumor growth.

CONCLUSIONS

This study ascribes for a new immunomodulatory role for IL11 during tumor development that is amenable to anti-cytokine based therapy of colon cancer.

The role of MEOX1 in non-neoplastic and neoplastic diseases

Targeted gene therapy has shown durable efficacy in non-neoplastic and neoplastic patients. Therefore, finding a suitable target has become a key area of research. Mesenchyme homeobox 1 (MEOX1) is a transcriptional factor that plays a significant role in regulation of somite development. Evidence indicates that abnormalities in MEOX1 expression and function are associated with a variety of pathologies, including non-neoplastic and neoplastic diseases. MEOX1 expression is upregulated during progression of most diseases and plays a critical role in maintenance of the cellular phenotypes such as cell differentiation, cell cycle arrest and senescence, migration, and proliferation. Therefore, MEOX1 may become an important molecular target and therapeutic target. This review will discuss the current state of knowledge on the role of MEOX1 in different diseases.

Tissue levels of suppressor of cytokine signaling-3 (SOCS-3) in mycosis fungoides

Mycosis fungoides (MF) is a type of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma with proposed multifactorial etiology. Suppressor of cytokine signaling-3 (SOCS-3) is one of the proteins expressed in MF. Its exact role in disease pathogenesis has not yet been thoroughly investigated. This study aimed to assess the expression of SOCS-3 in patients' skin with mycosis fungoides to elucidate their possible role in the pathogenesis in MF. 30 patients with mycosis fungoides and 30 age and sex-matched healthy controls were included. After clinical examination, tissue levels of SOCS-3 were measured by ELISA. The level of expression of SOCS-3 was significantly upregulated in the lesional tissue compared to perilesional SOCS-3 level in patients' group (P < 0.001), and both levels were higher than the SOCS-3 level in control group (P < 0.001). In addition, there was a statistically significant positive correlation between lesional SOCS-3 level and itching in patients' group (P < 0.001). Regarding lesional and perilesional SOCS-3 levels in each stage, there was a significant increase in lesional SOCS-3 levels in comparison to perilesional level whether in stage Ia, Ib, and IIa; (P < 0.001), (P < 0.001) and (P < 0.001), respectively. Increased tissue levels of SOCS-3 patients with mycosis fungoides point to a role that SOCS-3 could play in its pathogenesis. Also, high levels of SOCS-3 in MF patients with itching suggest a role in the pathogenesis of this symptom. These findings may prove helpful in formulating a new treatment modality in addition to the current treatment of MF.

IL-6: The Link Between Inflammation, Immunity and Breast Cancer

Breast cancer is one of the leading causes of mortality in females. Over the past decades, intensive efforts have been made to uncover the pathogenesis of breast cancer. Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a pleiotropic factor which has a vital role in host defense immunity and acute stress. Moreover, a wide range of studies have identified the physiological and pathological roles of IL-6 in inflammation, immune and cancer. Recently, several IL-6 signaling pathway-targeted monoclonal antibodies have been developed for cancer and immune therapy. Combination of IL-6 inhibitory antibody with other pathways blockage drugs have demonstrated promising outcome in both preclinical and clinical trials. This review focuses on emerging studies on the strong linkages of IL-6/IL-6R mediated regulation of inflammation and immunity in cancer, especially in breast cancer.

Investigating the molecular mechanisms of Tamoxifen on the EMT pathway among patients with breast cancer

Tamoxifen is one of the most used drugs for breast cancer. This study aimed to investigate the effect of the Tamoxifen mechanism on the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) pathway among breast cancer patients due to its resistance to breast cancer cells. We selected the appropriate datasets from the GEO database using continuous and integrated bioinformatics analysis. We examined the signaling pathways, gene ontology, and protein association of genes after classifying the gene expression profile. Finally, we confirmed the candidate genes using the GEPIA database. Two groups were defined for gene expression profiles. The first group in which the expression profile of genes increased after Tamoxifen was evaluated using the expression profile of genes that decreased in the EMT pathway. The second group was the opposite of the first group. 253 genes in the first group and 302 genes in the second group were shared. The genes in the first group were involved in various pathways of cell death, focal adhesion, and cellular aging. The second group was more involved in different phases of the cell cycle. Finally, MYLK, SOCS3, and STAT5B proteins from the first group and BIRC5, PLK1, and RAPGAP1 proteins from the second group were selected as candidate proteins in connection with the effect of Tamoxifen on the EMT pathway. We evaluated Tamoxifen's effect on the EMT pathway more accurately. However, for a closer look at Tamoxifen, more studies need to be done on target genes and proteins to clarify their role.

STAT3 Signaling in Breast Cancer: Multicellular Actions and Therapeutic Potential

Simple Summary

Many signaling pathways are overactive in breast cancer, and among them is the STAT3 signaling pathway. STAT3 is activated by secreted factors within the breast tumor, many of which are elevated and correlate to advanced disease and poor survival outcomes. This review examines how STAT3 signaling is activated in breast cancer by the proinflammatory, gp130 cytokines, interleukins 6 and 11. We evaluate how this signaling cascade functions in the various cells of the tumor microenvironment to drive disease progression and metastasis. We discuss how our understanding of these processes may lead to the development of novel therapeutics to tackle advanced disease.

Abstract

Interleukin (IL)-6 family cytokines, such as IL-6 and IL-11, are defined by the shared use of the gp130 receptor for the downstream activation of STAT3 signaling and the activation of genes which contribute to the “hallmarks of cancer”, including proliferation, survival, invasion and metastasis. Increased expression of these cytokines, or the ligand-specific receptors IL-6R and IL-11RA, in breast tumors positively correlate to disease progression and poorer patient outcome. In this review, we examine evidence from pre-clinical studies that correlate enhanced IL-6 and IL-11 mediated gp130/STAT3 signaling to the progression of breast cancer. Key processes by which the IL-6 family cytokines contribute to the heterogeneous nature of breast cancer, immune evasion and metastatic potential, are discussed. We examine the latest research into the therapeutic targeting of IL-6 family cytokines that inhibit STAT3 transcriptional activity as a potential breast cancer treatment, including current clinical trials. The importance of the IL-6 family of cytokines in cellular processes that promote the development and progression of breast cancer warrants further understanding of the molecular basis for its actions to help guide the development of future therapeutic targets.

Inhibition of miR-483-5p improves the proliferation, invasion and inflammatory response of triple-negative breast cancer cells by targeting SOCS3

microRNAs (miRs) have been indicated to serve oncogenic or tumor suppressor roles. However, the role of miR-483-5p in breast cancer and its associated molecular mechanisms remain unclear. In the present study, compared with adjacent normal tissues and MCF-10a cells, the expression level of miR-483-5p was upregulated in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) tissues and TNBC cell lines. Bioinformatic analysis and luciferase reporter assay confirmed the presence of miR-483-5p binding sites in the 3'-untranslated region of suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 (SOCS3). In addition, the expression level of SOCS3 protein in TNBC tissues was markedly lower compared with in adjacent tissues, and miR-483-5p expression was negatively correlated with SOCS3 expression in TNBC tissues. Cell proliferation and flow cytometry assays indicated that knockdown of miR-483-5p inhibited the proliferation and promoted apoptosis in the TNBC cell line BT-549. This effect was markedly attenuated by SOCS3 small interfering (si)RNA transfection. Additionally, wound healing and Transwell assays demonstrated that SOCS3 siRNA reversed the inhibitory effects of miR-483-5p inhibitor on the migration and invasion of BT-549 cells. Moreover, the decrease in miR-483-5p expression significantly reduced the secretion of TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 in BT-549 cells, while SOCS3 siRNA could partially reverse this effect. Additionally, SOCS3 overexpression reversed the effects of miR-483-5p mimic on the proliferation, migration, invasion and inflammation of BT-549 cells. Taken together, these data demonstrated that the inhibition of miR-483-5p could inhibit the proliferation, migration, invasion and inflammatory response, while promoting the apoptosis of TNBC cells by negatively regulating SOCS3. miR-483-5p may be a potential target for TNBC therapy.

Circular RNAs Interaction with MiRNAs: Emerging Roles in Breast Cancer

Despite significant advances in cancer therapy strategies, breast cancer is one of the most common and lethal malignancies worldwide. Characterization of a new class of RNAs using next-generation sequencing opened new doors toward uncovering etiopathogenesis mechanisms of breast cancer as well as prognostic and diagnostic biomarkers. Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are a novel class of RNA with covalently closed and highly stable structures generated primarily from the back-splicing of precursor mRNAs. Although circRNAs exert their function through various mechanisms, acting as a sponge for miRNAs is their primary mechanism of function. Furthermore, growing evidence has shown that aberrant expression of circRNAs is involved in the various hallmarks of cancers. This paper reviews the biogenesis, characteristics, and mechanism of functions of circRNAs and their deregulation in various cancers. Finally, we focused on the circRNAs roles as a sponge for miRNAs in the development, metastasis, angiogenesis, drug resistance, apoptosis, and immune responses of breast cancer.

Role of inflammatory microenvironment: potential implications for improved breast cancer nano-targeted therapy

Tumor cells, inflammatory cells and chemical factors work together to mediate complex signaling networks, which forms inflammatory tumor microenvironment (TME). The development of breast cancer is closely related to the functional activities of TME. This review introduces the origins of cancer-related chronic inflammation and the main constituents of inflammatory microenvironment. Inflammatory microenvironment plays an important role in breast cancer growth, metastasis, drug resistance and angiogenesis through multifactorial mechanisms. It is suggested that inflammatory microenvironment contributes to providing possible mechanisms of drug action and modes of drug transport for anti-cancer treatment. Nano-drug delivery system (NDDS) becomes a popular topic for optimizing the design of tumor targeting drugs. It is seen that with the development of therapeutic approaches, NDDS can be used to achieve drug-targeted delivery well across the biological barriers and into cells, resulting in superior bioavailability, drug dose reduction as well as off-target side effect elimination. This paper focuses on the review of modulation mechanisms of inflammatory microenvironment and combination with nano-targeted therapeutic strategies, providing a comprehensive basis for further research on breast cancer prevention and control.

Cancer subtype classification and modeling by pathway attention and propagation

MOTIVATION

Biological pathway is an important curated knowledge of biological processes. Thus, cancer subtype classification based on pathways will be very useful to understand differences in biological mechanisms among cancer subtypes. However, pathways include only a fraction of the entire gene set, only one-third of human genes in KEGG, and pathways are fragmented. For this reason, there are few computational methods to use pathways for cancer subtype classification.

RESULTS

We present an explainable deep-learning model with attention mechanism and network propagation for cancer subtype classification. Each pathway is modeled by a graph convolutional network. Then, a multi-attention-based ensemble model combines several hundreds of pathways in an explainable manner. Lastly, network propagation on pathway-gene network explains why gene expression profiles in subtypes are different. In experiments with five TCGA cancer datasets, our method achieved very good classification accuracies and, additionally, identified subtype-specific pathways and biological functions.

AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION

The source code is available at http://biohealth.snu.ac.kr/software/GCN_MAE.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

Differential kynurenine pathway metabolism in highly metastatic aggressive breast cancer subtypes: beyond IDO1-induced immunosuppression

Background

Immunotherapy has recently been proposed as a promising treatment to stop breast cancer (BrCa) progression and metastasis. However, there has been limited success in the treatment of BrCa with immune checkpoint inhibitors. This implies that BrCa tumors have other mechanisms to escape immune surveillance. While the kynurenine pathway (KP) is known to be a key player mediating tumor immune evasion and while there are several studies on the roles of the KP in cancer, little is known about KP involvement in BrCa.

Methods

To understand how KP is regulated in BrCa, we examined the KP profile in BrCa cell lines and clinical samples (n = 1997) that represent major subtypes of BrCa (luminal, HER2-enriched, and triple-negative (TN)). We carried out qPCR, western blot/immunohistochemistry, and ultra-high pressure liquid chromatography on these samples to quantify the KP enzyme gene, protein, and activity, respectively.

Results

We revealed that the KP is highly dysregulated in the HER2-enriched and TN BrCa subtype. Gene, protein expression, and KP metabolomic profiling have shown that the downstream KP enzymes KMO and KYNU are highly upregulated in the HER2-enriched and TN BrCa subtypes, leading to increased production of the potent immunosuppressive metabolites anthranilic acid (AA) and 3-hydroxylanthranilic acid (3HAA).

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that KMO and KYNU inhibitors may represent new promising therapeutic targets for BrCa. We also showed that KP metabolite profiling can be used as an accurate biomarker for BrCa subtyping, as we successfully discriminated TN BrCa from other BrCa subtypes.

Combined p53- and PTEN-deficiency activates expression of mesenchyme homeobox 1 (MEOX1) required for growth of triple-negative breast cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an aggressive cancer subtype for which effective therapies are unavailable. TNBC has a high frequency of tumor protein p53 (Tp53/p53)- and phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) deficiencies, and combined p53- and PTEN-deficiency is associated with poor prognosis and poor response to anticancer therapies. In this study, we discovered that combined p53- and PTEN-deficiency in TNBC activates expression of the transcription factor mesenchyme homeobox 1 (MEOX1). We found that MEOX1 is expressed only in TNBC cells with frequent deficiencies in p53 and PTEN, and that its expression is undetectable in luminal A, luminal B, and HER2+ subtypes, as well as in normal breast cells with wild-type (WT) p53 and PTEN. Notably, siRNA knockdown of both p53 and PTEN activated MEOX1 expression in breast cancer cells, whereas individual knockdowns of either p53 or PTEN had only minimal effects on MEOX1 expression. MEOX1 knockdown abolished cell proliferation of p53- and PTEN-deficient TNBC in vitro and inhibited tumor growth in vivo, but had no effect on the proliferation of luminal and HER2+ cancer cells and normal breast cells. RNA-Seq and immunoblotting analyses showed that MEOX1 knockdown decreased expression of tyrosine kinase 2 (TYK2), signal transducer and activator of transcription 5B (STAT5B), and STAT6 in p53- and PTEN-deficient TNBC cells. These results reveal the effects of combined p53- and PTEN-deficiency on MEOX1 expression and TNBC cell proliferation, suggesting that MEOX1 may serve as a potential therapeutic target for managing p53- and PTEN-deficient TNBC.

Chimeric Peptidomimetics of SOCS 3 Able to Interact with JAK2 as Anti-inflammatory Compounds

The immunomodulatory effects of Suppressor of Cytokine Signaling (SOCS) proteins, that control the JAK/STAT pathway, indicate them as attractive candidates for immunotherapies. Recombinant SOCS3 protein suppresses the effects of inflammation, and its deletion in neurons or in immune cells increases pathological blood vessels growth. Recently, on the basis of the structure of the ternary complex among SOCS3, JAK2, and gp130, we focused on SOCS3 interfacing regions and designed several interfering peptides (IPs) that were able to mimic SOCS3 biological role in triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) models. Herein, to explore other protein regions involved in JAK2 recognition, several new chimeric peptides connecting noncontiguous SOCS3 regions and including a strongly aromatic fragment were investigated. Their ability to recognize the catalytic domain of JAK2 was evaluated through MST (microscale thermophoresis), and the most promising compound, named KIRCONG chim, exhibited a low micromolar value for dissociation constant. The conformational features of chimeric peptides were analyzed through circular dichroism and NMR spectroscopies, and their anti-inflammatory effects were assessed in cell cultures. Overall data suggest the importance of aromatic contribution in the recognition of JAK2 and that SOCS3 peptidomimetics could be endowed with a therapeutic potential in diseases with activated inflammatory cytokines.

CDYL2 Epigenetically Regulates MIR124 to Control NF-κB/STAT3-Dependent Breast Cancer Cell Plasticity

Epigenetic deregulation of gene transcription is central to cancer cell plasticity and malignant progression but remains poorly understood. We found that the uncharacterized epigenetic factor chromodomain on Y-like 2 (CDYL2) is commonly over-expressed in breast cancer, and that high CDYL2 levels correlate with poor prognosis. Supporting a functional role for CDYL2 in malignancy, it positively regulated breast cancer cell migration, invasion, stem-like phenotypes, and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition. CDYL2 regulation of these plasticity-associated processes depended on signaling via p65/NF-κB and STAT3. This, in turn, was downstream of CDYL2 regulation of MIR124 gene transcription. CDYL2 co-immunoprecipitated with G9a/EHMT2 and GLP/EHMT1 and regulated the chromatin enrichment of G9a and EZH2 at MIR124 genes. We propose that CDYL2 contributes to poor prognosis in breast cancer by recruiting G9a and EZH2 to epigenetically repress MIR124 genes, thereby promoting NF-κB and STAT3 signaling, as well as downstream cancer cell plasticity and malignant progression.

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Up-regulation of CDYL2 is common in breast cancer and correlates with poor prognosis

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CDYL2 regulates enrichment of methyltransferases G9a and EZH2 at MIR124 genes

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microRNA-124 regulation by CDYL2 impacts STAT3 and NF-κB signaling

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CDYL2 regulation of EMT, migration, invasion, and stemness is STAT3/NF-κB dependent

SOCS3 protects against neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis via suppressing NLRP3 and AIM2 inflammasome activation and p65 nuclear translocation

BACKGROUND

Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is an acquired disorder of mucosal damage characterized by the diffuse or local necrosis of the intestine. The suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 (SOCS3) has been demonstrated to possess anti-inflammatory action in gastritis, ulcerative colitis and other inflammatory diseases. The present study aims to explore the effects of SOCS3 on LPS-induced colonic cell model of NEC, and investigate the underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

Expression of SOCS3 in tissue samples of NEC and LPS-induced enterocytes were evaluated by real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR). Western blotting and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) were applied to examine the effect of SOCS3 on inflammatory molecules. Co-immunoprecipitation assay were devoted to explore the relation between SOCS3 and TLR4.

RESULTS

We proved that SOCS3 was expressed at a low level in tissue samples of NEC and LPS-induced enterocytes, and LPS inhibited SOCS3 expression via JAK2/STAT3 pathway. Overexpression of SOCS3 weaken the LPS-induced inflammatory response in FHC and CACO2 cells. Moreover, SOCS3 downregulates proinflammatory cytokines by targeting TLR4, thus mediating the p65 nuclear translocation, and the activation of NLR family pyrin domain containing 3/absent in melanoma-2 (NLRP3/AIM2) inflammasome, ultimately reveals its anti-inflammatory effects.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, our data revealed that LPS inhibited SOCS3 expression via JAK2/STAT3 pathway, and SOCS3 protects enterocytes against NEC through mediating p65 nuclear translocation and NLRP3/AIM2 inflammasome activation in a TLR4 dependent manner.

The long non-coding RNA DANCR regulates the inflammatory phenotype of breast cancer cells and promotes breast cancer progression via EZH2-dependent suppression of SOCS3 transcription

Long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) is involved in the regulation of tumorigenesis and metastasis. In this study, we focused on the clinical relevance, biological effects, and molecular mechanisms of the lncRNA differentiation antagonizing non-protein coding RNA (DANCR) in breast cancer. We compared the expression of DANCR between breast cancer and normal tissues, and between breast cancer cell lines and normal breast epithelial cells using quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis. By knocking down and overexpressing DANCR, we assessed its significance in regulating viability (MTT assay), migration/invasion (Transwell assay), epithelial-mesenchymal transition (western blot), stemness (mammosphere formation assay and western blot), and production of inflammatory cytokines (qRT-PCR and ELISA) of breast cancer cells in vitro, as well as xenograft growth in vivo. Furthermore, using ChIP and RNA immunoprecipitation, we examined the reciprocal regulation between DANCR and suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 (SOCS3) in breast cancer. DANCR was significantly up-regulated in tissue samples from patients with breast cancer, as well as in breast cancer cell lines, as compared with normal tissues and breast epithelial cells, respectively. The highest DANCR expression levels were associated with advanced tumor grades or lymph node metastasis. DANCR was necessary and sufficient to control multiple malignant phenotypes of breast cancer cells in vitro and xenograft growth in vivo. Mechanistically, DANCR promoted the binding of enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) to the promoter of SOCS3, thereby epigenetically inhibiting SOCS3 expression. Functionally, SOCS3 up-regulation or EZH2 inhibition could rescue multiple malignant phenotypes induced by DANCR. Our data indicate that DANCR is a pleiotropic oncogenic lncRNA in breast cancer. Boosting SOCS3 expression may reverse the oncogenic activities of DANCR and thus provide a therapeutic strategy for breast cancer treatment.

CD155 contributes to the mesenchymal phenotype of triple-negative breast cancer

Patients with triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) lack molecular targets and have an unfavorable outcome. CD155 is overexpressed in human cancers, but whether it plays a role in TNBC is unexplored. Here we found that CD155 was enriched in both TNBC cell lines and tumor tissues. High CD155 expression was related to poor prognosis of breast cancer patients. CD155 was associated with a mesenchymal phenotype. CD155 knockdown induced a mesenchymal-epithelial transition in TNBC cells, and suppressed TNBC cell migration, invasion and metastasis in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistically, CD155 cross-talked with oncogenic IL-6/Stat3 and TGF-β/Smad3 pathways. Moreover, CD155 knockdown inhibited TNBC cell growth and survival. Taken together, these data indicate that CD155 contributes to the aggressive behavior of TNBC; targeting CD155 may be beneficial to these patients.

On the Neuroprotective Effects of Naringenin: Pharmacological Targets, Signaling Pathways, Molecular Mechanisms, and Clinical Perspective

As a group of progressive, chronic, and disabling disorders, neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) affect millions of people worldwide, and are on the rise. NDs are known as the gradual loss of neurons; however, their pathophysiological mechanisms have not been precisely revealed. Due to the complex pathophysiological mechanisms behind the neurodegeneration, investigating effective and multi-target treatments has remained a clinical challenge. Besides, appropriate neuroprotective agents are still lacking, which raises the need for new therapeutic agents. In recent years, several reports have introduced naturally-derived compounds as promising alternative treatments for NDs. Among natural entities, flavonoids are multi-target alternatives affecting different pathogenesis mechanisms in neurodegeneration. Naringenin is a natural flavonoid possessing neuroprotective activities. Increasing evidence has attained special attention on the variety of therapeutic targets along with complex signaling pathways for naringenin, which suggest its possible therapeutic applications in several NDs. Here, in this review, the neuroprotective effects of naringenin, as well as its related pharmacological targets, signaling pathways, molecular mechanisms, and clinical perspective, are described. Moreover, the need to develop novel naringenin delivery systems is also discussed to solve its widespread pharmacokinetic limitation.

Novel and Alternative Targets Against Breast Cancer Stemness to Combat Chemoresistance

Breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs) play a vital role in tumor progression and metastasis. They are heterogeneous and inherently radio- and chemoresistant. They have the ability to self-renew and differentiate into non-BCSCs. These determinants of BCSCs including the plasticity between the mesenchymal and epithelial phenotypes often leads to minimal residual disease (MRD), tumor relapse, and therapy failure. By studying the resistance mechanisms in BCSCs, a combinatorial therapy can be formulated to co-target BCSCs and bulk tumor cells. This review addresses breast cancer stemness and molecular underpinnings of how the cancer stemness can lead to pharmacological resistance. This might occur through rewiring of signaling pathways and modulated expression of various targets that support survival and self-renewal, clonogenicity, and multi-lineage differentiation into heterogeneous bulk tumor cells following chemotherapy. We explore emerging novel and alternative molecular targets against BC stemness and chemoresistance involving survival, drug efflux, metabolism, proliferation, cell migration, invasion, and metastasis. Strategic targeting of such vulnerabilities in BCSCs may overcome the chemoresistance and increase the longevity of the metastatic breast cancer patients.

Epigenetic Regulation of Inflammatory Cytokine-Induced Epithelial-To-Mesenchymal Cell Transition and Cancer Stem Cell Generation

The neoplastic transformation of normal to metastatic cancer cells is a complex multistep process involving the progressive accumulation of interacting genetic and epigenetic changes that alter gene function and affect cell physiology and homeostasis. Epigenetic changes including DNA methylation, histone modifications and changes in noncoding RNA expression, and deregulation of epigenetic processes can alter gene expression during the multistep process of carcinogenesis. Cancer progression and metastasis through an ‘invasion–metastasis cascade’ involving an epithelial-to-mesenchymal cell transition (EMT), the generation of cancer stem cells (CSCs), invasion of adjacent tissues, and dissemination are fueled by inflammation, which is considered a hallmark of cancer. Chronic inflammation is generated by inflammatory cytokines secreted by the tumor and the tumor-associated cells within the tumor microenvironment. Inflammatory cytokine signaling initiates signaling pathways leading to the activation of master transcription factors (TFs) such as Smads, STAT3, and NF-κB. Moreover, the same inflammatory responses also activate EMT-inducing TF (EMT-TF) families such as Snail, Twist, and Zeb, and epigenetic regulators including DNA and histone modifying enzymes and micoRNAs, through complex interconnected positive and negative feedback loops to regulate EMT and CSC generation. Here, we review the molecular regulatory feedback loops and networks involved in inflammatory cytokine-induced EMT and CSC generation.

Haplotype and linkage disequilibrium of TP53-WRAP53 locus in Iranian-Azeri women with breast cancer

Among the cancer susceptibility genes, TP53 is one of the crucial genes involved in cell cycle regulations and, therefore, it greatly affects breast cancer initiation and progression. In addition, WRAP53—a natural antisense transcript—regulates TP53 transcription and, as a protein, modulates the normal cell cycle, which results in breast cancer susceptibility. In this study, we aimed to analyze a haplotype comprising four SNPs, including rs1042522, rs17878362, rs2287499, and rs2287498, which are located at 5′ regions of the TP53 and WRAP53 genes, in 118 patients and 110 healthy controls of the Iranian-Azeri population. In silico studies were conducted using the SIFT, Polyphen2, Fanthmm, RNAsnp, and SNP&GO online servers. Linkage disequilibrium (LD) and D′ for each combination of the markers were calculated via the Haploview program. Our results showed that the GA₁CC haplotype was the most frequent in the studied population. Additionally, no significant LD between any pairwise haplotypes was observed. The GA₁CC and CA₂GC haplotypes were significantly associated with breast cancer susceptibility. Moreover, the in silico analysis revealed the negative effects of rs2287499 and rs1042522 on WRAP53 and P53, respectively. In conclusion, the CA₁GC haplotype was strongly identified as a breast cancer risk factor, and the GA₁CC haplotype was assumed to be a protective factor against breast cancer risk. Hence, these markers may potentially be used as molecular prognostic and predictive biomarkers for breast cancer.

Mapping the protein-protein and genetic interactions of cancer to guide precision medicine

Massive efforts to sequence cancer genomes have compiled an impressive catalogue of cancer mutations, revealing the recurrent exploitation of a handful of 'hallmark cancer pathways'. However, unraveling how sets of mutated proteins in these and other pathways hijack pro-proliferative signaling networks and dictate therapeutic responsiveness remains challenging. Here, we show that cancer driver protein-protein interactions are enriched for additional cancer drivers, highlighting the power of physical interaction maps to explain known, as well as uncover new, disease-promoting pathway interrelationships. We hypothesize that by systematically mapping the protein-protein and genetic interactions in cancer-thereby creating Cancer Cell Maps-we will create resources against which to contextualize a patient's mutations into perturbed pathways/complexes and thereby specify a matching targeted therapeutic cocktail.

Formaldehyde induces the apoptosis of BMCs of BALB/c mice via the PTEN/PI3K/Akt signal transduction pathway

The International Agency for Research on Cancer has classified formaldehyde (FA) as a leukemogen to humans in 2012; however, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on chromosome 10 (PTEN) is a tumor‑suppressor gene and can negatively regulate the phosphoinositide 3‑kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt) signal transduction pathway, which is associated with cell proliferation, apoptosis and carcinogenesis. To determine the association between FA and the PTEN/PI3K/Akt signal transduction pathway, flow cytometry, reverse transcription‑quantitative polymerase chain reaction, western blotting and immunohistochemical analysis were conducted. Bone marrow cells were obtained from BALB/c mice, divided into the control (untreated cells) and FA groups, which were treated with various doses of FA (50, 100 and 200 µmol/l). Following treatment with FA for 24 h, cell viability, the cell cycle, apoptosis, and the expression of PTEN, PI3K and Akt, as well as the protein expression of B‑cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl‑2), Bcl‑2‑associated X (Bax), and Caspases‑3 and ‑9 were examined. Furthermore, 10 µmol/PI3K inhibitor (LY294002) was applied to inhibit the PTEN/PI3K/Akt signal transduction pathway and 100 µmol/l FA was selected for treatment; alteration in the cell cycle were analyzed. The results demonstrated that FA could suppress cell viability, and downregulate PTEN and Bcl‑2; the expression of PI3K, Akt, Bax, and Caspases‑3 and ‑9 were upregulated. Additionally, FA was reported to induce cell cycle arrest at the G0/G1 phase and apoptosis. Following the application of LY294002 to inhibit the PTEN/PI3K/Akt signal transduction pathway, the numbers of cells arrested in the G0/G1 phase were significantly increased in the PI3K inhibitor group compared with the control (P<0.01); however, no significant change in the number of G0/G1 cells compared with FA group was observed (P>0.05). The results of the present study suggested that the PTEN/PI3K/Akt signal transduction pathway served an important role in the process of FA‑induced apoptosis, which may be associated with regulating the cell cycle; thus, cell proliferation may be affected.

Concurrent TP53 mutations predict poor outcomes of EGFR-TKI treatments in Chinese patients with advanced NSCLC

Purpose: The study investigated the impact of TP53 mutations on the clinical efficacy of first-generation EGFR-tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) in Chinese patients with advanced or recurrent non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC).

Patients and methods: Tissues from 163 NSCLC patients at the Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University were analyzed by next-generation sequencing (NGS) to determine the mutational status of EGFR and concurrent genetic alterations. TP53 mutations were evaluated in relation to baseline patient characteristics and treatment outcomes (progression-free survival [PFS], overall survival [OS], objective response rate [ORR] and disease control rate [DCR]).

Results: Among 163 patients with advanced NSCLC, 77 were identified as EGFR-mutant (47.2%). Six patients who did not receive TKI treatment were excluded. Among the remaining 71 patients with EGFR genetic alterations, the frequency of pathogenic TP53 mutations was 60.6% (43/71), while other concurrent mutations were rare events. Markedly shorter median PFS (mPFS) (6.5 versus 14.0 months, P=0.025) and median OS (mOS) (28.0 versus 52.0 months, P=0.023) were observed in TP53-mut patients than in TP53-wt controls. The overall DCR and ORR of TP53-mutant patients were both lower than those of the TP53-wt cases (DCR: 76.7% versus 89.3%, P=0.160; ORR: 25% versus 28%, P=0.374). Differences in prognosis were significant, especially in the subgroup of patients with TP53 non-missense mutations, non-disruptive mutations, mutations in exon 6, mutations in exon 7 and mutations in the non-DBD region among all TP53 mutations.

Conclusion: TP53 mutations reduce responsiveness to TKIs and worsen the prognosis of EGFR-mutant NSCLC patients, especially for those with non-missense mutations and non-disruptive mutations, as well as mutations in exon 6, exon 7 and non-DBD region, thus acting as an independent predictor of poor outcome in advanced NSCLC patients treated with first-generation TKI therapy. Our study also suggests that TP53 mutation might be involved in primary resistance to EGFR-TKIs in Chinese NSCLC patients.

Znhit1 inhibits breast cancer by up-regulating PTEN to deactivate the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway

AIMS

Breast cancer (BC) is the most frequently diagnosed cancer, ranking sixth as the cause of death among females in China. Zinc finger HIT-type containing 1 (Znhit1) is a pivotal factor for inhibition of gene mutation and cell proliferation. Due to the unknown function of Znhit1 in cancers, we aimed to explore the role of Znhit1 in BC as well as the underlying mechanisms.

MAIN METHODS

Znhit1 expression in clinical specimens and cell lines of BC was measured by quantitative reverse transcription PCR and Western blot analysis. Then, the effects of Znhit1 overexpression on cell proliferation, apoptosis and invasion of BC cells as well as in vivo tumor growth were assessed. The interactions among Znhit1, PTEN and the downstream PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway were evaluated by Western blot analysis. Finally, the role of Znhit1 in prognosis was analyzed in clinical specimens.

KEY FINDINGS

Znhit1 was down-regulated in BC cell lines and clinical specimens. Znhit1 overexpression induced apoptosis and repressed proliferation and invasion of BC cells. Moreover, Znhit1 overexpression induced cell cycle arrest at G0/G1 stage. In vivo data showed that Znhit1 overexpression inhibited BC tumor growth in mice. Further experiments showed Znhit1 affected BC through up-regulating PTEN, along with inactivation of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway. We finally proved that high expression of Znhit1 indicated improved prognosis.

SIGNIFICANCE

Znhit1 overexpression inhibited BC tumorigenesis possibly through PTEN-mediated inactivation of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway. Additionally, high expression of Znhit1 indicated improved prognosis.

RAI3 is overexpressed in gastric adenocarcinoma but unrelated to prognosis

PURPOSE

Retinoic acid-induced gene 3 (RAI3) has been associated with tumorigeneses in several cancer types. To clarify the clinical significance of RAI3 expression in premalignant and malignant gastric epithelium, RAI3 protein expression was assessed by immunohistochemistry on tissue microarrays (TMAs) containing 140 gastric dysplasia and 230 GC samples.

FINDINGS

RAI3 protein expression was predominantly localized in the cell membrane and was detectable in low intensities in most of the benign gastric tissue samples. RAI3 expression was found in increased intensities in premalignant and malignant epithelium relative to non-malignant gastric epithelium (P < 0.0001). High RAI3 expression was found in 66.2% of interpretable gastric adenocarcinomas and was associated with advanced pathological tumor stage (P = 0.0014) and positive lymph node status (P = 0.0137) but was unrelated to overall survival of patients (P = 0.3743).

CONCLUSION

The deregulation of RAI3 in premalignant and gastric epithelium suggests a relevant role of RAI3 during gastric carcinogenesis. Additionally, RAI3 overexpression defines a subset of GCs with aggressive tumor features. However, since RAI3 expression was not associated with clinical outcome of patients, RAI3 cannot be considered as a prognostic biomarker in patients with GCs.

Novel and Alternative Targets Against Breast Cancer Stemness to Combat Chemoresistance

Breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs) play a vital role in tumor progression and metastasis. They are heterogeneous and inherently radio- and chemoresistant. They have the ability to self-renew and differentiate into non-BCSCs. These determinants of BCSCs including the plasticity between the mesenchymal and epithelial phenotypes often leads to minimal residual disease (MRD), tumor relapse, and therapy failure. By studying the resistance mechanisms in BCSCs, a combinatorial therapy can be formulated to co-target BCSCs and bulk tumor cells. This review addresses breast cancer stemness and molecular underpinnings of how the cancer stemness can lead to pharmacological resistance. This might occur through rewiring of signaling pathways and modulated expression of various targets that support survival and self-renewal, clonogenicity, and multi-lineage differentiation into heterogeneous bulk tumor cells following chemotherapy. We explore emerging novel and alternative molecular targets against BC stemness and chemoresistance involving survival, drug efflux, metabolism, proliferation, cell migration, invasion, and metastasis. Strategic targeting of such vulnerabilities in BCSCs may overcome the chemoresistance and increase the longevity of the metastatic breast cancer patients.

Peptides as Therapeutic Agents for Inflammatory-Related Diseases

Inflammation is a physiological mechanism used by organisms to defend themselves against infection, restoring homeostasis in damaged tissues. It represents the starting point of several chronic diseases such as asthma, skin disorders, cancer, cardiovascular syndrome, arthritis, and neurological diseases. An increasing number of studies highlight the over-expression of inflammatory molecules such as oxidants, cytokines, chemokines, matrix metalloproteinases, and transcription factors into damaged tissues. The treatment of inflammatory disorders is usually linked to the use of unspecific small molecule drugs that can cause undesired side effects. Recently, many efforts are directed to develop alternative and more selective anti-inflammatory therapies, several of them imply the use of peptides. Indeed, peptides demonstrated as elected lead compounds toward several targets for their high specificity as well as recent and innovative synthetic strategies. Several endogenous peptides identified during inflammatory responses showed anti-inflammatory activities by inhibiting, reducing, and/or modulating the expression and activity of mediators. This review aims to discuss the potentialities and therapeutic use of peptides as anti-inflammatory agents in the treatment of different inflammation-related diseases and to explore the importance of peptide-based therapies.

The pleiotropic effects of TNFα in breast cancer subtypes is regulated by TNFAIP3/A20

TNFα is a pleiotropic cytokine which fuels tumor cell growth, invasion, and metastasis in some malignancies, while in others it induces cytotoxic cell death. However, the molecular mechanism by which TNFα exerts its diverse effects on breast cancer subtypes remains elusive. Using in vitro assays and mouse xenografts, we show here that TNFα contributes to the aggressive properties of triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) cell lines via upregulation of TNFAIP3(A20). In a striking contrast, TNFα induces a potent cytotoxic cell death in luminal (ER+) breast cancer cell lines which fail to upregulate A20 expression. Overexpression of A20 not only protects luminal breast cancer cell lines from TNFα-induced cell death via inducing HSP70-mediated anti-apoptotic pathway but also promotes a robust EMT/CSC phenotype by activating the pStat3-mediated inflammatory signaling. Furthermore, A20 overexpression in luminal breast cancer cells induces aggressive metastatic properties in mouse xenografts via generating a permissive inflammatory microenvironment constituted by granulocytic-MDSCs. Collectively, our results reveal a mechanism by which A20 mediates pleiotropic effects of TNFα playing role in aggressive behaviors of TNBC subtype while its deficiency results in TNFα-induced apoptotic cell death in luminal breast cancer subtype.

Underlying Causes and Therapeutic Targeting of the Inflammatory Tumor Microenvironment

Historically, the link between chronic inflammation and cancer has long been speculated. Only more recently, pre-clinical and epidemiologic data as well as clinical evidence all point to the role of the tumor microenvironment as inextricably connected to the neoplastic process. The tumor microenvironment (TME), a complex mix of vasculature, inflammatory cells, and stromal cells is the essential "soil" helping to modulate tumor potential. Increasingly, evidence suggests that chronic inflammation modifies the tumor microenvironment, via a host of mechanisms, including the production of cytokines, pro-inflammatory mediators, angiogenesis, and tissue remodeling. Inflammation can be triggered by a variety of different pressures, such as carcinogen exposure, immune dysfunction, dietary habits, and obesity, as well as genetic alterations leading to oncogene activation or loss of tumor suppressors. In this review, we examine the concept of the tumor microenvironment as related to both extrinsic and intrinsic stimuli that promote chronic inflammation and in turn tumorigenesis. Understanding the common pathways inherent in an inflammatory response and the tumor microenvironment may shed light on new therapies for both primary and metastatic disease. The concept of personalized medicine has pushed the field of oncology to drill down on the genetic changes of a cancer, in the hopes of identifying individually targeted agents. Given the complexities of the tumor microenvironment, it is clear that effective oncologic therapies will necessitate targeting not only the cancer cells, but their dynamic relationship to the tumor microenvironment as well.

Tumor SOCS3 methylation status predicts the treatment response to TACE and prognosis in HCC patients

BACKGROUND

Suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS) 1 and 3 methylation have been associated with clinical features and outcomes of cancer patients. However, their roles in determining the treatment response to transarterial chemoembolization (TACE) in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remain unknown.

RESULTS

We found that presence of SOCS3 methylation is significantly associated with the major clinical features of HCC patients, including tumor stage, lymph node and vascular invasion. Of note, we observed that the presence of SOCS3 methylation is closely related to TACE response. In prognosis analyses, HCC patients with SOCS3 methylation presence have a poorer prognosis indicated by lower 3-, and 5-year survival rates and shorter mean survival period, than those without. Multivariate COX analysis confirms the prognostic role of the presence of SOCS3 methylation in HCC patients receiving TACE treatment.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 246 HCC patients receiving TACE were enrolled in this study. Tumor samples was obtained from echo-guided fine needle aspiration and genomic DNA from tumor samples was purified. SOCS1 and SOCS3 methylation status were detected using methylation-specific polymerase chain reaction. The treatment responses to TACE of patients were evaluated after procedure and all patients were followed for prognosis analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

This finding suggests that the presence of SOCS3 methylation is a marker to predict treatment response and prognosis in HCC patients receiving TACE therapy.

Anti-miR-203 suppresses ER-positive breast cancer growth and stemness by targeting SOCS3

Breast cancer is a major public health problem worldwide in women and existing treatments are not adequately effective for this deadly disease. microRNAs (miRNAs) regulate the expression of many target genes and play pivotal roles in the development, as well as in the suppression of many cancers including breast cancer. We previously observed that miR-203 was highly upregulated in breast cancer tissues and in ER-positive breast cancer cell lines. In our present study, we observed that anti-miR-203 suppresses breast cancer cell proliferation in vitro. Orthotopic implantation of miR-203 depleted MCF-7 cells into nude mice displays smaller tumor growth as compared to control MCF-7 cells. Furthermore, miR-203 expression is significantly higher in ER-positive breast cancer patients as compared to ER-negative patients. We identified suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 (SOCS3) as a direct target of miR-203. Here we observed that miR-203 expression is inversely correlated with SOCS3 expression in ER-positive breast cancer samples. Additionally, we found that anti-miR-203 suppressed the expression of pStat3, pERK and c-Myc in MCF-7 and ZR-75-1 cells. We also demonstrated that anti-miR-203 decreased mammospheres formation and expression of stem cell markers in MCF-7 and ZR-75-1 cells. Taken together, our data suggest that anti-miR-203 has potential as a novel therapeutic strategy in ER-positive breast cancer treatment.

Novel cancer stem cell targets during epithelial to mesenchymal transition in PTEN-deficient trastuzumab-resistant breast cancer

Continued use of trastuzumab in PTEN-deficient HER2+ breast cancer induces the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), transforms HER2+ to triple negative breast cancer, and expands breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs). Using cancer cell lines with two distinct states, epithelial and mesenchymal, we identified novel targets during EMT in PTEN-deficient trastuzumab-resistant breast cancer. Differential gene expression and distinct responses to a small molecule in BT474 (HER2+ trastuzumab-sensitive) and the PTEN-deficient trastuzumab-resistant derivative (BT474-PTEN-LTT) provided the selection tools to identify targets during EMT. siRNA knockdown and small molecule inhibition confirmed MEOX1 as one of the critical molecular targets to regulate both BCSCs and mesenchymal-like cell proliferation. MEOX1 was associated with poor survival, lymph node metastasis, and stage of breast cancer patients. These findings suggest that MEOX1 is a clinically relevant novel target in BCSCs and mesenchymal-like cancer cells in PTEN-deficient trastuzumab resistant breast cancer and may serve as target for future drug development.

A transcriptomic insight into the impacts of mast cells in lung, breast, and colon cancers

To date, the exact impact of mast cells in tumor microenvironment is still controversial because of inconsistency in observations regarding the relationship between mast cell infiltrates and cancer development and prognosis. The discrepancies in previous studies have motivated us to examine the roles of mast cells in cancer pathology from different perspectives. Here, we investigated the impact of mast cells on transcriptomic profiles in the tissue microenvironment. Mice carrying the W-sh mutation in c-kit (Kit^W-sh ) are deficient in mast cell production and were used to assess the influence of mast cells on gene expression. By examining the transcriptomic profile among wild-type mice, Kit^W-sh mice, and Kit^W-sh mice with mast cell engraftment, we identified a list of "mast cell-dependent genes," which are enriched for cancer-related pathways. Utilizing whole-genome gene expression data from both mouse models and human cancer patients, we demonstrated that the expression profile of the mast cell-dependent genes differs between tumor and normal tissues from lung, breast, and colon, respectively. Mast cell infiltration is potentially increased in tumors compared with normal tissues, suggesting that mast cells might participate in tumor development. Accordingly, a prognostic molecular signature was developed based on the mast cell-dependent genes, which predicted recurrence-free survival for human patients with lung, breast, and colon cancers, respectively. Our study provides a novel transcriptomic insight into the impact of mast cells in the tumor microenvironment, though further experimental investigation is needed to validate the exact role of individual mast cell-dependent genes in different cancers.

Sequential combination of docetaxel with a SHP-1 agonist enhanced suppression of p-STAT3 signaling and apoptosis in triple negative breast cancer cells

Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an aggressive cancer for which prognosis remains poor. Combination therapy is a promising strategy for enhancing treatment efficacy. Blockade of STAT3 signaling may enhance the response of cancer cells to conventional chemotherapeutic agents. Here we used a SHP-1 agonist SC-43 to dephosphorylate STAT3 thereby suppressing oncogenic STAT3 signaling and tested it in combination with docetaxel in TNBC cells. We first analyzed messenger RNA (mRNA) expression of SHP-1 gene (PTPN6) in a public TNBC dataset (TCGA) and found that higher SHP-1 mRNA expression is associated with better overall survival in TNBC patients. Sequential combination of docetaxel and SC-43 in vitro showed enhanced anti-proliferation and apoptosis associated with decreased p-STAT3 and decreased STAT3-downstream effector cyclin D1 in the TNBC cell lines MDA-MB-231, MDA-MB-468, and HCC-1937. Ectopic expression of STAT3 reduced the increased cytotoxicity induced by the combination therapy. In addition, this sequential combination showed enhanced SHP-1 activity compared to SC-43 alone. Furthermore, the combination treatment-induced apoptosis was attenuated by small interfering RNA (siRNA) against SHP-1 or by ectopic expression of SHP-1 mutants that caused SC-43 to lose its SHP-1 agonist capability. Moreover, combination of docetaxel and SC-43 showed enhanced tumor growth inhibition compared to single-agent therapy in mice bearing MDA-MB-231 tumor xenografts. Our results suggest that the novel SHP-1 agonist SC-43 enhanced docetaxel-induced cytotoxicity by SHP-1 dependent STAT3 inhibition in human triple negative breast cancer cells. TNBC patients with high SHP-1 expressions show better survival. Docetaxel combined with SC-43 enhances cell apoptosis and reduces p-STAT3. SHP-1 inhibition reduces the enhanced effect of docetaxel-SC-43 combination. Docetaxel-SC-43 combination suppresses xenograft tumor growth and reduces p-STAT3.

KEY MESSAGES

TNBC patients with high SHP-1 expressions show better survival. Docetaxel combined with SC-43 enhances cell apoptosis and reduces p-STAT3. SHP-1 inhibition reduces the enhanced effect of docetaxel-SC-43 combination. Docetaxel-SC-43 combination suppresses xenograft tumor growth and reduces p-STAT3.

Monocytic and granulocytic myeloid derived suppressor cells differentially regulate spatiotemporal tumour plasticity during metastatic cascade

It is widely accepted that dynamic and reversible tumour cell plasticity is required for metastasis, however, in vivo steps and molecular mechanisms are poorly elucidated. We demonstrate here that monocytic (mMDSC) and granulocytic (gMDSC) subsets of myeloid-derived suppressor cells infiltrate in the primary tumour and distant organs with different time kinetics and regulate spatiotemporal tumour plasticity. Using co-culture experiments and mouse transcriptome analyses in syngeneic mouse models, we provide evidence that tumour-infiltrated mMDSCs facilitate tumour cell dissemination from the primary site by inducing EMT/CSC phenotype. In contrast, pulmonary gMDSC infiltrates support the metastatic growth by reverting EMT/CSC phenotype and promoting tumour cell proliferation. Furthermore, lung-derived gMDSCs isolated from tumour-bearing animals enhance metastatic growth of already disseminated tumour cells. MDSC-induced ‘metastatic gene signature' derived from murine syngeneic model predicts poor patient survival in the majority of human solid tumours. Thus spatiotemporal MDSC infiltration may have clinical implications in tumour progression.

Myeloid-derived suppressive cells (MDSCs) promote metastasis. Here, the authors show that the monocytic MDSCs subset promotes epithelial to mesenchymal transition at the primary site while the granulocytic subset promotes the reverse transition at the metastatic site enabling dynamic tumour cells plasticity.

Dysregulation of SOCS-Mediated Negative Feedback of Cytokine Signaling in Carcinogenesis and Its Significance in Cancer Treatment

Suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS) proteins are major negative feedback regulators of cytokine signaling mediated by the Janus kinase (JAK)-signal transducer and activator of transcription signaling pathway. In particular, SOCS1 and SOCS3 are strong inhibitors of JAKs and can play pivotal roles in the development and progression of cancers. The abnormal expression of SOCS1 and SOCS3 in cancer cells is associated with the dysregulation of cell growth, migration, and death induced by multiple cytokines and hormones in human carcinomas. In addition, the mechanisms involved in SOCS1- and SOCS3-regulated abnormal development and activation of immune cells in carcinogenesis, including T cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, and myeloid-derived suppressor cells, are still unclear. Therefore, this study aims to further discuss the molecules and signal pathways regulating the expression and function of SOCS1 and SOCS3 in various types of cancers and elucidate the feasibility and efficiency of SOCS-based target therapeutic strategy in anticancer treatment.

RNF20 and histone H2B ubiquitylation exert opposing effects in Basal-Like versus luminal breast cancer

Breast cancer subtypes display distinct biological traits that influence their clinical behavior and response to therapy. Recent studies have highlighted the importance of chromatin structure regulators in tumorigenesis. The RNF20-RNF40 E3 ubiquitin ligase complex monoubiquitylates histone H2B to generate H2Bub1, while the deubiquitinase (DUB) USP44 can remove this modification. We found that RNF20 and RNF40 expression and global H2Bub1 are relatively low, and USP44 expression is relatively high, in basal-like breast tumors compared with luminal tumors. Consistent with a tumor-suppressive role, silencing of RNF20 in basal-like breast cancer cells increased their proliferation and migration, and their tumorigenicity and metastatic capacity, partly through upregulation of inflammatory cytokines. In contrast, in luminal breast cancer cells, RNF20 silencing reduced proliferation, migration and tumorigenic and metastatic capacity, and compromised estrogen receptor transcriptional activity, indicating a tumor-promoting role. Notably, the effects of USP44 silencing on proliferation and migration in both cancer subtypes were opposite to those of RNF20 silencing. Hence, RNF20 and H2Bub1 have contrasting roles in distinct breast cancer subtypes, through differential regulation of key transcriptional programs underpinning the distinctive traits of each subtype.

Modeling synovial sarcoma metastasis in the mouse: PI3'-lipid signaling and inflammation

Solid tumor metastasis is a complex biology, impinged upon by a variety of dysregulated signaling pathways. PI3'-lipid signaling has been associated with metastasis and inflammation in many cancers, but the relationship between tumor cell-intrinsic PI3'-lipid signaling and inflammatory cell recruitment has remained enigmatic. Elevated PI3'-lipid signaling associates with progression of synovial sarcoma, a deadly soft tissue malignancy initiated by a t(X;18) chromosomal translocation that generates an SS18-SSX fusion oncoprotein. Here, we show in genetically engineered mouse models of locally induced expression of SS18-SSX1 or SS18-SSX2 that Pten silencing dramatically accelerated and enhanced sarcomagenesis without compromising synovial sarcoma characteristics. PTEN deficiency increased tumor angiogenesis, promoted inflammatory gene expression, and enabled highly penetrant spontaneous pulmonary metastasis. PTEN-deficient sarcomas revealed infiltrating myeloid-derived hematopoietic cells, particularly macrophages and neutrophils, recruited via PI3'-lipid-induced CSF1 expression in tumor cells. Moreover, in a large panel of human synovial sarcomas, enhanced PI3'-lipid signaling also correlated with increased inflammatory cell recruitment and CSF1R signal transduction in both macrophages and endothelial cells. Thus, both in the mouse model and in human synovial sarcomas, PI3'-lipid signaling drives CSF1 expression and associates with increased infiltration of the monocyte/macrophage lineage as well as neutrophils.