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Zheng R, Xu Q, Wang Y, Zhong Y, Zhu R. Cordyceps cicadae polysaccharides attenuate diabetic nephropathy via the miR-30a-3p/TRIM16 axis. J Diabetes Investig 2024; 15:300-314. [PMID: 38149724 PMCID: PMC10906025 DOI: 10.1111/jdi.14116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2023] [Revised: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/16/2023] [Indexed: 12/28/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The molecular mechanism of the protective effect of Cordyceps cicadae polysaccharides (CCPs) on renal tubulointerstitial fibrosis in diabetic nephropathy (DN) is still unclear. This study aims to further understand the molecular mechanisms behind the therapeutic benefits of CCP on diabetic nephropathy. METHODS Mice were randomly assigned into six groups (n = 8). Cordyceps cicadae polysaccharide dissolved in 5% dimethyl sulfoxide was administered by gavage for 12 consecutive weeks. The CCP doses were divided into low, medium, and high, 75, 150, and 300 mg/kg/day, respectively. The efficacy of CCP was determined by assessing the renal function and histological alterations in diabetic db/db mice. The degree of glomerular mesangial dilatation and sclerosis was evaluated using semiquantitative markers. Cell viability, apoptosis, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), inflammation, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) in high glucose (HG)-cultured MPC5 podocytes were determined. The interaction of miR-30a-3p and tripartite motif-containing protein 16 (TRIM16) was examined by luciferase reporter assay. Western blotting, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, and immunofluorescence were used to analyze gene and protein expressions. RESULTS The in vivo findings illustrated that CCP may protect mice with type 2 diabetes from inflammation and oxidative damage (P < 0.05). Furthermore, CCP has a therapeutic value in protecting renal function and morphology in diabetic nephropathy by reversing podocyte EMT. The in vitro results indicated that CCP dose-dependently inhibited HG-induced apoptosis, EMT, inflammation, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial ROS levels in MPC5 podocytes (P < 0.05). Luciferase reporter assay confirmed the interaction between miR-30a-3p and TRIM16 in MPC5 podocytes cultured in high glucose (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION The protective effect of CCP on HG-induced MPC5 can be achieved by miR-30a-3p/TRIM16 axis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rong Zheng
- Department of Nephrology, Longhua HospitalShanghai University of Traditional Chinese MedicineShanghaiChina
| | - Qin Xu
- Department of Nephrology, Longhua HospitalShanghai University of Traditional Chinese MedicineShanghaiChina
| | - Yiwen Wang
- Department of Nephrology, Longhua HospitalShanghai University of Traditional Chinese MedicineShanghaiChina
| | - Yifei Zhong
- Department of Nephrology, Longhua HospitalShanghai University of Traditional Chinese MedicineShanghaiChina
| | - Rong Zhu
- Department of Nephrology, Longhua HospitalShanghai University of Traditional Chinese MedicineShanghaiChina
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2
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Ye S, Zhang M, Tang SCW, Li B, Chen W. PGC1-α in diabetic kidney disease: unraveling renoprotection and molecular mechanisms. Mol Biol Rep 2024; 51:304. [PMID: 38361088 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-024-09232-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
Mitochondrial dysfunction represents a pivotal aspect of the pathogenesis and progression of diabetic kidney disease (DKD). Central to the orchestration of mitochondrial biogenesis is the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1-α (PGC1-α), a master regulator with a profound impact on mitochondrial function. In the context of DKD, PGC1-α exhibits significant downregulation within intrinsic renal cells, precipitating a cascade of deleterious events. This includes a reduction in mitochondrial biogenesis, heightened levels of mitochondrial oxidative stress, perturbed mitochondrial dynamics, and dysregulated mitophagy. Concurrently, structural and functional abnormalities within the mitochondrial network ensue. In stark contrast, the sustained expression of PGC1-α emerges as a beacon of hope in maintaining mitochondrial homeostasis within intrinsic renal cells, ultimately demonstrating an impressive renoprotective potential in animal models afflicted with DKD. This comprehensive review aims to delve into the recent advancements in our understanding of the renoprotective properties wielded by PGC1-α. Specifically, it elucidates the potential molecular mechanisms underlying PGC1-α's protective effects within renal tubular epithelial cells, podocytes, glomerular endothelial cells, and mesangial cells in the context of DKD. By shedding light on these intricate mechanisms, we aspire to provide valuable insights that may pave the way for innovative therapeutic interventions in the management of DKD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siyang Ye
- Department of Nephrology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Clinical Nephrology (Sun Yat-Sen University) and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Nephrology, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Meng Zhang
- Department of Nephrology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Clinical Nephrology (Sun Yat-Sen University) and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Nephrology, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Sydney C W Tang
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
| | - Bin Li
- Department of Nephrology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China.
- NHC Key Laboratory of Clinical Nephrology (Sun Yat-Sen University) and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Nephrology, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China.
| | - Wei Chen
- Department of Nephrology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China.
- NHC Key Laboratory of Clinical Nephrology (Sun Yat-Sen University) and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Nephrology, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China.
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Suarez R, Villarreal C, Nahuelpán Y, Jara C, Oyarzún C, Alarcón S, Díaz-Encarnación MM, Guillén-Gómez E, Quezada C, San Martín R. Defective insulin-stimulated equilibrative nucleoside transporter-2 activity and altered subcellular transporter distribution drive the loss of adenosine homeostasis in diabetic kidney disease progression. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2024; 1870:166890. [PMID: 37734469 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2023.166890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Revised: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 09/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023]
Abstract
AIM Progression of diabetic nephropathy (DN) is linked to the dysregulated increase of adenosine and altered signaling properties. A major contribution to the maintenance of physiological extracellular adenosine levels relies on cellular uptake activity through plasma membrane nucleoside transporters. Because kidney cells are responsive to insulin, this study aims to determine how DN affects insulin regulation of the equilibrative nucleoside transporter-2 (ENT2). METHODS Human Podocytes and rat glomeruli were used to study ENT2 regulation. The effects of diabetes and insulin on ENT2 mediated transport activity were determined measuring the fraction of total adenosine uptake in sodium-free medium which is inhibitable by hypoxanthine. Alterations in ENT2 subcellular distribution were assessed in the kidney of people affected with DN and diabetic rats. The consequences of impaired ENT2 activity on the kidney were evaluated using dipyridamole in an animal model. RESULTS Insulin upregulates ENT2 uptake activity by increasing the Vmax, thus counteracting decreased adenosine uptake due to high d-glucose and achieving extracellular adenosine homeostasis. Insulin promoted ENT2 translocation to the plasma membrane dependent on PI3-kinase/Akt signaling and actin cytoskeleton integrity. However, in diabetic rats, the insulin-mediated induction of ENT2 activity was lost. Additionally, reduced Akt activation in response to insulin correlated with decreased ENT2 distribution at the plasma membrane. Kidney tissues from diabetic rats and human DN biopsies showed ENT2 redistribution to an intracellular pattern, evidencing dysfunctional adenosine uptake. Through ENT inhibition, we evidenced increased proteinuria and induced alpha-smooth muscle actin as a result of profibrotic activation of cells in the kidney. CONCLUSION Deficient insulin regulation of ENT2 activity contributes to chronically high adenosine levels and glomerular alterations that underline diabetic kidney disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raibel Suarez
- Institute of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science Faculty, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Carolina Villarreal
- Institute of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science Faculty, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Yessica Nahuelpán
- Institute of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science Faculty, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Claudia Jara
- Institute of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science Faculty, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Carlos Oyarzún
- Institute of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science Faculty, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Sebastián Alarcón
- Institute of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science Faculty, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Montserrat M Díaz-Encarnación
- Nephrology Service Fundació Puigvert, Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Elena Guillén-Gómez
- Nephrology Service Fundació Puigvert, Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Claudia Quezada
- Institute of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science Faculty, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile; Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Rody San Martín
- Institute of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science Faculty, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile.
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Hejazian SM, Ardalan M, Hosseiniyan Khatibi SM, Rahbar Saadat Y, Barzegari A, Gueguen V, Meddahi-Pellé A, Anagnostou F, Zununi Vahed S, Pavon-Djavid G. Biofactors regulating mitochondrial function and dynamics in podocytes and podocytopathies. J Cell Physiol 2023; 238:2206-2227. [PMID: 37659096 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.31110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Revised: 06/25/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/04/2023]
Abstract
Podocytes are terminally differentiated kidney cells acting as the main gatekeepers of the glomerular filtration barrier; hence, inhibiting proteinuria. Podocytopathies are classified as kidney diseases caused by podocyte damage. Different genetic and environmental risk factors can cause podocyte damage and death. Recent evidence shows that mitochondrial dysfunction also contributes to podocyte damage. Understanding alterations in mitochondrial metabolism and function in podocytopathies and whether altered mitochondrial homeostasis/dynamics is a cause or effect of podocyte damage are issues that need in-depth studies. This review highlights the roles of mitochondria and their bioenergetics in podocytes. Then, factors/signalings that regulate mitochondria in podocytes are discussed. After that, the role of mitochondrial dysfunction is reviewed in podocyte injury and the development of different podocytopathies. Finally, the mitochondrial therapeutic targets are considered.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Abolfazl Barzegari
- Université Sorbonne Paris Nord, INSERM U1148, Laboratory for Vascular Translational Science, Cardiovascular Bioengineering, Villetaneuse, France
| | - Virginie Gueguen
- Université Sorbonne Paris Nord, INSERM U1148, Laboratory for Vascular Translational Science, Cardiovascular Bioengineering, Villetaneuse, France
| | - Anne Meddahi-Pellé
- Université Sorbonne Paris Nord, INSERM U1148, Laboratory for Vascular Translational Science, Cardiovascular Bioengineering, Villetaneuse, France
| | - Fani Anagnostou
- Université de Paris, CNRS UMR 7052 INSERM U1271, B3OA, Paris, France
| | | | - Graciela Pavon-Djavid
- Université Sorbonne Paris Nord, INSERM U1148, Laboratory for Vascular Translational Science, Cardiovascular Bioengineering, Villetaneuse, France
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Baek J, Lee YH, Jeong HY, Lee SY. Mitochondrial quality control and its emerging role in the pathogenesis of diabetic kidney disease. Kidney Res Clin Pract 2023; 42:546-560. [PMID: 37448292 PMCID: PMC10565453 DOI: 10.23876/j.krcp.22.233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Revised: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Most eukaryotic cells have mitochondrial networks that can change in shape, distribution, and size depending on cellular metabolic demands and environments. Mitochondrial quality control is critical for various mitochondrial functions including energy production, redox homeostasis, intracellular calcium handling, cell differentiation, proliferation, and cell death. Quality control mechanisms within mitochondria consist of antioxidant defenses, protein quality control, DNA damage repair systems, mitochondrial fusion and fission, mitophagy, and mitochondrial biogenesis. Defects in mitochondrial quality control and disruption of mitochondrial homeostasis are common characteristics of various kidney cell types under hyperglycemic conditions. Such defects contribute to diabetes-induced pathologies in renal tubular cells, podocytes, endothelial cells, and immune cells. In this review, we focus on the roles of mitochondrial quality control in diabetic kidney disease pathogenesis and discuss current research evidence and future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jihyun Baek
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, CHA Bundang Medical Center, CHA University, Seongnam, Republic of Korea
- Department of Biomedical Science, College of Life Science, CHA University, Pocheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Yu Ho Lee
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, CHA Bundang Medical Center, CHA University, Seongnam, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye Yun Jeong
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, CHA Bundang Medical Center, CHA University, Seongnam, Republic of Korea
| | - So-Young Lee
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, CHA Bundang Medical Center, CHA University, Seongnam, Republic of Korea
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Pang Q, Chen H, Wu H, Wang Y, An C, Lai S, Xu J, Wang R, Zhou J, Xiao H. N6-methyladenosine regulators-related immune genes enable predict graft loss and discriminate T-cell mediate rejection in kidney transplantation biopsies for cause. Front Immunol 2022; 13:1039013. [PMID: 36483557 PMCID: PMC9722771 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1039013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective The role of m6A modification in kidney transplant-associated immunity, especially in alloimmunity, still remains unknown. This study aims to explore the potential value of m6A-related immune genes in predicting graft loss and diagnosing T cell mediated rejection (TCMR), as well as the possible role they play in renal graft dysfunction. Methods Renal transplant-related cohorts and transcript expression data were obtained from the GEO database. First, we conducted correlation analysis in the discovery cohort to identify the m6A-related immune genes. Then, lasso regression and random forest were used respectively to build prediction models in the prognosis and diagnosis cohort, to predict graft loss and discriminate TCMR in dysfunctional renal grafts. Connectivity map (CMap) analysis was applied to identify potential therapeutic compounds for TCMR. Results The prognostic prediction model effectively predicts the prognosis and survival of renal grafts with clinical indications (P< 0.001) and applies to both rejection and non-rejection situations. The diagnostic prediction model discriminates TCMR in dysfunctional renal grafts with high accuracy (area under curve = 0.891). Meanwhile, the classifier score of the diagnostic model, as a continuity index, is positively correlated with the severity of main pathological injuries of TCMR. Furthermore, it is found that METTL3, FTO, WATP, and RBM15 are likely to play a pivotal part in the regulation of immune response in TCMR. By CMap analysis, several small molecular compounds are found to be able to reverse TCMR including fenoldopam, dextromethorphan, and so on. Conclusions Together, our findings explore the value of m6A-related immune genes in predicting the prognosis of renal grafts and diagnosis of TCMR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qidan Pang
- Department of Nephrology, Bishan Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Hong Chen
- Department of General Surgery/Gastrointestinal Surgery, Bishan Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Hang Wu
- Department of Nephrology, Bishan Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yong Wang
- Department of General Surgery/Gastrointestinal Surgery, Bishan Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Changyong An
- Department of General Surgery/Gastrointestinal Surgery, Bishan Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Suhe Lai
- Department of General Surgery/Gastrointestinal Surgery, Bishan Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jia Xu
- Department of Nephrology, Bishan Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Ruiqiong Wang
- Department of Nephrology, Bishan Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Juan Zhou
- Department of Nephrology, Bishan Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China,*Correspondence: Hanyu Xiao, ; Juan Zhou,
| | - Hanyu Xiao
- Department of General Surgery/Gastrointestinal Surgery, Bishan Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China,*Correspondence: Hanyu Xiao, ; Juan Zhou,
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Pak ES, Cha JJ, Cha DR, Kanasaki K, Ha H. Adenosine receptors as emerging therapeutic targets for diabetic kidney disease. Kidney Res Clin Pract 2022; 41:S74-S88. [PMID: 36239063 PMCID: PMC9590297 DOI: 10.23876/j.krcp.22.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2022] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 05/05/2022] [Indexed: 08/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is now a pandemic worldwide, and novel therapeutic options are urgently required. Adenosine, an adenosine triphosphate metabolite, plays a role in kidney homeostasis through interacting with four types of adenosine receptors (ARs): A1AR, A2AAR, A2BAR, and A3AR. Increasing evidence highlights the role of adenosine and ARs in the development and progression of DKD: 1) increased adenosine in the plasma and urine of diabetics with kidney injury, 2) increased expression of each of the ARs in diabetic kidneys, 3) the protective effect of coffee, a commonly ingested nonselective AR antagonist, on DKD, and 4) the protective effect of AR modulators in experimental DKD models. We propose AR modulators as a new therapeutic option to treat DKD. Detailed mechanistic studies on the pharmacology of AR modulators will help us to develop effective first-in-class AR modulators against DKD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun Seon Pak
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin Joo Cha
- Department of Nephrology, Korea University Ansan Hospital, Ansan, Republic of Korea
| | - Dae Ryong Cha
- Department of Nephrology, Korea University Ansan Hospital, Ansan, Republic of Korea
| | - Keizo Kanasaki
- Department of Internal Medical 1, Shimane University Faculty of Medicine, Izumo, Japan
| | - Hunjoo Ha
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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8
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Liu S, Yuan Y, Xue Y, Xing C, Zhang B. Podocyte Injury in Diabetic Kidney Disease: A Focus on Mitochondrial Dysfunction. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:832887. [PMID: 35321238 PMCID: PMC8935076 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.832887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Podocytes are a crucial cellular component in maintaining the glomerular filtration barrier, and their injury is the major determinant in the development of albuminuria and diabetic kidney disease (DKD). Podocytes are rich in mitochondria and heavily dependent on them for energy to maintain normal functions. Emerging evidence suggests that mitochondrial dysfunction is a key driver in the pathogenesis of podocyte injury in DKD. Impairment of mitochondrial function results in an energy crisis, oxidative stress, inflammation, and cell death. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in the molecular mechanisms that cause mitochondrial damage and illustrate the impact of mitochondrial injury on podocytes. The related mitochondrial pathways involved in podocyte injury in DKD include mitochondrial dynamics and mitophagy, mitochondrial biogenesis, mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and oxidative stress, and mitochondrial protein quality control. Furthermore, we discuss the role of mitochondria-associated membranes (MAMs) formation, which is intimately linked with mitochondrial function in podocytes. Finally, we examine the experimental evidence exploring the targeting of podocyte mitochondrial function for treating DKD and conclude with a discussion of potential directions for future research in the field of mitochondrial dysfunction in podocytes in DKD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simeng Liu
- Department of Nephrology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yanggang Yuan
- Department of Nephrology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yi Xue
- Suzhou Hospital of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Suzhou, China
| | - Changying Xing
- Department of Nephrology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
- *Correspondence: Changying Xing, ; Bo Zhang,
| | - Bo Zhang
- Department of Nephrology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
- Department of Nephrology, Pukou Branch of JiangSu Province Hospital (Nanjing Pukou Central Hospital), Nanjing, China
- *Correspondence: Changying Xing, ; Bo Zhang,
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Campos-Martins A, Bragança B, Correia-de-Sá P, Fontes-Sousa AP. Pharmacological Tuning of Adenosine Signal Nuances Underlying Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:724320. [PMID: 34489711 PMCID: PMC8417789 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.724320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2021] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) roughly represents half of the cardiac failure events in developed countries. The proposed 'systemic microvascular paradigm' has been used to explain HFpHF presentation heterogeneity. The lack of effective treatments with few evidence-based therapeutic recommendations makes HFpEF one of the greatest unmet clinical necessities worldwide. The endogenous levels of the purine nucleoside, adenosine, increase significantly following cardiovascular events. Adenosine exerts cardioprotective, neuromodulatory, and immunosuppressive effects by activating plasma membrane-bound P1 receptors that are widely expressed in the cardiovascular system. Its proven benefits have been demonstrated in preclinical animal tests. Here, we provide a comprehensive and up-to-date critical review about the main therapeutic advantages of tuning adenosine signalling pathways in HFpEF, without discounting their side effects and how these can be seized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandrina Campos-Martins
- Laboratório de Farmacologia e Neurobiologia, Centro de Investigação Farmacológica e Inovação Medicamentosa (MedInUP), Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto (ICBAS-UP), Porto, Portugal
| | - Bruno Bragança
- Laboratório de Farmacologia e Neurobiologia, Centro de Investigação Farmacológica e Inovação Medicamentosa (MedInUP), Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto (ICBAS-UP), Porto, Portugal.,Department of Cardiology, Centro Hospitalar Tâmega e Sousa, Penafiel, Portugal
| | - Paulo Correia-de-Sá
- Laboratório de Farmacologia e Neurobiologia, Centro de Investigação Farmacológica e Inovação Medicamentosa (MedInUP), Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto (ICBAS-UP), Porto, Portugal
| | - Ana Patrícia Fontes-Sousa
- Laboratório de Farmacologia e Neurobiologia, Centro de Investigação Farmacológica e Inovação Medicamentosa (MedInUP), Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto (ICBAS-UP), Porto, Portugal
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10
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Pak ES, Jeong LS, Hou X, Tripathi SK, Lee J, Ha H. Dual Actions of A 2A and A 3 Adenosine Receptor Ligand Prevents Obstruction-Induced Kidney Fibrosis in Mice. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22115667. [PMID: 34073488 PMCID: PMC8198234 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22115667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Revised: 05/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Kidney fibrosis is the final outcome of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Adenosine plays a significant role in protection against cellular damage by activating four subtypes of adenosine receptors (ARs), A1AR, A2AAR, A2BAR, and A3AR. A2AAR agonists protect against inflammation, and A3AR antagonists effectively inhibit the formation of fibrosis. Here, we showed for the first time that LJ-4459, a newly synthesized dual-acting ligand that is an A2AAR agonist and an A3AR antagonist, prevents the progression of tubulointerstitial fibrosis. Unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) surgery was performed on 6-week-old male C57BL/6 mice. LJ-4459 (1 and 10 mg/kg) was orally administered for 7 days, started at 1 day before UUO surgery. Pretreatment with LJ-4459 improved kidney morphology and prevented the progression of tubular injury as shown by decreases in urinary kidney injury molecular-1 (KIM-1) and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) excretion. Obstruction-induced tubulointerstitial fibrosis was attenuated by LJ-4459, as shown by a decrease in fibrotic protein expression in the kidney. LJ-4459 also inhibited inflammation and oxidative stress in the obstructed kidney, with reduced macrophage infiltration, reduced levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, as well as reduced levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS). These data demonstrate that LJ-4459 has potential as a therapeutic agent against the progression of tubulointerstitial fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun Seon Pak
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 03760, Korea;
| | - Lak Shin Jeong
- Future Medicine Co., Ltd., Seongnam 13449, Korea;
- Department of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea; (X.H.); (S.K.T.)
| | - Xiyan Hou
- Department of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea; (X.H.); (S.K.T.)
| | - Sushil K. Tripathi
- Department of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea; (X.H.); (S.K.T.)
| | - Jiyoun Lee
- Future Medicine Co., Ltd., Seongnam 13449, Korea;
- Correspondence: (J.L.); (H.H.); Tel.: +82-2-2289-8689 (J.L.); +82-2-3277-4075 (H.H.); Fax: +82-31-757-2738 (J.L.); +82-2-3277-2851 (H.H.)
| | - Hunjoo Ha
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 03760, Korea;
- Correspondence: (J.L.); (H.H.); Tel.: +82-2-2289-8689 (J.L.); +82-2-3277-4075 (H.H.); Fax: +82-31-757-2738 (J.L.); +82-2-3277-2851 (H.H.)
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11
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"Adenosine an old player with new possibilities in kidney diseases": Preclinical evidences and clinical perspectives. Life Sci 2020; 265:118834. [PMID: 33249096 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2020.118834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Revised: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 11/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Renal injury might originate from multiple factors like ischemia reperfusion (I/R), drug toxicity, cystic fibrosis, radio contrast agent etc. The four adenosine receptor subtypes have been identified and found to show diverse physiological and pathological roles in kidney diseases. The activation of A1 adenosine receptor (A1) protects against acute kidney injury by improving renal hemodynamic alterations, decreasing tubular necrosis and its inhibition might facilitate removal of toxin or drug metabolite in chronic kidney disease models. Furthermore, recent findings revealed that A2A receptor subtype activation regulates macrophage phenotype in experimental models of nephritis. Interestingly the emerging role of adenosine kinase inhibitors in kidney diseases has been discussed which act by increasing adenosine availability at target sites and thereby promote A2A receptor stimulation. In addition, the least explored adenosine receptor subtype A3 inhibition was observed to exert anti- oxidant, immunosuppressive and anti-fibrotic effects, but more studies are required to confirm its benefits in other renal injury models. The clinical studies targeting A1 receptor in patients with pre-existing kidney disease have yielded disappointing results, perhaps owing to the origin of unexpected neurological complications during the course of trial. Importantly, conducting well designed clinical trials and testing adenosine modulators with lesser brain penetrability could clear the way for clinical approval of these agents for patients with renal functional impairments.
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Hyeon JS, Jung Y, Lee G, Ha H, Hwang GS. Urinary Metabolomic Profiling in Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Mice after Treatment with Losartan. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21238969. [PMID: 33255934 PMCID: PMC7730544 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21238969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Revised: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is the leading cause of chronic kidney disease and end-stage kidney disease. Renin-angiotensin system inhibitors such as losartan are the predominant therapeutic options in clinical practice to treat DKD. Therefore, it is necessary to identify DKD-related metabolic profiles that are affected by losartan. To investigate the change in metabolism associated with the development of DKD, we performed global and targeted metabolic profiling using 800 MHz nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy of urine samples from streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice (DM) with or without losartan administration. A principal component analysis plot showed that the metabolic pattern in the losartan-treated diabetic mice returned from that in the DM group toward that in the control mice (CM). We found that 33 urinary metabolites were significantly changed in DM compared with CM, and the levels of 16 metabolites among them, namely, glucose, mannose, myo-inositol, pyruvate, fumarate, 2-hydroxyglutarate, isobutyrate, glycine, threonine, dimethylglycine, methyldantoin, isoleucine, leucine, acetylcarnitine, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutarate, and taurine, shifted closer to the control level in response to losartan treatment. Pathway analysis revealed that these metabolites were associated with branched-chain amino acid degradation; taurine and hypotaurine metabolism; glycine, serine, and threonine metabolism; the tricarboxylic acid cycle; and galactose metabolism. Our results demonstrate that metabolomic analysis is a useful tool for identifying the metabolic pathways related to the development of DKD affected by losartan administration and may contribute to the discovery of new therapeutic agents for DKD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Seong Hyeon
- Integrated Metabolomics Research Group, Western Seoul Center, Korea Basic Science Institute, Seoul 03759, Korea; (J.S.H.); (Y.J.)
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 03760, Korea;
| | - Youngae Jung
- Integrated Metabolomics Research Group, Western Seoul Center, Korea Basic Science Institute, Seoul 03759, Korea; (J.S.H.); (Y.J.)
| | - Gayoung Lee
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 03760, Korea;
| | - Hunjoo Ha
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 03760, Korea;
- Correspondence: (H.H.); (G.-S.H.)
| | - Geum-Sook Hwang
- Integrated Metabolomics Research Group, Western Seoul Center, Korea Basic Science Institute, Seoul 03759, Korea; (J.S.H.); (Y.J.)
- Department of Chemistry and Nano Science, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 03760, Korea
- Correspondence: (H.H.); (G.-S.H.)
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Boo HJ, Park SJ, Noh M, Min HY, Jeong LS, Lee HY. LJ-2698, an Adenosine A3 Receptor Antagonist, Alleviates Elastase-Induced Pulmonary Emphysema in Mice. Biomol Ther (Seoul) 2020; 28:250-258. [PMID: 32062956 PMCID: PMC7216744 DOI: 10.4062/biomolther.2019.162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Revised: 12/15/2019] [Accepted: 12/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Emphysema, a major component of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), is a leading cause of human death worldwide. The progressive deterioration of lung function that occurs in the disease is caused by chronic inflammation of the airway and destruction of the lung parenchyma. Despite the main impact of inflammation on the pathogenesis of emphysema, current therapeutic regimens mainly offer symptomatic relief and preservation of lung function with little therapeutic impact. In the present study, we aimed to discover novel therapeutics that suppress the pathogenesis of emphysema. Here, we show that LJ-2698, a novel and highly selective antagonist of the adenosine A3 receptor, a G protein-coupled receptor involved in various inflammatory diseases, significantly reversed the elastase-induced destructive changes in murine lungs. We found that LJ-2698 significantly prevented elastase-induced airspace enlargement, resulting in restoration of pulmonary function without causing any obvious changes in body weight in mice. LJ-2698 was found to inhibit matrix metalloproteinase activity and pulmonary cell apoptosis in the murine lung. LJ-2698 treatment induced increases in anti-inflammatory cytokines in macrophages at doses that displayed no significant cytotoxicity in normal cell lines derived from various organs. Treatment with LJ-2698 significantly increased the number of anti-inflammatory M2 macrophages in the lungs. These results implicate the adenosine A3 receptor in the pathogenesis of emphysema. Our findings also demonstrate the potential of LJ-2698 as a novel therapeutic/preventive agent in suppressing disease development with limited toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hye-Jin Boo
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - So Jung Park
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Myungkyung Noh
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye-Young Min
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Biopharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School of Convergence Science and Technology, and College of Pharmacy, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Lak Shin Jeong
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Ho-Young Lee
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea.,Department of Molecular Medicine and Biopharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School of Convergence Science and Technology, and College of Pharmacy, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
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Tosh DK, Salmaso V, Rao H, Bitant A, Fisher CL, Lieberman DI, Vorbrüggen H, Reitman ML, Gavrilova O, Gao ZG, Auchampach JA, Jacobson KA. Truncated (N)-Methanocarba Nucleosides as Partial Agonists at Mouse and Human A 3 Adenosine Receptors: Affinity Enhancement by N6-(2-Phenylethyl) Substitution. J Med Chem 2020; 63:4334-4348. [PMID: 32271569 PMCID: PMC7443318 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.0c00235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Dopamine-derived N6-substituents, compared to N6-(2-phenylethyl), in truncated (N)-methanocarba (bicyclo[3.1.0]hexyl) adenosines favored high A3 adenosine receptor (AR) affinity/selectivity, e.g., C2-phenylethynyl analogue 15 (MRS7591, Ki = 10.9/17.8 nM, at human/mouse A3AR). 15 was a partial agonist in vitro (hA3AR, cAMP inhibition, 31% Emax; mA3AR, [35S]GTP-γ-S binding, 16% Emax) and in vivo and also antagonized hA3AR in vitro. Distal H-bonding substitutions of the N6-(2-phenylethyl) moiety particularly enhanced mA3AR affinity by polar interactions with the extracellular loops, predicted using docking and molecular dynamics simulation with newly constructed mA3AR and hA3AR homology models. These hybrid models were based on an inactive antagonist-bound hA1AR structure for the upper part of TM2 and an agonist-bound hA2AAR structure for the remaining TM portions. These species-independent A3AR-selective nucleosides are low efficacy partial agonists and novel, nuanced modulators of the A3AR, a drug target of growing interest.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Amelia Bitant
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical College of Wisconsin, 8701 Watertown Plank Road, Milwaukee, WI, USA 53226
| | - Courtney L. Fisher
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical College of Wisconsin, 8701 Watertown Plank Road, Milwaukee, WI, USA 53226
| | | | - Helmut Vorbrüggen
- Institut für Chemie und Biochemie, Freie Universität, Takustr. 3, D-14195 Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Oksana Gavrilova
- Mouse Metabolism Core, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Disease, National Institutes of Health, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MA, USA 20892
| | | | - John A. Auchampach
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical College of Wisconsin, 8701 Watertown Plank Road, Milwaukee, WI, USA 53226
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Effendi WI, Nagano T, Kobayashi K, Nishimura Y. Focusing on Adenosine Receptors as a Potential Targeted Therapy in Human Diseases. Cells 2020; 9:E785. [PMID: 32213945 PMCID: PMC7140859 DOI: 10.3390/cells9030785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2020] [Revised: 03/21/2020] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Adenosine is involved in a range of physiological and pathological effects through membrane-bound receptors linked to G proteins. There are four subtypes of adenosine receptors, described as A1AR, A2AAR, A2BAR, and A3AR, which are the center of cAMP signal pathway-based drug development. Several types of agonists, partial agonists or antagonists, and allosteric substances have been synthesized from these receptors as new therapeutic drug candidates. Research efforts surrounding A1AR and A2AAR are perhaps the most enticing because of their concentration and affinity; however, as a consequence of distressing conditions, both A2BAR and A3AR levels might accumulate. This review focuses on the biological features of each adenosine receptor as the basis of ligand production and describes clinical studies of adenosine receptor-associated pharmaceuticals in human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wiwin Is Effendi
- Division of Respiratory Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-1 Kusunoki-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe, 650-0017, Japan; (W.I.E.); (K.K.); (Y.N.)
- Department of Pulmonology and Respiratory Medicine, Medical Faculty of Airlangga University, Surabaya 60131, Indonesia
| | - Tatsuya Nagano
- Division of Respiratory Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-1 Kusunoki-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe, 650-0017, Japan; (W.I.E.); (K.K.); (Y.N.)
| | - Kazuyuki Kobayashi
- Division of Respiratory Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-1 Kusunoki-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe, 650-0017, Japan; (W.I.E.); (K.K.); (Y.N.)
| | - Yoshihiro Nishimura
- Division of Respiratory Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-1 Kusunoki-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe, 650-0017, Japan; (W.I.E.); (K.K.); (Y.N.)
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Blockade of the Adenosine A 3 Receptor Attenuates Caspase 1 Activation in Renal Tubule Epithelial Cells and Decreases Interleukins IL-1β and IL-18 in Diabetic Rats. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20184531. [PMID: 31540220 PMCID: PMC6770662 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20184531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2019] [Revised: 08/10/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is the main cause of end-stage renal disease, which remains incurable. The progression of DN is associated with progressive and irreversible renal fibrosis and also high levels of adenosine. Our aim was to evaluate the effects of ADORA3 antagonism on renal injury in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. An ADORA3 antagonist that was administered in diabetic rats greatly inhibited the levels of inflammatory interleukins IL-1β and IL-18, meanwhile when adenosine deaminase was administered, there was a non-selective attenuation of the inflammatory mediators IL-1β, IL-18, IL-6, and induction of IL-10. The ADORA3 antagonist attenuated the high glucose-induced activation of caspase 1 in HK2 cells in vitro. Additionally, ADORA3 antagonisms blocked the increase in caspase 1 and the nuclear localization of NFκB in the renal tubular epithelium of diabetic rats, both events that are involved in regulating the production and activation of IL-1β and IL-18. The effects of the A3 receptor antagonist resulted in the attenuation of kidney injury, as evidenced by decreased levels of the pro-fibrotic marker α-SMA at histological levels and the restoration of proteinuria in diabetic rats. We conclude that ADORA3 antagonism represents a potential therapeutic target that mechanistically works through the selective blockade of the NLRP3 inflammasome.
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Alarcón S, Niechi I, Toledo F, Sobrevia L, Quezada C. Glioma progression in diabesity. Mol Aspects Med 2019; 66:62-70. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mam.2019.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2018] [Revised: 02/12/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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18
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Yu J, Mannes P, Jung YH, Ciancetta A, Bitant A, Lieberman DI, Khaznadar S, Auchampach JA, Gao ZG, Jacobson KA. Structure activity relationship of 2-arylalkynyl-adenine derivatives as human A 3 adenosine receptor antagonists. MEDCHEMCOMM 2018; 9:1920-1932. [PMID: 30568760 DOI: 10.1039/c8md00317c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2018] [Accepted: 09/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Recognition of nucleosides at adenosine receptors (ARs) is supported by multiple X-ray structures, but the structure of an adenine complex is unknown. We examined the selectivity of predicted A1AR and A3AR adenine antagonists that incorporated known agonist affinity-enhancing N 6 and C2 substituents. Adenines with A1AR-favoring N 6-alkyl, cycloalkyl and arylalkyl substitutions combined with an A3AR-favoring 2-((5-chlorothiophen-2-yl)ethynyl) group were human (h) A3AR-selective, e.g. MRS7497 17 (∼1000-fold over A1AR). In addition, binding selectivity over hA2AAR and hA2BAR and functional A3AR antagonism were demonstrated. 17 was subjected to computational docking and molecular dynamics simulation in a hA3AR homology model to predict interactions. The SAR of nucleoside AR agonists was not recapitulated in adenine AR antagonists, and modeling suggested an alternative, inverted binding mode with the key N2506.55 H-bonding to the adenine N 3 and N 9, instead of N 6 and N 7 as in adenosine agonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinha Yu
- Molecular Recognition Section , Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry , National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases , National Institutes of Health , Bldg. 8A, Rm. B1A-19, NIH, NIDDK, LBC , Bethesda , Maryland 20892-0810 , USA . ; ; Tel: +301 496 9024
| | - Philip Mannes
- Molecular Recognition Section , Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry , National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases , National Institutes of Health , Bldg. 8A, Rm. B1A-19, NIH, NIDDK, LBC , Bethesda , Maryland 20892-0810 , USA . ; ; Tel: +301 496 9024
| | - Young-Hwan Jung
- Molecular Recognition Section , Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry , National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases , National Institutes of Health , Bldg. 8A, Rm. B1A-19, NIH, NIDDK, LBC , Bethesda , Maryland 20892-0810 , USA . ; ; Tel: +301 496 9024
| | - Antonella Ciancetta
- School of Pharmacy , Queen's University Belfast , 96 Lisburn Rd , Belfast , BT9 7BL , UK
| | - Amelia Bitant
- Department of Pharmacology , Medical College of Wisconsin , 8701 Watertown Plank Road , Milwaukee , Wisconsin 53226 , USA
| | - David I Lieberman
- Molecular Recognition Section , Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry , National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases , National Institutes of Health , Bldg. 8A, Rm. B1A-19, NIH, NIDDK, LBC , Bethesda , Maryland 20892-0810 , USA . ; ; Tel: +301 496 9024
| | - Sami Khaznadar
- Molecular Recognition Section , Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry , National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases , National Institutes of Health , Bldg. 8A, Rm. B1A-19, NIH, NIDDK, LBC , Bethesda , Maryland 20892-0810 , USA . ; ; Tel: +301 496 9024
| | - John A Auchampach
- Department of Pharmacology , Medical College of Wisconsin , 8701 Watertown Plank Road , Milwaukee , Wisconsin 53226 , USA
| | - Zhan-Guo Gao
- Molecular Recognition Section , Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry , National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases , National Institutes of Health , Bldg. 8A, Rm. B1A-19, NIH, NIDDK, LBC , Bethesda , Maryland 20892-0810 , USA . ; ; Tel: +301 496 9024
| | - Kenneth A Jacobson
- Molecular Recognition Section , Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry , National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases , National Institutes of Health , Bldg. 8A, Rm. B1A-19, NIH, NIDDK, LBC , Bethesda , Maryland 20892-0810 , USA . ; ; Tel: +301 496 9024
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