Mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles protect against abdominal aortic aneurysm formation by inhibiting NET-induced ferroptosis

Highly sensitive magnetic particle imaging of abdominal aortic aneurysm NETosis with anti-Ly6G iron oxide nanoparticles

Abdominal aortic aneurysms (AAA) are a significant health concern in developed countries due to their considerable mortality rate. The crucial factor of the progression of AAA is the release of neutrophils and neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). Magnetic particle imaging (MPI) is a new imaging technique that offers the capability to detect superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPION) with exceptional sensitivity. We aimed to investigate the functional imaging of MPI for the detection and monitoring of neutrophil infiltration within AAA. A novel multimodal imaging agent targeting neutrophils, PEG-Fe3O4-Ly6G-Cy7 nanoparticles (Ly6G NPs), were designed by coupling Fe3O4 nanoparticles with Ly6G antibodies and Cy7. The targeting and sensitivity of Ly6G NPs were assessed using MPI and fluorescence imaging (FLI) in the AAA mouse model. After the inhibition of NETosis, the degree of neutrophil infiltration and AAA severity were assessed using MPI with Ly6G NPs. Ly6G NPs accurately localized and quantitatively analyzed AAA lesion sites in mice using MPI/FLI/CT. Compared to the control group, elevated MPI and FLI signal intensities were detected at the abdominal aortic lesion site, and neutrophil infiltration and NETs accumulation were detected by histological analysis in the AAA models. After the inhibition of NETs accumulation in vivo, pathological damage in the abdominal aorta was significantly reduced, along with a decrease in the accumulation of Ly6G NPs and MPI signals. This multimodal MPI strategy revealed that nanoparticles targeting Ly6G can be used to detect neutrophil infiltration within AAA and monitor AAA severity.

Inflammation in Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm: cause or co-morbidity?

Aortic aneurysm is a potentially deadly disease. It is chronic degeneration of the aortic wall that involves an inflammatory response and the immune system, aberrant remodeling of the extracellular matrix, and maladaptive transformation of the aortic cells. This review article focuses on the role of the inflammatory cells in abdominal aortic aneurysm. Studies in human aneurysmal specimens and animal models have identified various inflammatory cell types that could contribute to aneurysm formation and or expansion. These include the commonly studied leukocytes (neutrophils and macrophages) as well as the less commonly explored natural killer cells, dendritic cells, T- and B-cells. Despite the well-demonstrated contribution of inflammatory cells and the related signaling pathways to aneurysm development and expansion, anti-inflammatory therapy approaches have demonstrated limitations and may require additional considerations, such as a combinational approach in targeting multiple pathways for significant beneficial outcomes.

Neutrophil extracellular trap-induced ferroptosis promotes abdominal aortic aneurysm formation via SLC25A11-mediated depletion of mitochondrial glutathione

BACKGROUND

Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) induce oxidative stress, which may initiate ferroptosis, an iron-dependent programmed cell death, during abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) formation. Mitochondria regulate the progression of ferroptosis, which is characterized by the depletion of mitochondrial glutathione (mitoGSH) levels. However, the mechanisms are poorly understood. This study examined the role of mitoGSH in regulating NET-induced ferroptosis of smooth muscle cells (SMCs) during AAA formation.

METHODS

Concentrations of NET markers were tested in plasma samples. Western blotting and immunofluorescent staining were performed to detect the expression and localization of NET and ferroptosis markers in tissue samples. The role of NETs and SMC ferroptosis during AAA formation was investigated using peptidyl arginine deiminase 4 gene (Padi4) knockout or treatment with a PAD4 inhibitor, ferroptosis inhibitor or activator in an angiotensin II-induced AAA mouse model. The regulatory effect of SLC25A11, a mitochondrial glutathione transporter, on mitoGSH and NET-induced ferroptosis of SMCs was investigated using in vitro and in vivo experiments. Transmission electron microscopy was used to detect mitochondrial damage. Blue native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis was used to analyze the dimeric and monomeric forms of the protein.

RESULTS

Significantly elevated levels of NETosis and ferroptosis markers in aortic tissue samples were observed during AAA formation. Specifically, NETs promoted AAA formation by inducing ferroptosis of SMCs. Subsequently, SLC25A11 was identified as a potential biomarker for evaluating the clinical prognosis of patients with AAA. Furthermore, NETs decreased the stability and dimerization of SLC25A11, leading to the depletion of mitoGSH. This depletion induced the ferroptosis of SMCs and promoted AAA formation.

CONCLUSION

During AAA formation, NETs regulate the stability of the mitochondrial carrier protein SLC25A11, leading to the depletion of mitoGSH and subsequent activation of NET-induced ferroptosis of SMCs. Preventing mitoGSH depletion and ferroptosis in SMCs is a potential strategy for treating AAA.

Mesenchymal stromal cell-derived exosomes protect against abdominal aortic aneurysm formation through CD74 modulation of macrophage polarization in mice

BACKGROUND

Mesenchymal stromal cell (MSC)-derived exosomes (MSC-Exo) have been recognized for their significant role in regulating macrophage polarization, a process crucial to the pathogenesis of abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA). However, the therapeutic effects of MSC-Exo on AAA remain largely unexplored. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the functional and mechanistic aspects of MSC-Exo in the progression of AAA.

METHODS

The MSC-derived exosomes were characterized using Transmission Electron Microscopy, Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis, and Western blotting. An experimental mouse model of AAA was established through the administration of angiotensin II (Ang II) in male apoe-/- mice and calcium chloride (CaCl2) in male C57/B6 mice, with subsequent tail vein injection of exosomes to evaluate their efficacy against AAA. Macrophage polarization was assessed using immunofluorescence staining and WB analysis. Mechanistic analysis was performed using 4D Label-free Proteomics analysis.

RESULTS

We found that intravenous administration of MSC-Exo induced M2 polarization of macrophages within an inflammatory environment, effectively impeding AAA development in Ang II or CaCl2-induced AAA model. The therapeutic efficacy of MSC-Exo treatment was dependent on the presence of macrophages. Mechanistically, MSC-Exo suppressed the levels of cluster of differentiation 74 (CD74), modulating macrophage polarization through the TSC2-mTOR-AKT pathway. These findings highlight the potential of MSC-Exo as a therapeutic strategy for AAA by modulating macrophage polarization.

PI3Kγ promotes neutrophil extracellular trap formation by noncanonical pyroptosis in abdominal aortic aneurysm

Abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) is one of the most life-threatening cardiovascular diseases; however, effective drug treatments are still lacking. The formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) has been shown to be a crucial trigger of AAA, and identifying upstream regulatory targets is thus key to discovering therapeutic agents for AAA. We revealed that phosphoinositide-3-kinase γ (PI3Kγ) acted as an upstream regulatory molecule and that PI3Kγ inhibition reduced NET formation and aortic wall inflammation, thereby markedly ameliorating AAA. However, the mechanism of NET formation regulated by PI3Kγ remains unclear. In this study, we showed that PI3Kγ deficiency inactivated the noncanonical pyroptosis pathway, which suppressed downstream NET formation. In addition, PI3Kγ regulation of noncanonical pyroptosis was dependent on cyclic AMP/protein kinase A signaling. These results clarify the molecular mechanism and crosstalk between PI3Kγ and NETosis in the development of AAA, potentially facilitating the discovery of therapeutic options for AAA.

Construction of the circRNA-miRNA-mRNA axis based on ferroptosis-related gene AKR1C1 to explore the potential pathogenesis of abdominal aortic aneurysm

Abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) is a cardiovascular disease that seriously threatens human health and brings huge economic burden. At present, its pathogenesis remains unclear and its treatment is limited to surgical treatment. With the deepening and analysis of studies on the mechanism of ferroptosis, a new idea has been provided for the clinical management of AAA patients, including diagnosis, treatment and prevention. Therefore, this paper aims to construct a competitive endogenous RNA (ceRNA) regulatory axis based on ferroptosis to preliminarily explore the pathogenesis and potential therapeutic targets of AAA. We obtained upregulated and downregulated ferroptosis-related DEGs (FRGs) from GSE144431 dataset and 60 known ferroptosis-related genes. Pearson correlation analysis was used to find aldoketone reductase 1C (AKR1C1) in AAA samples. Enrichment analysis of these genes was performed via Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG). Correlation test between immune cells and AKR1C1 was investigated through single-sample gene set enrichment analysis (ssGSEA). The AKR1C1-miRNA pairs were predicted by the TargetScan database and miRWalk database. Circular RNA (CircRNA)-miRNA pairs were selected by the CircInteractome database. Overlapping miRNA between circRNA-miRNA and AKR1C1-miRNA pairs was visualized by Venn diagram. Finally, the circRNA-miRNA-mRNA axis was constructed by searching for upstream circRNA and downstream mRNA of overlapping miRNA. Only one downregulated AKR1C1 gene was found in GSE144431 and 60 ferroptosis-related genes. Functional Enrichment and Pathway Analysis of AKR1C1-related genes were further explored, and it was observed that they were mainly enriched in "response to oxidative stress," "glutathione biosynthetic process" and "nonribosomal peptide biosynthetic process," "Ferroptosis," "Glutathione metabolism" and "Chemical carcinogenesis-reactive oxygen species." They were also found to be significantly associated with most immune cells, including Activated Dendritic cells, CD56dim Natural killer cells, Gamma Delta T cells, Immature B cells, Plasmacytoid dendritic cell, Type 2 T helper cell, Activated CD4 T cell and Type 1 T helper cell. Has_circ_0005073-miRNA-543 and AKR1C1-miRNA-543 were identified by Online Database analysis. Therefore, we have established the has_circ_0005073/miRNA-543/AKR1C1 axis in AAA. We found AKR1C1 was differentially expressed between normal and AAA groups. Based on AKR1C1, we constructed the has_circ_0005073/miRNA-543/AKR1C1 axis to analyze AAA.

Ferroptosis: An important mechanism of disease mediated by the gut-liver-brain axis

AIMS

As a unique iron-dependent non-apoptotic cell death, Ferroptosis is involved in the pathogenesis and development of many human diseases and has become a research hotspot in recent years. However, the regulatory role of ferroptosis in the gut-liver-brain axis has not been elucidated. This paper summarizes the regulatory role of ferroptosis and provides theoretical basis for related research.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We searched PubMed, CNKI and Wed of Science databases on ferroptosis mediated gut-liver-brain axis diseases, summarized the regulatory role of ferroptosis on organ axis, and explained the adverse effects of related regulatory effects on various diseases.

KEY FINDINGS

According to our summary, the main way in which ferroptosis mediates the gut-liver-brain axis is oxidative stress, and the key cross-talk of ferroptosis affecting signaling pathway network is Nrf2/HO-1. However, there were no specific marker between different organ axes mediate by ferroptosis.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our study illustrates the main ways and key cross-talk of ferroptosis mediating the gut-liver-brain axis, providing a basis for future research.

Advances and challenges in regenerative therapies for abdominal aortic aneurysm

Abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) is a significant source of mortality worldwide and carries a mortality of greater than 80% after rupture. Despite extensive efforts to develop pharmacological treatments, there is currently no effective agent to prevent aneurysm growth and rupture. Current treatment paradigms only rely on the identification and surveillance of small aneurysms, prior to ultimate open surgical or endovascular repair. Recently, regenerative therapies have emerged as promising avenues to address the degenerative changes observed in AAA. This review briefly outlines current clinical management principles, characteristics, and pharmaceutical targets of AAA. Subsequently, a thorough discussion of regenerative approaches is provided. These include cellular approaches (vascular smooth muscle cells, endothelial cells, and mesenchymal stem cells) as well as the delivery of therapeutic molecules, gene therapies, and regenerative biomaterials. Lastly, additional barriers and considerations for clinical translation are provided. In conclusion, regenerative approaches hold significant promise for in situ reversal of tissue damages in AAA, necessitating sustained research and innovation to achieve successful and translatable therapies in a new era in AAA management.

Mechanism and clinical implication of gut dysbiosis in degenerative abdominal aortic aneurysm: A systematic review

The gut microbiome is the entirety of microorganisms and their genomes residing in the gut, characterised by diversity, stability, and resilience. Disrupted gut microbiome has been implicated in multiple disease entities. The aim of this paper is to summarise the rapidly evolving contemporary evidence of gut dysbiosis on the development and progression of abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA), discuss possible mechanisms, and explore potential microbiota-targeted interventions and prognostic markers for AAA. A systematic literature search was performed according to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses statement, using PubMed, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, Ovid, Embase. Search terms of "microbiome" OR "dysbiosis" OR "microorganism"; AND "aneurysm" OR "dilatation" OR "aorta" were used. Study endpoints included effects of microbiota on AAA formation, effects of specific type of bacteria and its metabolite on AAA formation, and pre- or post-treatment by novel small-molecules/inhibitors. From May to August 2023, a total of twelve animal studies and eight human studies were included. Akkermansia muciniphila, Lactobacillus acidophilus and species from the Bacteroidetes phylum were associated with lower AAA incidence in both animal and human studies, while Proteobacteria phylum, Campylobacter, Fusobacterium and Faecalibacterium prausnitzii were found to be in abundance in the AAA group and were associated with larger aneurysms. The diversity of gut microbiota was inversely correlated with AAA diameter. Three important mechanisms were identified: including trimethylamine N-oxide pathway, butyric acid pathway, and aberrant tryptophan metabolism. With our expanding knowledge of the downstream pathogenic mechanisms of gut dysbiosis, novel therapeutics such as short-chain fatty acids and spermidine, as well as prognostic biomarkers such as TMAO have yielded promising preclinical results. In conclusion, there is strong evidence corroborating the role of gut dysbiosis in the pathogenesis of AAA, wherein its therapeutic and prognostic potential deserves further exploration.

Emerging regulatory mechanisms in cardiovascular disease: Ferroptosis

Ferroptosis, distinct from apoptosis, necrosis, autophagy, and other types of cell death, is a novel iron-dependent regulated cell death characterized by the accumulation of lipid peroxides and redox imbalance with distinct morphological, biochemical, and genetic features. Dysregulation of iron homeostasis, the disruption of antioxidative stress pathways and lipid peroxidation are crucial in ferroptosis. Ferroptosis is involved in the pathogenesis of several cardiovascular diseases, including atherosclerosis, cardiomyopathy, myocardial infarction, ischemia-reperfusion injury, abdominal aortic aneurysm, aortic dissection, and heart failure. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms that regulate ferroptosis in cardiovascular diseases will enhance the prevention and treatment of these diseases. This review discusses the latest findings on the molecular mechanisms of ferroptosis and its regulation in cardiovascular diseases, the application of ferroptosis modulators in cardiovascular diseases, and the role of traditional Chinese medicines in ferroptosis regulation to provide a comprehensive understanding of the pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases and identify new prevention and treatment options.

Neutrophil Extracellular Traps in Cardiovascular and Aortic Disease: A Narrative Review on Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Targeting

Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), composed of DNA, histones, and antimicrobial proteins, are released by neutrophils in response to pathogens but are also recognized for their involvement in a range of pathological processes, including autoimmune diseases, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases. This review explores the intricate roles of NETs in different cardiovascular conditions such as thrombosis, atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, COVID-19, and particularly in the pathogenesis of abdominal aortic aneurysms. We elucidate the mechanisms underlying NET formation and function, provide a foundational understanding of their biological significance, and highlight the contribution of NETs to inflammation, thrombosis, and tissue remodeling in vascular disease. Therapeutic strategies for preventing NET release are compared with approaches targeting components of formed NETs in cardiovascular disease. Current limitations and potential avenues for clinical translation of anti-NET treatments are discussed.

Reducing Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm Progression by Blocking Neutrophil Extracellular Traps Depends on Thrombus Formation

Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are implicated in the pathogenesis of abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA), located in adventitia and intraluminal thrombus. We compared the therapeutic potential of targeting upstream or downstream effector molecules of NET formation in 2 murine AAA models based on angiotensin II or peri-adventitial elastase application. In both models, NETs were detected in formed aneurysms at treatment start. Although NET inhibitors failed in the elastase model, they prevented progression of angiotensin II-induced aneurysms with thrombus, which resembles established human disease (including thrombus development). Blockade of upstream NET mediators was more effective than interference with downstream NET molecules.

CircCDYL Contributes to Apoptosis, Ferroptosis, and Oxidative Stress of Ang II-Induced Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells in Thoracic Aortic Aneurysm

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) have important regulation in thoracic aortic aneurysm (TAA). The function and mechanism of circCDYL (circ_0008285) was explored in TAA here. Angiotensin II (Ang II) was used to construct a TAA model. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) was performed for the detection of circCDYL, miR-1270, and a disintegrin and metalloproteinase 10 (ADAM10). Cell viability was examined via cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) assay and proliferation was analyzed using Ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine (EdU) assay. Apoptosis rate was assessed via flow cytometry. Western blot was used for protein detection. Oxidative stress was evaluated by commercial kits. CircCDYL was upregulated in TAA tissues and Ang II-induced circCDYL upregulation in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). Knockdown of circCDYL weakened Ang II-aroused inhibition of viability, proliferation, and promotion of apoptosis, ferroptosis, and oxidative stress in VSMCs. CircCDYL served as a miR-1270 sponge. The mitigated regulation of circCDYL knockdown for Ang II-induced injury was restored after miR-1270 downregulation. CircCDYL positively regulated ADAM10 through interacting with miR-1270. Overexpression of miR-1270 abated Ang II-induced injury by downregulating ADAM10. In conclusion, circCDYL was involved in the Ang II-induced VSMC injury in TAA via the miR-1270/ADAM10 axis.

Cellular, Molecular and Clinical Aspects of Aortic Aneurysm-Vascular Physiology and Pathophysiology

A disturbance of the structure of the aortic wall results in the formation of aortic aneurysm, which is characterized by a significant bulge on the vessel surface that may have consequences, such as distention and finally rupture. Abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) is a major pathological condition because it affects approximately 8% of elderly men and 1.5% of elderly women. The pathogenesis of AAA involves multiple interlocking mechanisms, including inflammation, immune cell activation, protein degradation and cellular malalignments. The expression of inflammatory factors, such as cytokines and chemokines, induce the infiltration of inflammatory cells into the wall of the aorta, including macrophages, natural killer cells (NK cells) and T and B lymphocytes. Protein degradation occurs with a high expression not only of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) but also of neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL), interferon gamma (IFN-γ) and chymases. The loss of extracellular matrix (ECM) due to cell apoptosis and phenotype switching reduces tissue density and may contribute to AAA. It is important to consider the key mechanisms of initiating and promoting AAA to achieve better preventative and therapeutic outcomes.

Gualou xiebai decoction ameliorates cardiorenal syndrome type II by regulation of PI3K/AKT/NF-κB signalling pathway

BACKGROUND

Cardiorenal syndromes type II (CRS2) is a multi-organ ailment that manifests as a combination of cardiac and renal dysfunction, resulting in chronic kidney disease due to chronic cardiac insufficiency. It affects at least 26 million people worldwide, and its prevalence is increasing. Gualou Xiebai Decoction (GXD), a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) with a rich history of application in the management of coronary artery disease, has been explored for its potential therapeutic benefits in CRS2. Nevertheless, the mechanism by which GXD alleviates CRS2 remains obscure, necessitating further investigation.

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to assess the effects of the ethanolic extract of GXD on CRS2 and to elucidate the underlying mechanism in a rat model of myocardial infarction, offering a potential target for clinical treatment for CRS2.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

A rat model of CRS2 was induced by surgical myocardial infarction and treated with GXD for 10 weeks. Cardiac function was assessed using echocardiography, while serum and urine biochemistry were analyzed to evaluate potential cardiac and renal damage. Furthermore, tissue samples were obtained for histological, protein, and genetic investigations. In addition, network pharmacology analysis and molecular docking were utilized to predict the primary active compounds, potential therapeutic targets, and interventional pathways through which GXD could potentially exert its effects on CRS2. Subsequently, these predictions were confirmed in vivo and vitro through various analyses.

RESULTS

The current investigation employed echocardiography to exhibit the apparent cardiac remodeling following the induction of myocardial infarction. Damage to the heart and kidneys of CRS2 rats was effectively ameliorated by administration of GXD. The outcomes derived from the analyses of HE and Masson staining indicated that the pathological damage to the heart and kidney tissues of rats in the GXD groups was considerably alleviated. Using network pharmacology analysis, AKT1, IL-6, and TNF-α were identified as plausible therapeutic targets for the treatment of CRS with GXD. Subsequent functional and pathway enrichment analysis of the underlying targets disclosed that the PI3K/AKT/NF-κB signaling pathway may be involved in the mechanism of GXD in the treatment of CRS2. Immunohistochemical, western blot, RT-PCR and immunofluorescence staining were employed to demonstrate that GXD can regulate the PI3K/AKT/NF-κB signaling pathway in the CRS2 rat model. Ultimately, administration of the PI3K/AKT agonist 740Y-P counteracted the effect of diosmetin, which was one of the potential active components of GXD analysed by compound-target-disease network, on p-PI3K and p-AKT in vitro.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of this study suggest that GXD improves cardiac and renal function in CRS2 rats and that the underlying mechanism involves inhibition of the PI3K/AKT/NF-κB pathway.

Aortic aneurysms: current pathogenesis and therapeutic targets

Aortic aneurysm is a chronic disease characterized by localized expansion of the aorta, including the ascending aorta, arch, descending aorta, and abdominal aorta. Although aortic aneurysms are generally asymptomatic, they can threaten human health by sudden death due to aortic rupture. Aortic aneurysms are estimated to lead to 150,000 ~ 200,000 deaths per year worldwide. Currently, there are no effective drugs to prevent the growth or rupture of aortic aneurysms; surgical repair or endovascular repair is the only option for treating this condition. The pathogenic mechanisms and therapeutic targets for aortic aneurysms have been examined over the past decade; however, there are unknown pathogenic mechanisms involved in cellular heterogeneity and plasticity, the complexity of the transforming growth factor-β signaling pathway, inflammation, cell death, intramural neovascularization, and intercellular communication. This review summarizes the latest research findings and current pathogenic mechanisms of aortic aneurysms, which may enhance our understanding of aortic aneurysms.

Bone-targeting exosome nanoparticles activate Keap1 / Nrf2 / GPX4 signaling pathway to induce ferroptosis in osteosarcoma cells

BACKGROUND

In recent years, the development of BMSCs-derived exosomes (EXO) for the treatment of osteosarcoma (OS) is a safe and promising modality for OS treatment, which can effectively deliver drugs to tumor cells in vivo. However, the differences in the drugs carried, and the binding of EXOs to other organs limit their therapeutic efficacy. Therefore, improving the OS-targeting ability of BMSCs EXOs and developing new drugs is crucial for the clinical application of targeted therapy for OS.

RESULTS

In this study, we constructed a potential therapeutic nano platform by modifying BMSCs EXOs using the bone-targeting peptide SDSSD and encapsulated capreomycin (CAP) within a shell. These constructed nanoparticles (NPs) showed the ability of homologous targeting and bone-targeting exosomes (BT-EXO) significantly promotes cellular endocytosis in vitro and tumor accumulation in vivo. Furthermore, our results revealed that the constructed NPs induced ferroptosis in OS cells by prompting excessive accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), Fe2+ aggregation, and lipid peroxidation and further identified the potential anticancer molecular mechanism of ferroptosis as transduced by the Keap1/Nrf2/GPX4 signaling pathway. Also, these constructed NP-directed ferroptosis showed significant inhibition of tumor growth in vivo with no significant side effects.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that these constructed NPs have superior anticancer activity in mouse models of OS in vitro and in vivo, providing a new and promising strategy for combining ferroptosis-based chemotherapy with targeted therapy for OS.

Ferroptosis: a new strategy for cardiovascular disease

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is currently one of the prevalent causes of human death. Iron is one of the essential trace elements in the human body and a vital component of living tissues. All organ systems require iron for various metabolic processes, including myocardial and skeletal muscle metabolism, erythropoiesis, mitochondrial function, and oxygen transport. Its deficiency or excess in the human body remains one of the nutritional problems worldwide. The total amount of iron in a normal human body is about 3-5 g. Iron deficiency may cause symptoms such as general fatigue, pica, and nerve deafness, while excessive iron plays a crucial role in the pathophysiological processes of the heart through ferroptosis triggered by the Fenton reaction. It differs from other cell death modes based on its dependence on the accumulation of lipid peroxides and REDOX imbalance, opening a new pathway underlying the pathogenesis and mechanism of CVDs. In this review, we describe the latest research progress on the mechanism of ferroptosis and report its crucial role and association with miRNA in various CVDs. Finally, we summarise the potential therapeutic value of ferroptosis-related drugs or ferroptosis inhibitors in CVDs.