Synonymous GATA2 mutations result in selective loss of mutated RNA and are common in patients with GATA2 deficiency

The different faces of GATA2 deficiency: implications for therapy and surveillance

GATA2 deficiency is one of the most common genetic predispositions to pediatric myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) in children and adolescents. The wide spectrum of disease comprises, among others, hematological, immunological and pulmonary manifestations, as well as occasionally distinct organ anomalies. Due to the elevated risk of progression, nearly all individuals with GATA2-related MDS eventually undergo a hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) at some point in their lives. Nevertheless, the optimal timing, method, and even the indication for HSCT in certain cases are still matter of debate and warrant further research. In this article, we report five patients with different hematological and immunological manifestations of GATA2 deficiency ranging from immunodeficiency and refractory cytopenia of childhood without chromosomal aberrations to relapsed MDS-related acute myeloid leukemia. We discuss the adopted strategies, including intensity of surveillance, indication and timing of HSCT, based on morphological, clinical and molecular markers, as well as individual patient needs. We conclude that a better characterization of the natural disease course, a better understanding of the prognostic significance of somatic aberrations and a thorough evaluation of patients´ perspectives and preferences are required to achieve a personalized approach aimed at improving the care of these patients.

Germline predisposition to myeloid neoplasms: Characteristics and management of high versus variable penetrance disorders

Myeloid neoplasms with germline predisposition have been recognized increasingly over the past decade with numerous newly described disorders. Penetrance, age of onset, phenotypic heterogeneity, and somatic driver events differ widely among these conditions and sometimes even within family members with the same variant, making risk assessment and counseling of these individuals inherently difficult. In this review, we will shed light on high malignant penetrance (e.g., CEBPA, GATA2, SAMD9/SAMD9L, and TP53) versus variable malignant penetrance syndromes (e.g., ANKRD26, DDX41, ETV6, RUNX1, and various bone marrow failure syndromes) and their clinical features, such as variant type and location, course of disease, and prognostic markers. We further discuss the recommended management of these syndromes based on penetrance with an emphasis on somatic aberrations consistent with disease progression/transformation and suggested timing of allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant. This review will thereby provide important data that can help to individualize and improve the management for these patients.

[Suspicion of constitutional abnormality at diagnosis of childhood leukemia: Update of the leukemia committee of the French Society of Childhood Cancers]

The spectrum of childhood leukemia predisposition syndromes has grown significantly over last decades. These predisposition syndromes mainly involve CEBPA, ETV6, GATA2, IKZF1, PAX5, RUNX1, SAMD9/SAMD9L, TP53, RAS-MAPK pathway, DNA mismatch repair system genes, genes associated with Fanconi anemia, and trisomy 21. The clinico-biological features leading to the suspicion of a leukemia predisposition are highly heterogeneous and require varied exploration strategies. The study of the initial characteristics of childhood leukemias includes high-throughput sequencing techniques, which have increased the frequency of situations where a leukemia predisposing syndrome is suspected. Identification of a leukemia predisposition syndrome can have a major impact on the choice of chemotherapy, the indication for hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, and screening for associated malformations and pathologies. The diagnosis of a predisposition syndrome can also lead to the exploration of family members and genetic counseling. Diagnosis and management should be based on dedicated and multidisciplinary care networks.

Linking GATA2 to myeloid dysplasia and complex cytogenetics in adult myelodysplastic neoplasm and acute myeloid leukemia

ABSTRACT

GATA binding protein 2 (GATA2) is a conserved zinc finger transcription factor that regulates the emergence and maintenance of complex genetic programs driving development and function of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs). Patients born with monoallelic GATA2 mutations develop myelodysplastic neoplasm (MDS) and acute myeloid leukemia (AML), whereas acquired GATA2 mutations are reported in 3% to 5% of sporadic AML cases. The mechanisms by which aberrant GATA2 activity promotes MDS and AML are incompletely understood. Efforts to understand GATA2 in basic biology and disease will be facilitated by the development of broadly efficacious antibodies recognizing physiologic levels of GATA2 in diverse tissue types and assays. Here, we purified a polyclonal anti-GATA2 antibody and generated multiple highly specific anti-GATA2 monoclonal antibodies, optimized them for immunohistochemistry on patient bone marrow bioosy samples, and analyzed GATA2 expression in adults with healthy bone marrow, MDS, and acute leukemia. In healthy bone marrow, GATA2 was detected in mast cells, subsets of CD34+ HSPCs, E-cadherin-positive erythroid progenitors, and megakaryocytes. In MDS, GATA2 expression correlates with bone marrow blast percentage, positively correlates with myeloid dysplasia and complex cytogenetics, and is a nonindependent negative predictor of overall survival. In acute leukemia, the percent of GATA2+ blasts closely associates with myeloid lineage, whereas a subset of lymphoblastic and undifferentiated leukemias with myeloid features also express GATA2. However, the percent of GATA2+ blasts in AML is highly variable. Elevated GATA2 expression in AML blasts correlates with peripheral neutropenia and complex AML cytogenetics but, unlike in MDS, does not predict survival.

A Nationwide Study of GATA2 Deficiency in Italy Reveals Novel Symptoms and Genotype-phenotype Association

GATA2 deficiency is a rare disorder encompassing a broadly variable phenotype and its clinical picture is continuously evolving. Since it was first described in 2011, up to 500 patients have been reported. Here, we describe a cohort of 31 Italian patients (26 families) with molecular diagnosis of GATA2 deficiency. Patients were recruited contacting all the Italian Association of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology (AIEOP) centers, the Hematology Department in their institution and Italian societies involved in the field of vascular anomalies, otorhinolaryngology, dermatology, infectious and respiratory diseases. Median age at the time of first manifestation, molecular diagnosis and last follow-up visit was 12.5 (age-range, 2-52 years), 18 (age-range, 7-64 years) and 22 years (age-range, 3-64), respectively. Infections (39%), hematological malignancies (23%) and undefined cytopenia (16%) were the most frequent symptoms at the onset of the disease. The majority of patients (55%) underwent hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. During the follow-up rarer manifestations emerged. The clinical penetrance was highly variable, with the coexistence of severely affected pediatric patients and asymptomatic adults in the same pedigree. Two individuals remained asymptomatic at the last follow-up visit. Our study highlights new (pilonidal cyst/sacrococcygeal fistula, cholangiocarcinoma and gastric adenocarcinoma) phenotypes and show that lymphedema may be associated with null/regulatory mutations. Countrywide studies providing long prospective follow-up are essential to unveil the exact burden of rarer manifestations and the natural history in GATA2 deficiency.

Diagnostic work-up of hematological malignancies with underlying germline predisposition disorders (GPD)

Hematological malignancies with underlying germline predisposition disorders have been recognized by the World Health Organization 5th edition and International Consensus Classification (ICC) classification systems. The list of genes and the associated phenotypes are expanding and involve both pediatric and adult populations. While the clinical presentation and underlying molecular pathogenesis are relatively well described, the knowledge regarding the bone marrow morphologic features, the landscape of somatic aberrations associated with progression to hematological malignancies is limited. These pose challenges in the diagnosis of low-grade myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) to hematopathologists which carries direct implication for various aspects of clinical management of the patient, donor selection for transplantation, and family members. Here in, we provide a focused review on the diagnostic work-up of hematological malignancies with underlying germline predisposition disorders with emphasis on the spectrum of hematological malignancies associated with each entity, and characteristic bone marrow morphologic, somatic cytogenetic and molecular alterations at the time of diagnosis of hematological malignancies. We also review the key clinical, morphologic, and molecular features, that should initiate screening for these entities.

Transcription factor genetics and biology in predisposition to bone marrow failure and hematological malignancy

Transcription factors (TFs) play a critical role as key mediators of a multitude of developmental pathways, with highly regulated and tightly organized networks crucial for determining both the timing and pattern of tissue development. TFs can act as master regulators of both primitive and definitive hematopoiesis, tightly controlling the behavior of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs). These networks control the functional regulation of HSPCs including self-renewal, proliferation, and differentiation dynamics, which are essential to normal hematopoiesis. Defining the key players and dynamics of these hematopoietic transcriptional networks is essential to understanding both normal hematopoiesis and how genetic aberrations in TFs and their networks can predispose to hematopoietic disease including bone marrow failure (BMF) and hematological malignancy (HM). Despite their multifaceted and complex involvement in hematological development, advances in genetic screening along with elegant multi-omics and model system studies are shedding light on how hematopoietic TFs interact and network to achieve normal cell fates and their role in disease etiology. This review focuses on TFs which predispose to BMF and HM, identifies potential novel candidate predisposing TF genes, and examines putative biological mechanisms leading to these phenotypes. A better understanding of the genetics and molecular biology of hematopoietic TFs, as well as identifying novel genes and genetic variants predisposing to BMF and HM, will accelerate the development of preventative strategies, improve clinical management and counseling, and help define targeted treatments for these diseases.

GATA2 Deficiency: Predisposition to Myeloid Malignancy and Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

GATA2 deficiency is a haploinsufficiency syndrome associated with a wide spectrum of disease, including severe monocytopenia and B and NK lymphopenia, predisposition to myeloid malignancies, human papillomavirus infections, and infections with opportunistic organisms, particularly nontuberculous mycobacteria, herpes virus, and certain fungi. GATA2 mutations have variable penetrance and expressivity with imperfect genotype-phenotype correlations. However, approximately 75% of patients will develop a myeloid neoplasm at some point. Allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) is the only currently available curative therapy. Here, we review the clinical manifestations of GATA2 deficiency, characterization of the hematologic abnormalities and progression to myeloid malignancy, and current HCT practices and outcomes.

RECENT FINDINGS

Cytogenetic abnormalities are common with high rates of trisomy 8, monosomy 7, and unbalanced translocation der(1;7) and may suggest an underlying GATA2 deficiency in patients presenting with myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS). Mutations in ASXL1 and STAG2 are the most frequently encountered somatic mutations and are associated with lower survival probability. A recent report of 59 patients with GATA2 deficiency who underwent allogenic HCT with myeloablative, busulfan-based conditioning and post-transplant cyclophosphamide reported excellent overall and event-free survival of 85% and 82% with reversal of disease phenotype and low rates of graft versus host disease. Allogeneic HCT with myeloablative conditioning results in disease correction and should be considered for patients with a history of recurrent, disfiguring and/or severe infections, organ dysfunction, MDS with cytogenetic abnormalities, high-risk somatic mutations or transfusion dependence, or myeloid progression. Improved genotype/phenotype correlations are needed to allow for greater predictive capabilities.

Germline Predisposition to Myelodysplastic Syndromes

ABSTRACT

While germline predisposition to myelodysplastic syndromes is well-established, knowledge has advanced rapidly resulting in more cases of inherited hematologic malignancies being identified. Understanding the biological features and main clinical manifestations of hereditary hematologic malignancies is essential to recognizing and referring patients with myelodysplastic syndrome, who may underlie inherited predisposition, for appropriate genetic evaluation. Importance lies in individualized genetic counseling along with informed treatment decisions, especially with regard to hematopoietic stem cell transplant-related donor selection. Future studies will improve comprehension of these disorders, enabling better management of affected patients and their families.

European standard clinical practice - Key issues for the medical care of individuals with familial leukemia

Although hematologic malignancies (HM) are no longer considered exclusively sporadic, additional awareness of familial cases has yet to be created. Individuals carrying a (likely) pathogenic germline variant (e.g., in ETV6, GATA2, SAMD9, SAMD9L, or RUNX1) are at an increased risk for developing HM. Given the clinical and psychological impact associated with the diagnosis of a genetic predisposition to HM, it is of utmost importance to provide high-quality, standardized patient care. To address these issues and harmonize care across Europe, the Familial Leukemia Subnetwork within the ERN PaedCan has been assigned to draft an European Standard Clinical Practice (ESCP) document reflecting current best practices for pediatric patients and (healthy) relatives with (suspected) familial leukemia. The group was supported by members of the German network for rare diseases MyPred, of the Host Genome Working Group of SIOPE, and of the COST action LEGEND. The ESCP on familial leukemia is proposed by an interdisciplinary team of experts including hematologists, oncologists, and human geneticists. It is intended to provide general recommendations in areas where disease-specific recommendations do not yet exist. Here, we describe key issues for the medical care of familial leukemia that shall pave the way for a future consensus guideline: (i) identification of individuals with or suggestive of familial leukemia, (ii) genetic analysis and variant interpretation, (iii) genetic counseling and patient education, and (iv) surveillance and (psychological) support. To address the question on how to proceed with individuals suggestive of or at risk of familial leukemia, we developed an algorithm covering four different, partially linked clinical scenarios, and additionally a decision tree to guide clinicians in their considerations regarding familial leukemia in minors with HM. Our recommendations cover, not only patients but also relatives that both should have access to adequate medical care. We illustrate the importance of natural history studies and the need for respective registries for future evidence-based recommendations that shall be updated as new evidence-based standards are established.

The spectrum of GATA2 deficiency syndrome

Inherited or de novo germ line heterozygous mutations in the gene encoding the transcription factor GATA2 lead to its deficiency. This results in a constellation of clinical features including nontuberculous mycobacterial, bacterial, fungal, and human papillomavirus infections, lymphedema, pulmonary alveolar proteinosis, and myelodysplasia. The onset, or even the presence, of disease is highly variable, even in kindreds with the identical mutation in GATA2. The clinical manifestations result from the loss of a multilineage progenitor that gives rise to B lymphocytes, monocytes, natural killer cells, and dendritic cells, leading to cytopenias of these lineages and subsequent infections. The bone marrow failure is typically characterized by hypocellularity. Dysplasia may either be absent or subtle but typically evolves into multilineage dysplasia with prominent dysmegakaryopoiesis, followed in some instances by progression to myeloid malignancies, specifically myelodysplastic syndrome, acute myelogenous leukemia, and chronic myelomonocytic leukemia. The latter 3 malignancies often occur in the setting of monosomy 7, trisomy 8, and acquired mutations in ASXL1 or in STAG2. Importantly, myeloid malignancy may represent the primary presentation of disease without recognition of other syndromic features. Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) results in reversal of the phenotype. There remain important unanswered questions in GATA2 deficiency, including the following: (1) Why do some family members remain asymptomatic despite harboring deleterious mutations in GATA2? (2) What are the genetic changes that lead to myeloid progression? (3) What causes the apparent genetic anticipation? (4) What is the role of preemptive HSCT?

Most synonymous allelic variants in HIV tat are not silent

The genetic code has degenerate codons that produce no change in the translated protein sequence and are generally thought to be silent. However, some synonymous variants are clearly not silent. Herein, we questioned the frequency of non-silent synonymous variants. We tested how random synonymous variants in the HIV Tat transcription factor effect transcription of an LTR-GFP reporter. Our model system has the advantage of directly measuring the function of the gene in human cells. Approximately, 67% of synonymous variants in Tat were non-silent, either having reduced activity or were full loss-of-function alleles. Eight mutant codons had higher codon usage than wild type, accompanied by reduced transcriptional activity. These were clustered on a loop in the Tat structure. We conclude that most synonymous Tat variants are not silent in human cells, and 25% are associated with changes in codon usage, likely effecting protein folding.

The Clinical Spectrum, Diagnosis, and Management of GATA2 Deficiency

Hereditary myeloid malignancy syndromes (HMMSs) are rare but are becoming increasingly significant in clinical practice. One of the most well-known syndromes within this group is GATA2 deficiency. The GATA2 gene encodes a zinc finger transcription factor essential for normal hematopoiesis. Insufficient expression and function of this gene as a result of germinal mutations underlie distinct clinical presentations, including childhood myelodysplastic syndrome and acute myeloid leukemia, in which the acquisition of additional molecular somatic abnormalities can lead to variable outcomes. The only curative treatment for this syndrome is allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, which should be performed before irreversible organ damage happens. In this review, we will examine the structural characteristics of the GATA2 gene, its physiological and pathological functions, how GATA2 genetic mutations contribute to myeloid neoplasms, and other potential clinical manifestations. Finally, we will provide an overview of current therapeutic options, including recent transplantation strategies.

GATA2 deficiency and MDS/AML: Experimental strategies for disease modelling and future therapeutic prospects

The importance of predisposition to leukaemia in clinical practice is being increasingly recognized. This is emphasized by the establishment of a novel WHO disease category in 2016 called "myeloid neoplasms with germline predisposition". A major syndrome within this group is GATA2 deficiency, a heterogeneous immunodeficiency syndrome with a very high lifetime risk to develop myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) and acute myeloid leukaemia (AML). GATA2 deficiency has been identified as the most common hereditary cause of MDS in adolescents with monosomy 7. Allogenic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation is the only curative option; however, chances of survival decrease with progression of immunodeficiency and MDS evolution. Penetrance and expressivity within families carrying GATA2 mutations is often variable, suggesting that co-operating extrinsic events are required to trigger the disease. Predictive tools are lacking, and intrafamilial heterogeneity is poorly understood; hence there is a clear unmet medical need. On behalf of the ERAPerMed GATA2 HuMo consortium, in this review we describe the genetic, clinical, and biological aspects of familial GATA2-related MDS, highlighting the importance of developing robust disease preclinical models to improve early detection and clinical decision-making of GATA2 carriers.

Case report: Successful allogeneic stem cell transplantation in a child with novel GATA2 defect associated B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia

GATA-binding protein 2 (GATA2) is a transcription factor responsible for the regulation of blood cell proliferation, differentiation, and maintenance in hematopoietic stem cells. Here, we describe successful bone marrow transplantation in a carrier of a novel GATA2 pathogenic variant who was diagnosed with immunodeficiency a few years after completion of B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia (BCP-ALL) treatment. At the age of 4 years, the patient was diagnosed with and treated for BCP-ALL. Antileukemic therapy was complicated by pulmonary cryptococcosis. Two years after completion of the maintenance therapy, the child was consulted by an immunologist because of recurrent respiratory tract infections and an episode of sepsis. Flow cytometry revealed deep monocytopenia, lymphopenia, absence of B lymphocytes, considerably reduced NK cells, poor thymic T lymphocyte production, minor defects in T cell maturation, and absence of TCRγδ+ T cells. The presence of the likely pathogenic, heterozygous missense variant within exon 5 of GATA2 (NM_032638.5: c.1047T>G, Cys349Trp) was identified in the proband and confirmed in the father of the patient, who underwent allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) from a matched unrelated donor due to myelodysplastic syndrome with excess blasts at the age of 22 years. An allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation with a reduced toxicity conditioning protocol was performed using a matched sibling donor. Pre-transplant conditioning included fludarabine (5 × 30 mg/m2), treosulfan (3 × 14 g/m2), and thiotepa (10 mg/kg). Complete donor chimerism was achieved on post-transplant day 17. During the 12 months of the posttransplant observation period, she remained free from symptoms of acute or chronic graft-versus-host disease, and immunosuppressive treatment was therefore stopped. This is the second reported case of BCP-ALL in a patient with GATA2 deficiency, and the first successfully treated with a reduced-toxicity conditioning HSCT protocol. The co-occurrence of lymphoid malignancies and primary immunodeficiencies points to the role of genetic counseling and family screening for possible cancer predisposition syndromes prior to the selection of related HSCT donors.

GATA 2 Deficiency: Focus on Immune System Impairment

GATA2 deficiency is a disease with a broad spectrum of clinical presentation, ranging from lymphedema, deafness, pulmonary dysfunction to miscarriage and urogenital anomalies, but it is mainly recognized as an immune system and bone marrow disorder. It is caused by various heterozygous mutations in the GATA2 gene, encoding for a zinc finger transcription factor with a key role for the development and maintenance of a pool of hematopoietic stem cells; notably, most of these mutations arise de novo. Patients carrying a mutated allele usually develop a loss of some cell populations, such as B-cell, dendritic cell, natural killer cell, and monocytes, and are predisposed to disseminated human papilloma virus and mycobacterial infections. Also, these patients have a predisposition to myeloid neoplasms, including myelodysplastic syndromes, myeloproliferative neoplasms, chronic myelomonocytic leukaemia. The age of symptoms onset can vary greatly even also within the same family, ranging from early childhood to late adulthood; incidence increases by age and most frequently clinical presentation is between the second and third decade of life. Currently, haematopoietic stem cell transplantation represents the only curative treatment, restoring both the hematopoietic and immune system function.

A Nationwide Study of GATA2 Deficiency in Norway-the Majority of Patients Have Undergone Allo-HSCT

Purpose

GATA2 deficiency is a rare primary immunodeficiency that has become increasingly recognized due to improved molecular diagnostics and clinical awareness. The only cure for GATA2 deficiency is allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT). The inconsistency of genotype–phenotype correlations makes the decision regarding “who and when” to transplant challenging. Despite considerable morbidity and mortality, the reported proportion of patients with GATA2 deficiency that has undergone allo-HSCT is low (~ 35%). The purpose of this study was to explore if detailed clinical, genetic, and bone marrow characteristics could predict end-point outcome, i.e., death and allo-HSCT.

Methods

All medical genetics departments in Norway were contacted to identify GATA2 deficient individuals. Clinical information, genetic variants, treatment, and outcome were subsequently retrieved from the patients’ medical records.

Results

Between 2013 and 2020, we identified 10 index cases or probands, four additional symptomatic patients, and no asymptomatic patients with germline GATA2 variants. These patients had a diverse clinical phenotype dominated by cytopenia (13/14), myeloid neoplasia (10/14), warts (8/14), and hearing loss (7/14). No valid genotype–phenotype correlations were found in our data set, and the phenotypes varied also within families. We found that 11/14 patients (79%), with known GATA2 deficiency, had already undergone allo-HSCT. In addition, one patient is awaiting allo-HSCT. The indications to perform allo-HSCT were myeloid neoplasia, disseminated viral infection, severe obliterating bronchiolitis, and/or HPV-associated in situ carcinoma. Two patients died, 8 months and 7 years after allo-HSCT, respectively.

Conclusion

Our main conclusion is that the majority of patients with symptomatic GATA2 deficiency will need allo-HSCT, and a close surveillance of these patients is important to find the “optimal window” for allo-HSCT. We advocate a more offensive approach to allo-HSCT than previously described.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10875-021-01189-y.

GATA2 deficiency phenotype associated with tandem duplication GATA2 and over-expression of GATA2-AS1

Typical features of GATA2 deficiency were associated with a de novo tandem duplication of GATA2 and increased expression of GATA2-AS1.

The duplication contained a maternally inherited deletion copy number polymorphism esv2725896/nsv513733.

A 3-year-old girl of nonconsanguineous healthy parents presented with cervical and mediastinal lymphadenopathy due to Mycobacterium fortuitum infection. Routine blood analysis showed normal hemoglobin, neutrophils, and platelets but profound mononuclear cell deficiency (monocytes < 0.1 × 10⁹/L; B cells 78/μL; NK cells 48/μL). A 548 902-bp region containing GATA2 was sequenced by targeted capture and deep sequencing. This revealed a de novo 187-kb duplication of the entire GATA2 locus, containing a maternally inherited copy number variation deletion of 25 kb (GRCh37: esv2725896 and nsv513733). Many GATA2-associated phenotypes have been attributed to amino acid substitution, frameshift/deletion, loss of intronic enhancer function, or aberrant splicing. Gene deletion has been described, but other structural variation has not been reported in the germline configuration. In this case, duplication of the GATA2 locus was paradoxically associated with skewed diminished expression of GATA2 messenger RNA and loss of GATA2 protein. Chimeric RNA fusion transcripts were not detected. A possible mechanism involves increased transcription of the anti-sense long noncoding RNA GATA2-AS1 (RP11-472.220), which was increased several fold. This case further highlights that evaluation of the allele count is essential in any case of suspected GATA2-related syndrome.

Whole-Genome Sequencing Reveals Large ATP8B1 Deletion/Duplications as Second Mutations Missed by Exome-Based Sequencing

Progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis type 1 (PFIC1) results from biallelic pathogenic variants in ATP8B1. This study sought second pathogenic variants in ATP8B1 by whole-genome sequencing (WGS) in four unrelated low γ-glutamyl transpeptidase cholestasis patients in whom clinical suspicion of PFIC1 was high and gene-panel or Sanger sequencing had identified only one pathogenic variant in ATP8B1. Sanger sequencing confirmed WGS findings and determined the origin of each variant. Novel nonrecurrent structural variants in three patients (patient 1 to patient 3) were identified in trans: g.55396652_55403080del (6427-bp deletion), g.55335906_55346620dup (10,715-bp duplication), and g.55362063_55364293dup (2231-bp duplication). One synonymous variant in patient 4 was recognized in trans (c.1029G>A, p. Thr343Thr) and demonstrated as deleterious. In conclusion, WGS improves genetic diagnostic yield in PFIC1. These findings expand the gene-variant spectrum associated with familiar intrahepatic cholestasis 1 (FIC1) disease and for the first time report tandem duplication in ATP8B1 associated with cholestasis.

Clinical utility of targeted next-generation sequencing for the diagnosis of myeloid neoplasms with germline predisposition

Myeloid neoplasms (MN) with germline predisposition (MNGP) are likely to be more common than currently appreciated. Many of the genes involved in MNGP are also recurrently mutated in sporadic MN. Therefore, routine analysis of gene panels by next-generation sequencing provides an effective approach to detect germline variants with clinical significance in patients with hematological malignancies. Gene panel sequencing was performed in 88 consecutive and five nonconsecutive patients with MN diagnosis. Disease-causing germline mutations in CEBPα, ASXL1, TP53, MPL, GATA2, DDX41, and ETV6 genes were identified in nine patients. Six out of the nine patients with germline variants had a strong family history. These patients presented great heterogeneity in the age of diagnosis and phenotypic characteristics. In our study, there were families in which all the affected members presented the same subtype of disease, whereas members of other families presented various disease phenotypes. This intrafamiliar heterogeneity suggests that the acquisition of particular somatic variants may drive the evolution of the disease. This approach enabled high-throughput detection of MNGP in patients with MN diagnosis, which is of great relevance for both the patients themselves and the asymptomatic mutation carriers within the family. It is crucial to make a proper diagnosis of these patients to provide them with the most suitable treatment, follow-up, and genetic counseling.

GATA2 and marrow failure

GATA2 gene encodes a zinc finger transcription factor crucial for normal hematopoiesis. Its haploinsufficiency, caused by a great variety of heterozygous loss-of-function mutations, underlies one of the most common causes of inherited bone marrow failure, recognized as GATA2 deficiency. Its phenotype is characterized by a broad spectrum of clinical presentations, including: haematological malignancies; immunodeficiency leading to invasive viral, mycobacterial and fungal infections; recurrent warts; lymphedema; pulmonary alveolar proteinosis; deafness; and miscarriage. The onset of symptoms ranges from early childhood to late adulthood, more frequently between adolescence and early adulthood. The only curative treatment is allogenic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), that can restore the function of both hematopoietic and immune system and prevent lung deterioration. Currently, there are no consensus guidelines about the management of patients affected by GATA2 deficiency, especially with regard to the optimal time to proceed to HSCT.

GATA2 deficiency syndrome: A decade of discovery

GATA2 deficiency syndrome (G2DS) is a rare autosomal dominant genetic disease predisposing to a range of symptoms, of which myeloid malignancy and immunodeficiency including recurrent infections are most common. In the last decade since it was first reported, there have been over 480 individuals identified carrying a pathogenic or likely pathogenic germline GATA2 variant with symptoms of G2DS, with 240 of these confirmed to be familial and 24 de novo. For those that develop myeloid malignancy (75% of all carriers with G2DS disease symptoms), the median age of onset is 17 years (range 0-78 years) and myelodysplastic syndrome is the first diagnosis in 75% of these cases with acute myeloid leukemia in a further 9%. All variant types appear to predispose to myeloid malignancy and immunodeficiency. Apart from lymphedema in which haploinsufficiency seems necessary, the mutational requirements of the other less common G2DS phenotypes is still unclear. These predominantly loss-of-function variants impact GATA2 expression and function in numerous ways including perturbations to DNA binding, protein structure, protein:protein interactions, and gene transcription, splicing, and expression. In this review, we provide the first expert-curated ACMG/AMP classification with codes of published variants compatible for use in clinical or diagnostic settings.

Allele-specific expression of GATA2 due to epigenetic dysregulation in CEBPA double-mutant AML

Transcriptional deregulation is a central event in the development of acute myeloid leukemia (AML). To identify potential disturbances in gene regulation, we conducted an unbiased screen of allele-specific expression (ASE) in 209 AML cases. The gene encoding GATA binding protein 2 (GATA2) displayed ASE more often than any other myeloid- or cancer-related gene. GATA2 ASE was strongly associated with CEBPA double mutations (DMs), with 95% of cases presenting GATA2 ASE. In CEBPA DM AML with GATA2 mutations, the mutated allele was preferentially expressed. We found that GATA2 ASE was a somatic event lost in complete remission, supporting the notion that it plays a role in CEBPA DM AML. Acquisition of GATA2 ASE involved silencing of 1 allele via promoter methylation and concurrent overactivation of the other allele, thereby preserving expression levels. Notably, promoter methylation was also lost in remission along with GATA2 ASE. In summary, we propose that GATA2 ASE is acquired by epigenetic mechanisms and is a prerequisite for the development of AML with CEBPA DMs. This finding constitutes a novel example of an epigenetic hit cooperating with a genetic hit in the pathogenesis of AML.

Transcription Factors, R-Loops and Deubiquitinating Enzymes: Emerging Targets in Myelodysplastic Syndromes and Acute Myeloid Leukemia

Simple Summary

The advent of DNA massive sequencing technologies has allowed for the first time an extensive look into the heterogeneous spectrum of genes and mutations underpinning myelodysplastic syndromes (MDSs) and acute myeloid leukemia (AML). In this review, we wish to explore the most recent advances and the rationale for the potential therapeutic interest of three main actors in myelo-leukemic transformation: transcription factors that govern myeloid differentiation; RNA splicing factors, which ensure proper mRNA maturation and whose mutations increase R-loops formation; and deubiquitinating enzymes, which contribute to genome stability in hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs).

Abstract

Myeloid neoplasms encompass a very heterogeneous family of diseases characterized by the failure of the molecular mechanisms that ensure a balanced equilibrium between hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) self-renewal and the proper production of differentiated cells. The origin of the driver mutations leading to preleukemia can be traced back to HSC/progenitor cells. Many properties typical to normal HSCs are exploited by leukemic stem cells (LSCs) to their advantage, leading to the emergence of a clonal population that can eventually progress to leukemia with variable latency and evolution. In fact, different subclones might in turn develop from the original malignant clone through accumulation of additional mutations, increasing their competitive fitness. This process ultimately leads to a complex cancer architecture where a mosaic of cellular clones—each carrying a unique set of mutations—coexists. The repertoire of genes whose mutations contribute to the progression toward leukemogenesis is broad. It encompasses genes involved in different cellular processes, including transcriptional regulation, epigenetics (DNA and histones modifications), DNA damage signaling and repair, chromosome segregation and replication (cohesin complex), RNA splicing, and signal transduction. Among these many players, transcription factors, RNA splicing proteins, and deubiquitinating enzymes are emerging as potential targets for therapeutic intervention.

Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in children and adolescents with GATA2-related myelodysplastic syndrome

GATA2 deficiency is a heterogeneous multi-system disorder characterized by a high risk of developing myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) and myeloid leukemia. We analyzed the outcome of 65 patients reported to the registry of the European Working Group (EWOG) of MDS in childhood carrying a germline GATA2 mutation (GATA2^mut) who had undergone hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). At 5 years the probability of overall survival and disease-free survival (DFS) was 75% and 70%, respectively. Non-relapse mortality and relapse equally contributed to treatment failure. There was no evidence of increased incidence of graft-versus-host-disease or excessive rates of infections or organ toxicities. Advanced disease and monosomy 7 (-7) were associated with worse outcome. Patients with refractory cytopenia of childhood (RCC) and normal karyotype showed an excellent outcome (DFS 90%) compared to RCC and -7 (DFS 67%). Comparing outcome of GATA2^mut with GATA2^wt patients, there was no difference in DFS in patients with RCC and normal karyotype. The same was true for patients with -7 across morphological subtypes. We demonstrate that HSCT outcome is independent of GATA2 germline mutations in pediatric MDS suggesting the application of standard MDS algorithms and protocols. Our data support considering HSCT early in the course of GATA2 deficiency in young individuals.

Germline predisposition to haematopoietic malignancies

Once thought to be exceedingly rare, the advent of next-generation sequencing has revealed a plethora of germline predisposition disorders that confer risk for haematopoietic malignancies (HMs). These syndromes are now recognized to be much more common than previously thought. The recognition of a germline susceptibility risk allele in an individual impacts the clinical management and health surveillance strategies in the index patient and relatives who share the causative DNA variant. Challenges to accurate clinical testing include a lack of familiarity in many health care providers, the requirement for DNA samples that reasonably approximate the germline state, and a lack of standardization among diagnostic platforms as to which genes are sequenced and their capabilities in detecting the full range of variant types that confer risk. Current knowledge gaps include a comprehensive understanding of all predisposition genes; whether scenarios exist in which an allogeneic stem cell transplant using donor haematopoietic stem cells with deleterious variants is permissive; and effective means of delivering genetic counseling and results disclosure for these conditions. We are hopeful that comprehensive germline genetic testing, universal germline testing for all patients with an HM, universal germline testing for allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell donors, and the development of preventive strategies to delay or even prevent malignancies will be available in the near future. These factors will likely contribute to improved health outcomes for at-risk individuals and their family members.

Review of guidelines for the identification and clinical care of patients with genetic predisposition for hematological malignancies

Since WHO has recognized myeloid neoplasms with germline predisposition as a new entity in 2016, it has become increasingly clear that diagnosing familial leukemia has critical implications for both the patient and his/her family, and that interdisciplinary teams of hematologists and clinical geneticists should provide care for this specific patient group. Here, we summarize consensus criteria for the identification and screening of patients with genetic predisposition for hematologic malignancies, as provided by different working groups, e.g. by the Nordic MDS group and the AACR. In addition to typical clinical features, results from targeted deep sequencing may point to a genetic predisposition. We review strategies to distinguish somatic and germline variants and discuss recommendations for genetic analyses aiming to identify the underlying genetic variant that should follow established quality criteria to detect both SNVs and CNVs and to determine the pathogenicity of genetic variants. To enhance the knowledge about hematologic neoplasms with germline predisposition we recommend archiving clinical and genetic data and archiving them in international registries.

Human GATA2 mutations and hematologic disease: how many paths to pathogenesis?

The surge of human genetic information, enabled by increasingly facile and economically feasible genomic technologies, has accelerated discoveries on the relationship of germline genetic variation to hematologic diseases. For example, germline variation in GATA2, encoding a vital transcriptional regulator of multilineage hematopoiesis, creates a predisposition to bone marrow failure and acute myeloid leukemia termed GATA2 deficiency syndrome. More than 300 GATA2 variants representing missense, truncating, and noncoding enhancer mutations have been documented. Although these variants can diminish GATA2 expression and/or function, the functional ramifications of many variants are unknown. Studies using genetic rescue and knockin mouse systems have established that GATA2 mutations differentially affect molecular processes in distinct target genes and within a single target cell. Considering that target genes for a transcription factor can differ in sensitivity to altered levels of the factor, and transcriptional mechanisms are often cell type specific, the context-dependent consequences of GATA2 mutations in experimental systems portend the complex phenotypes and interindividual variation of GATA2 deficiency syndrome. This review documents GATA2 human genetics and the state of efforts to traverse from physiological insights to pathogenic mechanisms.

Advances in germline predisposition to acute leukaemias and myeloid neoplasms

Although much work has focused on the elucidation of somatic alterations that drive the development of acute leukaemias and other haematopoietic diseases, it has become increasingly recognized that germline mutations are common in many of these neoplasms. In this Review, we highlight the different genetic pathways impacted by germline mutations that can ultimately lead to the development of familial and sporadic haematological malignancies, including acute lymphoblastic leukaemia, acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) and myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS). Many of the genes disrupted by somatic mutations in these diseases (for example, TP53, RUNX1, IKZF1 and ETV6) are the same as those that harbour germline mutations in children and adolescents who develop these malignancies. Moreover, the presumption that familial leukaemias only present in childhood is no longer true, in large part due to the numerous studies demonstrating germline DDX41 mutations in adults with MDS and AML. Lastly, we highlight how different cooperating events can influence the ultimate phenotype in these different familial leukaemia syndromes.

GATA2 Related Conditions and Predisposition to Pediatric Myelodysplastic Syndromes

Simple Summary

GATA2 deficiency is considered one of the most common cancer predisposition syndromes determining myelodysplastic syndrome in children. Little is known of this recently described syndrome, often resulting in a misdiagnosis and unclear management. In this review, we describe GATA2 deficiency clinical presentation in order to focus on phenotypes that, in patients with myelodysplastic syndrome, may be suggestive of GATA2 deficiency. Moreover, due to the lack of clear guidelines, we performed an overview on literature data regarding management of GATA2-related myelodysplastic syndrome, in order to understand the best choice of treatment for these patients.

Abstract

Myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS) are hematopoietic disorders rare in childhood, often occurring in patients with inherited bone marrow failure syndromes or germinal predisposition syndromes. Among the latter, one of the most frequent involves the gene GATA binding protein 2 (GATA2), coding for a transcriptional regulator of hematopoiesis. The genetic lesion as well as the clinical phenotype are extremely variable; many patients present hematological malignancies, especially MDS with the possibility to evolve into acute myeloid leukemia. Variable immune dysfunction, especially resulting in B- and NK-cell lymphopenia, lead to severe infections, including generalized warts and mycobacterial infection. Defects of alveolar macrophages lead to pulmonary alveolar proteinosis through inadequate clearance of surfactant proteins. Currently, there are no clear guidelines for the monitoring and treatment of patients with GATA2 mutations. In patients with MDS, the only curative treatment is allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) that restores normal hematopoiesis preventing the progression to acute myeloid leukemia and clears long-standing infections. However, to date, the donor type, conditioning regimen, and the optimal time to proceed to HSCT, as well as the level of chimerism needed to reverse the phenotype, remain unclear highlighting the need for consensus guidelines.

Germline predisposition in myeloid neoplasms: Unique genetic and clinical features of GATA2 deficiency and SAMD9/SAMD9L syndromes

Increasing awareness about germline predisposition and the widespread application of unbiased whole exome sequencing contributed to the discovery of new clinical entities with high risk for the development of haematopoietic malignancies. The revised 2016 WHO classification introduced a novel category of "myeloid neoplasms with germline predisposition" with GATA2, CEBPA, DDX41, RUNX1, ANKRD26 and ETV6 genes expanding the spectrum of hereditary myeloid neoplasms (MN). Since then, more germline causes of MN were identified, including SAMD9, SAMD9L, and ERCC6L2. This review describes the genetic and clinical spectrum of predisposition to MN. The main focus lies in delineation of phenotypes, genetics and management of GATA2 deficiency and the novel SAMD9/SAMD9L-related disorders. Combined, GATA2 and SAMD9/SAMD9L (SAMD9/9L) syndromes are recognized as most frequent causes of primary paediatric myelodysplastic syndromes, particularly in setting of monosomy 7. To date, ~550 cases with germline GATA2 mutations, and ~130 patients with SAMD9/9L mutations had been reported in literature. GATA2 deficiency is a highly penetrant disorder with a progressive course that often rapidly necessitates bone marrow transplantation. In contrast, SAMD9/9L disorders show incomplete penetrance with various clinical outcomes ranging from spontaneous haematological remission observed in young children to malignant progression.