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Zeng Y, Luo M, Yao Z, Xiao X. Adiponectin inhibits ROS/NLRP3 inflammatory pathway through FOXO3A to ameliorate oral submucosal fibrosis. Odontology 2024; 112:811-825. [PMID: 38217790 DOI: 10.1007/s10266-023-00891-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 12/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2024]
Abstract
Oral submucous fibrosis (OSF) is an oral condition characterized by chronic progression, which may lead to the development of malignancy. Currently, available treatments for OSF only provide temporary relief of symptoms, and there is a limited availability of effective interventions that can effectively cure this condition. In this study, we aimed to investigate whether adiponectin (APN) could ameliorate OSF and the mechanisms involved in it. First, human oral mucosal fibroblasts (HOMFs) were cultured, an OSF model was established using arecoline, and APN and Imiquimod treatment were administered. Then we overexpressed NLRP3 and knocked down FOXO3A. FOXO3A, fibrosis-related factors (ɑ-SMA, COL1A, CTGF), TGF-β1/Smad3 signaling-related factors (TGF-β1, p-Smad3, Smad3), NLRP3 inflammasome-related factors (NLRP3, Caspase-1, IL-1β), and ROS levels were evaluated. Finally, we explored the effect of APN on OSF in mice by in vivo experiments. We found that arecoline significantly increased ɑ-SMA, COL1A, CTGF, and TGF-β1 expressions and promoted Smad3 phosphorylation, while APN significantly inhibited the elevation of these fibrosis-related factors. ROS production was significantly elevated in HOMFs after arecoline treatment, while APN treatment inhibited ROS production. However, the addition of Imiquimod and overexpression of NLRP3 exhibited a trend of elevated ROS, resisting the inhibitory effect of APN. Furthermore, adding Imiquimod and overexpression of NLRP3 elevated ɑ-SMA, COL1A and CTGF and activated TGF-β1/Smad3 signaling pathway. Additionally, knockdown of FOXO3A enhanced APN-inhibited ɑ-SMA and COL1A. In vivo experiments further confirmed that APN ameliorated OSF in mice by inhibiting ROS/NLRP3 inflammatory pathway. In conclusion, APN ameliorated arecoline-induced OSF by promoting FOXO3A expression and downregulating the ROS/NLRP3 pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanyuan Zeng
- Department of Stomatology, the Central Hospital of Shaoyang, Shaoyang, No. 36, Qianyuan Lane, Hongqi Road, Daxiang District, Shaoyang, Hunan, China
| | - Mengshen Luo
- Department of Stomatology, the Central Hospital of Shaoyang, Shaoyang, No. 36, Qianyuan Lane, Hongqi Road, Daxiang District, Shaoyang, Hunan, China
| | - Zhilong Yao
- Department of Stomatology, the Central Hospital of Shaoyang, Shaoyang, No. 36, Qianyuan Lane, Hongqi Road, Daxiang District, Shaoyang, Hunan, China
| | - Xiaoping Xiao
- Department of Stomatology, the Central Hospital of Shaoyang, Shaoyang, No. 36, Qianyuan Lane, Hongqi Road, Daxiang District, Shaoyang, Hunan, China.
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Roy S, Das A, Bairagi A, Das D, Jha A, Srivastava AK, Chatterjee N. Mitochondria act as a key regulatory factor in cancer progression: Current concepts on mutations, mitochondrial dynamics, and therapeutic approach. MUTATION RESEARCH. REVIEWS IN MUTATION RESEARCH 2024; 793:108490. [PMID: 38460864 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrrev.2024.108490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Revised: 02/12/2024] [Accepted: 02/22/2024] [Indexed: 03/11/2024]
Abstract
The diversified impacts of mitochondrial function vs. dysfunction have been observed in almost all disease conditions including cancers. Mitochondria play crucial roles in cellular homeostasis and integrity, however, mitochondrial dysfunctions influenced by alterations in the mtDNA can disrupt cellular balance. Many external stimuli or cellular defects that cause cellular integrity abnormalities, also impact mitochondrial functions. Imbalances in mitochondrial activity can initiate and lead to accumulations of genetic mutations and can promote the processes of tumorigenesis, progression, and survival. This comprehensive review summarizes epigenetic and genetic alterations that affect the functionality of the mitochondria, with considerations of cellular metabolism, and as influenced by ethnicity. We have also reviewed recent insights regarding mitochondrial dynamics, miRNAs, exosomes that play pivotal roles in cancer promotion, and the impact of mitochondrial dynamics on immune cell mechanisms. The review also summarizes recent therapeutic approaches targeting mitochondria in anti-cancer treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sraddhya Roy
- Chittaranjan National Cancer Institute, 37 S. P. Mukherjee Road, Kolkata 700026, India
| | - Ananya Das
- Chittaranjan National Cancer Institute, 37 S. P. Mukherjee Road, Kolkata 700026, India
| | - Aparajita Bairagi
- Chittaranjan National Cancer Institute, 37 S. P. Mukherjee Road, Kolkata 700026, India
| | - Debangshi Das
- Chittaranjan National Cancer Institute, 37 S. P. Mukherjee Road, Kolkata 700026, India
| | - Ashna Jha
- Chittaranjan National Cancer Institute, 37 S. P. Mukherjee Road, Kolkata 700026, India
| | - Amit Kumar Srivastava
- CSIR-IICB Translational Research Unit Of Excellence, CN-6, Salt Lake, Sector - V, Kolkata 700091, India
| | - Nabanita Chatterjee
- Chittaranjan National Cancer Institute, 37 S. P. Mukherjee Road, Kolkata 700026, India.
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Yoon J, Kim S, Lee M, Kim Y. Mitochondrial nucleic acids in innate immunity and beyond. Exp Mol Med 2023; 55:2508-2518. [PMID: 38036728 PMCID: PMC10766607 DOI: 10.1038/s12276-023-01121-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2023] [Revised: 08/12/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria participate in a wide range of cellular processes. One essential function of mitochondria is to be a platform for antiviral signaling proteins during the innate immune response to viral infection. Recently, studies have revealed that mitochondrion-derived DNAs and RNAs are recognized as non-self molecules and act as immunogenic ligands. More importantly, the cytosolic release of these mitochondrial nucleic acids (mt-NAs) is closely associated with the pathogenesis of human diseases accompanying aberrant immune activation. The release of mitochondrial DNAs (mtDNAs) via BAX/BAK activation and/or VDAC1 oligomerization activates the innate immune response and inflammasome assembly. In addition, mitochondrial double-stranded RNAs (mt-dsRNAs) are sensed by pattern recognition receptors in the cytosol to induce type I interferon expression and initiate apoptotic programs. Notably, these cytosolic mt-NAs also mediate adipocyte differentiation and contribute to mitogenesis and mitochondrial thermogenesis. In this review, we summarize recent studies of innate immune signaling pathways regulated by mt-NAs, human diseases associated with mt-NAs, and the emerging physiological roles of mt-NAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jimin Yoon
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Sujin Kim
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Mihye Lee
- Soonchunhyang Institute of Medi-bio Science, Soonchunhyang University, Cheonan, 31151, Republic of Korea.
- Department of Integrated Biomedical Science, Soonchunhyang University, Cheonan, 31151, Republic of Korea.
| | - Yoosik Kim
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea.
- Graduate School of Engineering Biology, KAIST, Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea.
- KAIST Institute for BioCentury (KIB), KAIST, Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea.
- KAIST Institute for Health Science and Technology (KIHST), KAIST, Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea.
- BioProcess Engineering Research Center and BioInformatics Research Center, KAIST, Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea.
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Lu J, Chen Z, Bu X, Chen S, Guan S. Elaidic acid induced hepatocyte pyroptosis via autophagy-CTSB-NLRP3 pathway. Food Chem Toxicol 2023; 181:114060. [PMID: 37748573 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2023.114060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Revised: 09/20/2023] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/27/2023]
Abstract
Elaidic acid (EA, C18:1 trans) is a kind of principal Trans fatty acid (TFA) and is widely found in processed food. Pyroptosis is a form of programmed cell death, distinct from apoptosis and traditional necrosis. Excessive pyroptosis could induce body injury and serious inflammation. However, the effect of EA on pyroptosis has not been reported. In the study, we found that EA exposure caused liver damage and hepatocyte pyroptosis by testing GSDMD-N, Caspase 1, IL-18, and IL-1β in mice and HepG2 cells. Further exploring the mechanisms, we found that EA-induced pyroptosis depended on Cathepsin B (CTSB)-mediated NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Cell autophagy was closely related to lysosomes. Our study revealed that EA promoted hepatocyte autophagy, and activated autophagy induced lysosomal membrane permeabilization (LMP) and CTSB leakage. Inhibition of autophagy by 3-MA mitigated the CTSB leak, reduced the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, and then attenuated the EA-induced pyroptosis. In summary, these results indicated that EA induced hepatocyte pyroptosis via autophagy-CTSB-NLRP3 inflammasome pathway. The study revealed new insights into the toxicity mechanism of EA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Lu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, 130062, People's Republic of China
| | - Ziheng Chen
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, 130062, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiujuan Bu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, 130062, People's Republic of China
| | - Shanshan Chen
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, 130062, People's Republic of China
| | - Shuang Guan
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, 130062, People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Ministry of Education College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, 130062, People's Republic of China.
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Andrade FDO, Jin L, Clarke R, Wood I, Dutton M, Anjorin C, Rubin G, Gao A, Sengupta S, FitzGerald K, Hilakivi-Clarke L. Social Isolation Activates Dormant Mammary Tumors, and Modifies Inflammatory and Mitochondrial Metabolic Pathways in the Rat Mammary Gland. Cells 2023; 12:961. [PMID: 36980301 PMCID: PMC10047513 DOI: 10.3390/cells12060961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2023] [Revised: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/16/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Although multifactorial in origin, one of the most impactful consequences of social isolation is an increase in breast cancer mortality. How this happens is unknown, but many studies have shown that social isolation increases circulating inflammatory cytokines and impairs mitochondrial metabolism. Using a preclinical Sprague Dawley rat model of estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer, we investigated whether social isolation impairs the response to tamoxifen therapy and increases the risk of tumors emerging from dormancy, and thus their recurrence. We also studied which signaling pathways in the mammary glands may be affected by social isolation in tamoxifen treated rats, and whether an anti-inflammatory herbal mixture blocks the effects of social isolation. Social isolation increased the risk of dormant mammary tumor recurrence after tamoxifen therapy. The elevated recurrence risk was associated with changes in multiple signaling pathways including an upregulation of IL6/JAK/STAT3 signaling in the mammary glands and tumors and suppression of the mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) pathway. In addition, social isolation increased the expression of receptor for advanced glycation end-products (RAGE), consistent with impaired insulin sensitivity and weight gain linked to social isolation. In socially isolated animals, the herbal product inhibited IL6/JAK/STAT3 signaling, upregulated OXPHOS signaling, suppressed the expression of RAGE ligands S100a8 and S100a9, and prevented the increase in recurrence of dormant mammary tumors. Increased breast cancer mortality among socially isolated survivors may be most effectively prevented by focusing on the period following the completion of hormone therapy using interventions that simultaneously target several different pathways including inflammatory and mitochondrial metabolism pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabia de Oliveira Andrade
- Department of Oncology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC 20057, USA; (F.d.O.A.)
- Hormel Institute, University of Minnesota, 801 16th Ave NE, Austin, MN 55912, USA
| | - Lu Jin
- Department of Oncology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC 20057, USA; (F.d.O.A.)
- Hormel Institute, University of Minnesota, 801 16th Ave NE, Austin, MN 55912, USA
| | - Robert Clarke
- Department of Oncology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC 20057, USA; (F.d.O.A.)
- Hormel Institute, University of Minnesota, 801 16th Ave NE, Austin, MN 55912, USA
| | - Imani Wood
- Department of Oncology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC 20057, USA; (F.d.O.A.)
| | - MaryAnn Dutton
- Department of Psychiatry, Georgetown University, Washington, DC 20057, USA
| | - Chezaray Anjorin
- Department of Oncology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC 20057, USA; (F.d.O.A.)
| | - Grace Rubin
- Department of Oncology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC 20057, USA; (F.d.O.A.)
| | - Audrey Gao
- Hormel Institute, University of Minnesota, 801 16th Ave NE, Austin, MN 55912, USA
| | - Surojeet Sengupta
- Department of Oncology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC 20057, USA; (F.d.O.A.)
- Hormel Institute, University of Minnesota, 801 16th Ave NE, Austin, MN 55912, USA
| | - Kevin FitzGerald
- Department of Oncology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC 20057, USA; (F.d.O.A.)
- Department of Medical Humanities, Creighton University, Omaha, NE 68178, USA
| | - Leena Hilakivi-Clarke
- Department of Oncology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC 20057, USA; (F.d.O.A.)
- Hormel Institute, University of Minnesota, 801 16th Ave NE, Austin, MN 55912, USA
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Corilagin Restrains NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation and Pyroptosis through the ROS/TXNIP/NLRP3 Pathway to Prevent Inflammation. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2022; 2022:1652244. [PMID: 36299604 PMCID: PMC9592212 DOI: 10.1155/2022/1652244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2022] [Revised: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Corilagin, a gallotannin, shows excellent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. The NLRP3 inflammasome dysfunction has been implicated in a variety of inflammation diseases. However, it remains unclear how corilagin regulates the NLRP3 inflammasome to relieve gouty arthritis. In this study, bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) were pretreated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and then incubated with NLRP3 inflammasome agonists, such as adenine nucleoside triphosphate (ATP), nigericin, and monosodium urate (MSU) crystals. The MSU crystals were intra-articular injected to induce acute gouty arthritis. Here we showed that corilagin reduced lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) secretion and the proportion of propidium iodide- (PI-)stained cells. Corilagin suppressed the expression of N-terminal of the pyroptosis executive protein gasdermin D (GSDMD-NT). Corilagin restricted caspase-1 p20 and interleukin (IL)-1β release. Meanwhile, corilagin attenuated ASC oligomerization and speck formation. Our findings confirmed that corilagin diminished NLRP3 inflammasome activation and macrophage pyroptosis. We further discovered that corilagin limited the mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and prevented the interaction between TXNIP and NLRP3, but ROS activator imiquimod could antagonize the inhibitory function of corilagin on NLRP3 inflammasome and macrophage pyroptosis. Additionally, corilagin ameliorated MSU crystals induced joint swelling, inhibited IL-1β production, and abated macrophage and neutrophil migration into the joint capsule. Collectively, these results demonstrated that corilagin suppressed the ROS/TXNIP/NLRP3 pathway to repress inflammasome activation and pyroptosis and suggest its potential antioxidative role in alleviating NLRP3-dependent gouty arthritis.
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7
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Tezcan G, Alsaadi M, Hamza S, Garanina EE, Martynova EV, Ziganshina GR, Farukshina ER, Rizvanov AA, Khaiboullina SF. Azithromycin and Ceftriaxone Differentially Activate NLRP3 in LPS Primed Cancer Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23169484. [PMID: 36012769 PMCID: PMC9409354 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23169484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2022] [Revised: 08/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Cancer patients are prescribed antibiotics, such as macrolides and lactamides, for infection treatment. However, the effect of these antibiotics on NLRP3 activation remains largely unknown. Method: Lung cancer (A549) and prostate cancer (PC3) cell lines were primed with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to activate NLRP3 transcription. Cells were then treated with azithromycin (Az) or ceftriaxone (Cf). NLRP3 activation was analyzed by qPCR, Western blot, and ELISA. Cell growth and viability were assessed by real-time cell analysis and Annexin V expression. Levels of 41 cytokines were also analyzed using a multiplex assay. Results: LPS-Az activated transcription of NLRP3, Pro-CASP-1, and Pro-IL-1β in A549 cells, while failing to upregulate NLRP3 and Pro-IL-1β in PC3 cells. LPS-Az decreased the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines while it induced the pro-angiogenic factors in A549 and PC3 cells. In contrast, LPS-Cf suppressed the expression of NLRP3-associated genes, NLRP3 protein expression, the inflammatory cytokine secretion in A549 and PC3 cells. LPS-Az and LPS-Cf had a limited effect on cell growth and viability. Discussion: Our data suggest that Cf could suppress LPS induced NLRP3, which should be considered when selecting antibiotics for cancer treatment. In contrast, the effect of Az on LPS primed NLRP3 and the inflammatory cytokines production appears to depend on the cancer cell origin. Therefore, these data indicate that considerations are required when selecting Az for the treatment of cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gulcin Tezcan
- Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, 420008 Kazan, Russia
- Department of Fundamental Sciences, Faculty of Dentistry, Bursa Uludag University, Bursa 16059, Turkey
| | - Mohammad Alsaadi
- Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, 420008 Kazan, Russia
| | - Shaimaa Hamza
- Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, 420008 Kazan, Russia
| | - Ekaterina E. Garanina
- Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, 420008 Kazan, Russia
| | - Ekaterina V. Martynova
- Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, 420008 Kazan, Russia
| | - Gulshat R. Ziganshina
- Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, 420008 Kazan, Russia
| | - Elina R. Farukshina
- Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, 420008 Kazan, Russia
| | - Albert A. Rizvanov
- Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, 420008 Kazan, Russia
| | - Svetlana F. Khaiboullina
- Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, 420008 Kazan, Russia
- Correspondence: or
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Li C, Pan Y, Tan Y, Wang Y, Sun X. PINK1-Dependent Mitophagy Reduced Endothelial Hyperpermeability and Cell Migration Capacity Under Simulated Microgravity. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:896014. [PMID: 35874841 PMCID: PMC9300855 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.896014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The effect of cardiovascular dysfunction including orthostatic intolerance and disability on physical exercise is one of the health problems induced by long-term spaceflight astronauts face. As an important part of vascular structure, the vascular endothelium, uniquely sensitive to mechanical force, plays a pivotal role in coordinating vascular functions. Our study found that simulated microgravity induced PINK1-dependent mitophagy in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). Here, we explored the underlying mechanism of mitophagy induction. The ER stress induced by proteostasis failure in HUVECs promoted the Ca2+ transfer from ER to mitochondria, resulting in mitochondria Ca2+ overload, decreased mitochondrial membrane potential, mitochondria fission, and accumulation of Parkin and p62 in mitochondria and mitophagy under simulated microgravity. Moreover, we assumed that mitophagy played a vital role in functional changes in endothelial cells under simulated microgravity. Using mdivi-1 and PINK1 knockdown, we found that NLRP3 inflammasome activation was enhanced after mitophagy was inhibited. The NLRP3 inflammasome contributed to endothelial hyperpermeability and cellular migration by releasing IL-1β. Thus, mitophagy inhibited cell migration ability and hyperpermeability in HUVECs exposed to clinostat-simulated microgravity. Collectively, we here clarify the mechanism of mitophagy induction by simulated microgravity in vitro and demonstrate the relationship between mitophagy and vascular endothelial functional changes including cellular migration and permeability. This study deepens the understanding of vascular functional changes under microgravity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengfei Li
- Department of Aerospace Medical Training, School of Aerospace Medicine, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Yikai Pan
- Department of Aerospace Medical Training, School of Aerospace Medicine, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Yingjun Tan
- China Astronaut Research and Training Center, Beijing, China
| | - Yongchun Wang
- Department of Aerospace Medical Training, School of Aerospace Medicine, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, China
- *Correspondence: Xiqing Sun, , Yongchun Wang,
| | - Xiqing Sun
- Department of Aerospace Medical Training, School of Aerospace Medicine, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, China
- *Correspondence: Xiqing Sun, , Yongchun Wang,
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Nandi D, Shivrayan M, Gao J, Krishna J, Das R, Liu B, Thanyumanavan S, Kulkarni A. Core Hydrophobicity of Supramolecular Nanoparticles Induces NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:45300-45314. [PMID: 34543013 PMCID: PMC8761361 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c14082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Designer nanomaterials capable of delivering immunomodulators to specific immune cells have been extensively studied. However, emerging evidence suggests that several of these nanomaterials can nonspecifically activate NLRP3 inflammasomes, an intracellular multiprotein complex controlling various immune cell functions, leading to undesirable effects. To understand what nanoparticle attributes activate inflammasomes, we designed a multiparametric polymer supramolecular nanoparticle system to modulate various surface and core nanoparticle-associated molecular patterns (NAMPs), one at a time. We also investigated several underlying signaling pathways, including lysosomal rupture-cathepsin B maturation and calcium flux-mitochondrial ROS production, to gain mechanistic insights into NAMPs-mediated inflammasome activation. Here, we report that out of the four NAMPs tested, core hydrophobicity strongly activates and positively correlates with the NLRP3 assembly compared to surface charge, core rigidity, and surface hydrophobicity. Moreover, we demonstrate different signaling inclinations and kinetics followed by differential core hydrophobicity patterns with the most hydrophobic ones exhibiting both lysosomal rupture and calcium influx early on. Altogether, this study will help design the next generation of polymeric nanomaterials for specific regulation of inflammasome activation, aiding efficient immunotherapy and vaccine delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dipika Nandi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, USA
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, USA
| | - Manisha Shivrayan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, USA
| | - Jingjing Gao
- Department of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, USA
| | - Jithu Krishna
- Department of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, USA
| | - Ritam Das
- Department of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, USA
| | - Bin Liu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, USA
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 02139, USA
| | - S. Thanyumanavan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, 01003, USA
- Center for Bioactive Delivery, Institute for Applied Life Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, USA
| | - Ashish Kulkarni
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, USA
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, USA
- Department of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, 01003, USA
- Center for Bioactive Delivery, Institute for Applied Life Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, USA
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10
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An update on the regulatory mechanisms of NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Cell Mol Immunol 2021; 18:1141-1160. [PMID: 33850310 PMCID: PMC8093260 DOI: 10.1038/s41423-021-00670-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 325] [Impact Index Per Article: 108.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The NOD-, LRR-, and pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is a multiprotein complex involved in the release of mature interleukin-1β and triggering of pyroptosis, which is of paramount importance in a variety of physiological and pathological conditions. Over the past decade, considerable advances have been made in elucidating the molecular mechanisms underlying the priming/licensing (Signal 1) and assembly (Signal 2) involved in NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Recently, a number of studies have indicated that the priming/licensing step is regulated by complicated mechanisms at both the transcriptional and posttranslational levels. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of the mechanistic details of NLRP3 inflammasome activation with a particular emphasis on protein-protein interactions, posttranslational modifications, and spatiotemporal regulation of the NLRP3 inflammasome machinery. We also present a detailed summary of multiple positive and/or negative regulatory pathways providing upstream signals that culminate in NLRP3 inflammasome complex assembly. A better understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying NLRP3 inflammasome activation will provide opportunities for the development of methods for the prevention and treatment of NLRP3 inflammasome-related diseases.
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11
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Feng C, Tang Y, Liu X, Zhou Z. CMPK2 of triploid crucian carp is involved in immune defense against bacterial infection. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2021; 116:103924. [PMID: 33186560 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2020.103924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2020] [Revised: 11/06/2020] [Accepted: 11/06/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Cytidine/uridine monophosphate kinase 2 (CMPK2) is a thymidylate kinase and in mammals is known to be involved in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) synthesis and antiviral immunity. However, very little is known about the function of CMPK2 in fish. With an aim to elucidate the antimicrobial mechanism of CMPK2 in fish, we in this study examined the function of CMPK2 from triploid crucian carp (3nCmpk2). 3nCmpk2 is 426 residues in length and possesses the conserved thymidylate kinase domain. The deduced amino acid sequence of 3nCmpk2 shares 53.2%-99.1% overall identities with the CMPK2 of several fish species. Quantitative real time RT-PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis showed that 3nCmpk2 expression occurred in multiple tissues and was upregulated by bacterial infection in a time-dependent manner. Recombinant 3nCmpk2 (r3nCmpk2) induced mtDNA synthesis and NLRP3 activation. Overexpression of 3nCmpk2 protects the intestinal barrier and hampers the bacterial colonization in fish tissues. These results provide the first evidence that 3nCmpk2 is involved in host innate immunity and plays a protective role in antimicrobial responses during bacterial infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Freshwater Fish, College of Life Sciences, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, China
| | - Yiyang Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Freshwater Fish, College of Life Sciences, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, China
| | - Xiaofeng Liu
- Department of Nutrition, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410008, China
| | - Zejun Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Freshwater Fish, College of Life Sciences, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, China.
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Choudhuri S, Chowdhury IH, Garg NJ. Mitochondrial Regulation of Macrophage Response Against Pathogens. Front Immunol 2021; 11:622602. [PMID: 33679710 PMCID: PMC7925834 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.622602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Innate immune cells play the first line of defense against pathogens. Phagocytosis or invasion by pathogens can affect mitochondrial metabolism in macrophages by diverse mechanisms and shape the macrophage response (proinflammatory vs. immunomodulatory) against pathogens. Besides β-nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide 2'-phosphate, reduced (NADPH) oxidase, mitochondrial electron transport chain complexes release superoxide for direct killing of the pathogen. Mitochondria that are injured are removed by mitophagy, and this process can be critical for regulating macrophage activation. For example, impaired mitophagy can result in cytosolic leakage of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) that can lead to activation of cGAS-STING signaling pathway of macrophage proinflammatory response. In this review, we will discuss how metabolism, mtDNA, mitophagy, and cGAS-STING pathway shape the macrophage response to infectious agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Subhadip Choudhuri
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB), Galveston, TX, United States
| | - Imran Hussain Chowdhury
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB), Galveston, TX, United States
| | - Nisha Jain Garg
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB), Galveston, TX, United States
- Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, UTMB, Galveston, TX, United States
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Li X, Yu Z, Zong W, Chen P, Li J, Wang M, Ding F, Xie M, Wang W, Luo X. Deficiency of the microglial Hv1 proton channel attenuates neuronal pyroptosis and inhibits inflammatory reaction after spinal cord injury. J Neuroinflammation 2020; 17:263. [PMID: 32891159 PMCID: PMC7487532 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-020-01942-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2019] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Spinal cord injury (SCI) causes neurological dysfunction with devastating consequences. SCI pathogenesis is accompanied by inflammasome activation and neuronal damage. But the spatial pattern and the time course of neuronal pyroptosis and apoptosis after SCI should be further elucidated. The microglial voltage-gated proton channel (Hv1) is implicated in reactive oxygen species (ROS)-induced neuronal damage following ischemic stroke. However, there is a lack of quantification on the neuronal pyroptosis and apoptosis associated with microglial Hv1 after SCI. METHODS We analyzed spatial and temporal characteristics of neuronal pyroptosis and apoptosis following SCI and investigated the effects of Hv1 deficiency on neuronal pyroptosis and the nod-like receptor 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome pathway by using a mouse model of SCI. We tested the effects of Hv1-deficient microglia on ROS production in vivo and examined the relationship between ROS and neuronal pyroptosis in vitro. RESULTS We observed that apoptosis was detected closer to the injury core than pyroptosis. The incidence of neuronal apoptosis peaked on day 1 after SCI and occurred before pyroptosis. Hv1 deficiency reduced neuronal apoptosis and NLRP3-inflammasome-mediated pyroptosis, improved axonal regeneration, and reduced motor deficits. SCI led to elevated ROS levels, whereas Hv1 deficiency downregulated microglial ROS generation. In vitro, ROS upregulated neuronal pyroptosis and activated the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway, both of which were reversed by addition of a ROS scavenger. Our results suggested that microglial Hv1 regulated neuronal apoptosis and NLRP3-induced neuronal pyroptosis after SCI by mediating ROS production. CONCLUSION Following SCI, neuronal pyroptosis lasted longer and occurred farther away from the injury core compared with that of neuronal apoptosis. Microglial Hv1 deficiency downregulated microglial ROS generation and reduced apoptosis and NLRP3-induced neuronal pyroptosis. Our findings may provide novel insights into Hv1-associated mechanisms underlying neuronal damage after SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuefei Li
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Zhiyuan Yu
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Weifeng Zong
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Peng Chen
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Jia Li
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Minghuan Wang
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Fengfei Ding
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Minjie Xie
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Wei Wang
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Xiang Luo
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China.
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Huang Z, Chen Y, Zhang Y. Mitochondrial reactive oxygen species cause major oxidative mitochondrial DNA damages and repair pathways. J Biosci 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s12038-020-00055-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Lopalco G, Rigante D, Cantarini L, Imazio M, Lopalco A, Emmi G, Venerito V, Fornaro M, Frediani B, Nivuori M, Brucato A, Iannone F. The autoinflammatory side of recurrent pericarditis: Enlightening the pathogenesis for a more rational treatment. Trends Cardiovasc Med 2020; 31:265-274. [PMID: 32376492 DOI: 10.1016/j.tcm.2020.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2020] [Revised: 04/09/2020] [Accepted: 04/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Recurrent pericarditis (RP) is a troublesome and debilitating complication of acute pericarditis. Although the etiopathogenesis of this condition remains unknown, an intricate overlap of autoimmune and autoinflammatory pathways has been hypothesized to explain its beginning and recurrence over time. The majority of cases are defined as "idiopathic", reflecting our awkwardness to unravel the intimate mechanisms of RP. Given the possible occurrence of anti-nuclear, anti-heart and anti-intercalated disk antibodies as well as the association with peculiar human leukocyte antigen haplotypes, an autoimmune contribution has been claimed to specify the nature of RP. However, the most innovative pathogenic scenario of RP has been conferred to the innate immune system, mainly involving neutrophils and macrophages that produce a large amount of interleukin (IL)-1 via inflammasome activation. The clinical resemblance of RP with autoinflammatory diseases that may be marked by symptomatic serositis, high fevers and strikingly increased inflammatory parameters further suggests a similar inflammasome-mediated pathogenesis. Aspirin or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) remain the mainstay of therapy in RP, whereas colchicine is recommended on top of standard anti-inflammatory therapy, due to its role in inhibiting the IL-1 converting enzyme (caspase 1) within the inflammasome as well as the release of additional pro-inflammatory mediators and reactive oxygen species. With regard to treatment of RP refractory to NSAIDs and colchicine, blockade of IL-1 is the most relevant advance achieved in the last decade: the outstanding effect of the short-acting IL-1 receptor antagonist anakinra has been first recognized in the pediatric population, giving a proof of its practical feasibility. Over a more recent time, a growing experience with anakinra deriving from both large and small studies has further confirmed that RP might be regarded as an IL-1-mediated disease. This review aims to provide a contemporary insight into the mechanisms leading to RP as well as into the most recent literature data showing the beneficial approach originating from IL-1 blockade in this intriguing disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Lopalco
- Department of Emergency and Organ Transplantation, Rheumatology Unit, University of Bari, Piazza G. Cesare 11, Bari 70124, Italy.
| | - Donato Rigante
- Department of Life Sciences and Public Health, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "A. Gemelli" IRCCS, Rome, Italy; Università Cattolica Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Luca Cantarini
- Research Centre of Systemic Autoinflammatory Diseases, Behçet's Disease Clinic and Rheumatology-Ophthalmology Collaborative Uveitis Centre, Department of Medical Sciences, Surgery and Neurosciences, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Massimo Imazio
- Cardiovascular and Thoracic Department, University Cardiology, Turin, Italy; AOU Città della Salute e della Scienza of Turin, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Antonio Lopalco
- Department of Pharmacy - Drug Sciences, University of Bari, Bari, Italy
| | - Giacomo Emmi
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Venerito
- Department of Emergency and Organ Transplantation, Rheumatology Unit, University of Bari, Piazza G. Cesare 11, Bari 70124, Italy
| | - Marco Fornaro
- Department of Emergency and Organ Transplantation, Rheumatology Unit, University of Bari, Piazza G. Cesare 11, Bari 70124, Italy
| | - Bruno Frediani
- Research Centre of Systemic Autoinflammatory Diseases, Behçet's Disease Clinic and Rheumatology-Ophthalmology Collaborative Uveitis Centre, Department of Medical Sciences, Surgery and Neurosciences, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Mariangela Nivuori
- Department of Medicine, Azienda Socio Sanitaria Territoriale (ASST) Fatebenefratelli-Sacco and Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences Luigi Sacco, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Antonio Brucato
- Department of Medicine, Azienda Socio Sanitaria Territoriale (ASST) Fatebenefratelli-Sacco and Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences Luigi Sacco, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Florenzo Iannone
- Department of Emergency and Organ Transplantation, Rheumatology Unit, University of Bari, Piazza G. Cesare 11, Bari 70124, Italy
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Deep proteome profiling reveals novel pathways associated with pro-inflammatory and alcohol-induced microglial activation phenotypes. J Proteomics 2020; 220:103753. [PMID: 32200115 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2020.103753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2019] [Revised: 02/09/2020] [Accepted: 03/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Microglia, the resident immune cells of the brain, can exhibit a broad range of activation phenotypes, many of which have been implicated in several diseases and disorders of the central nervous system including those related to alcohol abuse. Given the complexity of global-scale molecular changes that define microglial activation, accurate phenotypic classification in the context of alcohol exposure is still lacking. We employed an optimized method for deep, quantitative proteome profiling of primary microglia in order to characterize their response to acute exposure to alcohol (ethanol) as well as the pro-inflammatory driver and TLR4 agonist, LPS. From this analysis, 5,062 total proteins were identified where 4,857 and 4,928 of those proteins were quantifiable by label-free quantitation in ethanol and LPS treatment groups, respectively. This study highlights the subtle, yet significant proteomic changes that occur in ethanol-treated microglia, which do not align with the robust pro-inflammatory phenotype induced by TLR4 activation. Specifically, our results indicate inhibition of several upstream regulators associated with inflammation, opposing effects on pathways such as phagocytosis upon comparison to TLR4-mediated pro-inflammatory phenotype, and a potential metabolic shift associated with increased expression of proteins related to OXPHOS and lipid homeostasis. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD14466. SIGNIFICANCE: Alcohol abuse has a significant impact on the central nervous system, which includes the pathophysiological mechanisms resulting from glial cell activation. Microglia, in particular, are the resident immune cells of the brain and exhibit a broad range of activation phenotypes. The molecular changes that drive microglial activation phenotype are complex and have yet to be fully characterized in the context of alcohol exposure. Our study highlights the first and most comprehensive characterization of alcohol-induced proteomic changes in primary microglia to date and has shed light on novel immune-related and metabolic pathways that are altered due to alcohol exposure. The results from this study provide an important foundation for future work aimed to understand the complexity of alcohol-induced microglial activation in vivo and other translational models of acute and chronic alcohol exposure.
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Advances in the molecular mechanisms of NLRP3 inflammasome activators and inactivators. Biochem Pharmacol 2020; 175:113863. [PMID: 32081791 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2020.113863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2019] [Accepted: 02/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
NLRP3 inflammasome is an intracellular protein complex that initiates cellular injury via assembly of NLRP3, ASC and caspase-1 in response to microbial infection and sterile stressors. The importance of NLRP3 inflammasome in immunity and human diseases has been well documented. Up to now, targeted inhibition of the assembly of NLRP3 inflammasome complex and of its activation was thought to be therapeutic strategy for associated diseases. Recent studies show that a host of molecules such as NIMA-related kinase 7 (Nek7) and DEAD-box helicase 3 X-linked (DDX3X) and a large number of biological mediators including cytokines, microRNAs, nitric oxide, carbon monoxide, nuclear factor erythroid-2 related factor 2 (Nrf2) and cellular autophagy participate in the activation and inactivation of NLRP3 inflammasome. This review summarizes current understanding of the molecular basis of NLRP3 inflammasome activation and inactivation. This knowledge may lead to development of new therapies directed at NLRP3 inflammasome related diseases.
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Abstract
The NLRP3 inflammasome is a multimeric protein complex that cleaves caspase-1 and the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β) and IL-18. Dysregulated NLRP3 inflammasome signalling is linked to several chronic inflammatory and autoimmune conditions; thus, understanding the activation mechanisms of the NLRP3 inflammasome is essential. Studies over the past few years have implicated vital roles for distinct intracellular organelles in both the localisation and assembly of the NLRP3 inflammasome. However, conflicting reports exist. Prior to its activation, NLRP3 has been shown to be resident in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and cytosol, although, upon activation, the NLRP3 inflammasome has been shown to assemble in the cytosol, mitochondria, and mitochondria-associated ER membranes by different reports. Finally, very recent work has suggested that NLRP3 may be localised on or adjacent to the Golgi apparatus and that release of mediators from this organelle may contribute to inflammasome assembly. Therefore, NLRP3 may be strategically placed on or in close proximity to these subcellular compartments to both sense danger signals originating from these organelles and use the compartment as a scaffold to assemble the complex. Understanding where and when NLRP3 inflammasome assembly occurs may help identify potential targets for treatment of NLRP3-related disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Hamilton
- Infectious Diseases and Immunity, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, The Commonwealth Building, Du Cane Road, London, W12 0NN, UK
| | - Paras K Anand
- Infectious Diseases and Immunity, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, The Commonwealth Building, Du Cane Road, London, W12 0NN, UK
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