1
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Leão P, Little ME, Appler KE, Sahaya D, Aguilar-Pine E, Currie K, Finkelstein IJ, De Anda V, Baker BJ. Asgard archaea defense systems and their roles in the origin of eukaryotic immunity. Nat Commun 2024; 15:6386. [PMID: 39085212 PMCID: PMC11291487 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-50195-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2024] [Accepted: 06/28/2024] [Indexed: 08/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Dozens of new antiviral systems have been recently characterized in bacteria. Some of these systems are present in eukaryotes and appear to have originated in prokaryotes, but little is known about these defense mechanisms in archaea. Here, we explore the diversity and distribution of defense systems in archaea and identify 2610 complete systems in Asgardarchaeota, a group of archaea related to eukaryotes. The Asgard defense systems comprise 89 unique systems, including argonaute, NLR, Mokosh, viperin, Lassamu, and CBASS. Asgard viperin and argonaute proteins have structural homology to eukaryotic proteins, and phylogenetic analyses suggest that eukaryotic viperin proteins were derived from Asgard viperins. We show that Asgard viperins display anti-phage activity when heterologously expressed in bacteria. Eukaryotic and bacterial argonaute proteins appear to have originated in Asgardarchaeota, and Asgard argonaute proteins have argonaute-PIWI domains, key components of eukaryotic RNA interference systems. Our results support that Asgardarchaeota played important roles in the origin of antiviral defense systems in eukaryotes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Leão
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA.
- Department of Marine Science, Marine Science Institute, University of Texas at Austin, Port Aransas, TX, USA.
- Department of Microbiology - RIBES, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
| | - Mary E Little
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Kathryn E Appler
- Department of Marine Science, Marine Science Institute, University of Texas at Austin, Port Aransas, TX, USA
| | - Daphne Sahaya
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Emily Aguilar-Pine
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Kathryn Currie
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Ilya J Finkelstein
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
- Center for Systems and Synthetic Biology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Valerie De Anda
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
- Department of Marine Science, Marine Science Institute, University of Texas at Austin, Port Aransas, TX, USA
| | - Brett J Baker
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA.
- Department of Marine Science, Marine Science Institute, University of Texas at Austin, Port Aransas, TX, USA.
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2
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Yang X, Wang Y, Zheng J. Structural insights into autoinhibition and activation of defense-associated sirtuin protein. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 277:134145. [PMID: 39059542 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.134145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2024] [Revised: 07/07/2024] [Accepted: 07/23/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024]
Abstract
Bacterial defense-associated sirtuin 2 (DSR2) proteins harbor an N-terminal sirtuin (SIR2) domain degrading NAD+. DSR2 from Bacillus subtilis 29R is autoinhibited and unable to hydrolyze NAD+ in the absence of phage infection. A tail tube protein (TTP) of phage SPR activates the DSR2 while a DSR2-inhibiting protein of phage SPbeta, known as DSAD1 (DSR anti-defense 1), inactivates the DSR2. Although DSR2 structures in complexed with TTP and DSAD1, respectively, have been reported recently, the autoinhibition and activation mechanisms remain incompletely understood. Here, we present cryo-electron microscopy structures of the DSR2-NAD+ complex in autoinhibited state and the in vitro assembled DSR2-TFD (TTP tube-forming domain) complex in activated state. The DSR2-NAD+ complex reveals that the autoinhibited DSR2 assembles into an inactive tetramer, binding NAD+ through a distinct pocket situated outside active site. Binding of TFD into cavities within the sensor domains of DSR2 triggers a conformational change in SIR2 regions, activating its NADase activity, whereas the TTP β-sandwich domain (BSD) is flexible and does not contribute to the activation process. The activated form of DSR2 exists as tetramers and dimers, with the tetramers exhibiting more NADase activity. Overall, our results extend the current understanding of autoinhibition and activation of DSR2 immune proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Yiqun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Jianting Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China; Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic & Developmental Sciences, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China.
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3
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Sun D, Zhu K, Wang L, Mu Z, Wu K, Hua L, Qin B, Gao X, Wang Y, Cui S. Nucleic acid-induced NADase activation of a short Sir2-associated prokaryotic Argonaute system. Cell Rep 2024; 43:114391. [PMID: 38923459 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2024.114391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Revised: 04/25/2024] [Accepted: 06/07/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Inhibition of nucleic acid targets is mediated by Argonaute (Ago) proteins guided by RNA or DNA. Although the mechanisms underpinning the functions of eukaryotic and "long" prokaryotic Ago proteins (pAgos) are well understood, those for short pAgos remain enigmatic. Here, we determine two cryoelectron microscopy structures of short pAgos in association with the NADase-domain-containing protein Sir2-APAZ from Geobacter sulfurreducens (GsSir2/Ago): the guide RNA-target DNA-loaded GsSir2/Ago quaternary complex (2.58 Å) and the dimer of the quaternary complex (2.93Å). These structures show that the nucleic acid binding causes profound conformational changes that result in disorder or partial dissociation of the Sir2 domain, suggesting that it adopts a NADase-active conformation. Subsequently, two RNA-/DNA-loaded GsSir2/Ago complexes form a dimer through their MID domains, further enhancing NADase activity through synergistic effects. The findings provide a structural basis for short-pAgo-mediated defense against invading nucleic acids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dapeng Sun
- Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Kaixiang Zhu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Health and Multimorbidity, National Institute of Pathogen Biology and Center for Tuberculosis Research, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, P.R. China; Key Laboratory of Pathogen Infection Prevention and Control (Ministry of Education), National Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - Linyue Wang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Health and Multimorbidity, National Institute of Pathogen Biology and Center for Tuberculosis Research, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, P.R. China; Key Laboratory of Pathogen Infection Prevention and Control (Ministry of Education), National Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - Zhixia Mu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Health and Multimorbidity, National Institute of Pathogen Biology and Center for Tuberculosis Research, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, P.R. China; Key Laboratory of Pathogen Infection Prevention and Control (Ministry of Education), National Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - Kang Wu
- Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Lei Hua
- NHC Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Health and Multimorbidity, National Institute of Pathogen Biology and Center for Tuberculosis Research, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, P.R. China; Medical School, Yan'an University, Yan'an, Shaanxi 716000, China
| | - Bo Qin
- NHC Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Health and Multimorbidity, National Institute of Pathogen Biology and Center for Tuberculosis Research, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, P.R. China; Key Laboratory of Pathogen Infection Prevention and Control (Ministry of Education), National Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - Xiaopan Gao
- NHC Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Health and Multimorbidity, National Institute of Pathogen Biology and Center for Tuberculosis Research, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, P.R. China; Key Laboratory of Pathogen Infection Prevention and Control (Ministry of Education), National Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, P.R. China.
| | - Yumei Wang
- Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; Songshan Lake Materials Laboratory, Dongguan, Guangdong 523808, China.
| | - Sheng Cui
- NHC Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Health and Multimorbidity, National Institute of Pathogen Biology and Center for Tuberculosis Research, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, P.R. China; Key Laboratory of Pathogen Infection Prevention and Control (Ministry of Education), National Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, P.R. China.
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4
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Wang R, Xu Q, Wu Z, Li J, Guo H, Liao T, Shi Y, Yuan L, Gao H, Yang R, Shi Z, Li F. The structural basis of the activation and inhibition of DSR2 NADase by phage proteins. Nat Commun 2024; 15:6185. [PMID: 39039073 PMCID: PMC11263360 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-50410-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2024] [Accepted: 07/09/2024] [Indexed: 07/24/2024] Open
Abstract
DSR2, a Sir2 domain-containing protein, protects bacteria from phage infection by hydrolyzing NAD+. The enzymatic activity of DSR2 is triggered by the SPR phage tail tube protein (TTP), while suppressed by the SPbeta phage-encoded DSAD1 protein, enabling phages to evade the host defense. However, the molecular mechanisms of activation and inhibition of DSR2 remain elusive. Here, we report the cryo-EM structures of apo DSR2, DSR2-TTP-NAD+ and DSR2-DSAD1 complexes. DSR2 assembles into a head-to-head tetramer mediated by its Sir2 domain. The C-terminal helical regions of DSR2 constitute four partner-binding cavities with opened and closed conformation. Two TTP molecules bind to two of the four C-terminal cavities, inducing conformational change of Sir2 domain to activate DSR2. Furthermore, DSAD1 competes with the activator for binding to the C-terminal cavity of DSR2, effectively suppressing its enzymatic activity. Our results provide the mechanistic insights into the DSR2-mediated anti-phage defense system and DSAD1-dependent phage immune evasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruiwen Wang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Rare Pediatric Diseases, Center for Medical Genetics, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Qi Xu
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Structural Biology, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Zhuoxi Wu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Rare Pediatric Diseases, Center for Medical Genetics, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Jialu Li
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Structural Biology, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Hao Guo
- MOE Key Laboratory of Rare Pediatric Diseases, Center for Medical Genetics, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Tianzhui Liao
- MOE Key Laboratory of Rare Pediatric Diseases, Center for Medical Genetics, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Yuan Shi
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Structural Biology, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Ling Yuan
- MOE Key Laboratory of Rare Pediatric Diseases, Center for Medical Genetics, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Haishan Gao
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Structural Biology, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Rong Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Freshwater Fish, Engineering Research Center of Polyploid Fish Reproduction and Breeding of the State Education Ministry, College of Life Sciences, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, Hunan, China.
| | - Zhubing Shi
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Structural Biology, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.
- Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Faxiang Li
- MOE Key Laboratory of Rare Pediatric Diseases, Center for Medical Genetics, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.
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5
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Kottur J, Malik R, Aggarwal AK. Nucleic acid mediated activation of a short prokaryotic Argonaute immune system. Nat Commun 2024; 15:4852. [PMID: 38844755 PMCID: PMC11156904 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-49271-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/09/2024] Open
Abstract
A short prokaryotic Argonaute (pAgo) TIR-APAZ (SPARTA) defense system, activated by invading DNA to unleash its TIR domain for NAD(P)+ hydrolysis, was recently identified in bacteria. We report the crystal structure of SPARTA heterodimer in the absence of guide-RNA/target-ssDNA (2.66 Å) and a cryo-EM structure of the SPARTA oligomer (tetramer of heterodimers) bound to guide-RNA/target-ssDNA at nominal 3.15-3.35 Å resolution. The crystal structure provides a high-resolution view of SPARTA, revealing the APAZ domain as equivalent to the N, L1, and L2 regions of long pAgos and the MID domain containing a unique insertion (insert57). Cryo-EM structure reveals regions of the PIWI (loop10-9) and APAZ (helix αN) domains that reconfigure for nucleic-acid binding and decrypts regions/residues that reorganize to expose a positively charged pocket for higher-order assembly. The TIR domains amass in a parallel-strands arrangement for catalysis. We visualize SPARTA before and after RNA/ssDNA binding and uncover the basis of its active assembly leading to abortive infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jithesh Kottur
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
- Department of Antiviral Drug Research, Institute of Advanced Virology, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, 695317, India.
| | - Radhika Malik
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
| | - Aneel K Aggarwal
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
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6
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Huang J, Zhu K, Gao Y, Ye F, Li Z, Ge Y, Liu S, Yang J, Gao A. Molecular basis of bacterial DSR2 anti-phage defense and viral immune evasion. Nat Commun 2024; 15:3954. [PMID: 38729958 PMCID: PMC11087589 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-48291-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2023] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Defense-associated sirtuin 2 (DSR2) systems are widely distributed across prokaryotic genomes, providing robust protection against phage infection. DSR2 recognizes phage tail tube proteins and induces abortive infection by depleting intracellular NAD+, a process that is counteracted by another phage-encoded protein, DSR Anti Defense 1 (DSAD1). Here, we present cryo-EM structures of Bacillus subtilis DSR2 in its apo, Tube-bound, and DSAD1-bound states. DSR2 assembles into an elongated tetramer, with four NADase catalytic modules clustered in the center and the regulatory-sensing modules distributed at four distal corners. Interestingly, monomeric Tube protein, rather than its oligomeric states, docks at each corner of the DSR2 tetramer to form a 4:4 DSR2-Tube assembly, which is essential for DSR2 NADase activity. DSAD1 competes with Tube for binding to DSR2 by occupying an overlapping region, thereby inhibiting DSR2 immunity. Thus, our results provide important insights into the assembly, activation and inhibition of the DSR2 anti-phage defense system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiafeng Huang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, Aerospace Center Hospital, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China.
- Key Laboratory of Biomacromolecules (CAS), National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.
| | - Keli Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, Aerospace Center Hospital, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Yina Gao
- Key Laboratory of Biomacromolecules (CAS), National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Feng Ye
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, Aerospace Center Hospital, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Zhaolong Li
- Key Laboratory of Biomacromolecules (CAS), National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Yao Ge
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, Aerospace Center Hospital, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Songqing Liu
- Key Laboratory of Biomacromolecules (CAS), National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Jing Yang
- Department of Neurology, Aerospace Center Hospital, Peking University Aerospace School of Clinical Medicine, Beijing, 100049, China.
| | - Ang Gao
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, Aerospace Center Hospital, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China.
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, China.
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7
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Prostova M, Kanevskaya A, Panteleev V, Lisitskaya L, Perfilova Tugaeva KV, Sluchanko NN, Esyunina D, Kulbachinskiy A. DNA-targeting short Argonautes complex with effector proteins for collateral nuclease activity and bacterial population immunity. Nat Microbiol 2024; 9:1368-1381. [PMID: 38622379 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-024-01654-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/17/2024]
Abstract
Two prokaryotic defence systems, prokaryotic Argonautes (pAgos) and CRISPR-Cas, detect and cleave invader nucleic acids using complementary guides and the nuclease activities of pAgo or Cas proteins. However, not all pAgos are active nucleases. A large clade of short pAgos bind nucleic acid guides but lack nuclease activity, suggesting a different mechanism of action. Here we investigate short pAgos associated with a putative effector nuclease, NbaAgo from Novosphingopyxis baekryungensis and CmeAgo from Cupriavidus metallidurans. We show that these pAgos form a heterodimeric complex with co-encoded effector nucleases (short prokaryotic Argonaute, DNase and RNase associated (SPARDA)). RNA-guided target DNA recognition unleashes the nuclease activity of SPARDA leading to indiscriminate collateral cleavage of DNA and RNA. Activation of SPARDA by plasmids or phages results in degradation of cellular DNA and cell death or dormancy, conferring target-specific population protection and expanding the range of known prokaryotic immune systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Prostova
- Institute of Gene Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.
| | - Anna Kanevskaya
- Institute of Gene Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.
| | | | - Lidia Lisitskaya
- Institute of Gene Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Kristina V Perfilova Tugaeva
- A.N. Bach Institute of Biochemistry, Federal Research Center of Biotechnology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Nikolai N Sluchanko
- A.N. Bach Institute of Biochemistry, Federal Research Center of Biotechnology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Daria Esyunina
- Institute of Gene Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
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8
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Guo L, Huang P, Li Z, Shin YC, Yan P, Lu M, Chen M, Xiao Y. Auto-inhibition and activation of a short Argonaute-associated TIR-APAZ defense system. Nat Chem Biol 2024; 20:512-520. [PMID: 37932527 DOI: 10.1038/s41589-023-01478-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 11/08/2023]
Abstract
Short prokaryotic Ago accounts for most prokaryotic Argonaute proteins (pAgos) and is involved in defending bacteria against invading nucleic acids. Short pAgo associated with TIR-APAZ (SPARTA) has been shown to oligomerize and deplete NAD+ upon guide-mediated target DNA recognition. However, the molecular basis of SPARTA inhibition and activation remains unknown. In this study, we determined the cryogenic electron microscopy structures of Crenotalea thermophila SPARTA in its inhibited, transient and activated states. The SPARTA monomer is auto-inhibited by its acidic tail, which occupies the guide-target binding channel. Guide-mediated target binding expels this acidic tail and triggers substantial conformational changes to expose the Ago-Ago dimerization interface. As a result, SPARTA assembles into an active tetramer, where the four TIR domains are rearranged and packed to form NADase active sites. Together with biochemical evidence, our results provide a panoramic vision explaining SPARTA auto-inhibition and activation and expand understanding of pAgo-mediated bacterial defense systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lijie Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Pingping Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Zhaoxing Li
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Young-Cheul Shin
- Department of Chemical Biology, School of Life Sciences, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China
| | - Purui Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Meiling Lu
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Life Science and Technology, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Meirong Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China.
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China.
| | - Yibei Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China.
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China.
- Chongqing Innovation Institute of China Pharmaceutical University, Chongqing, China.
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9
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Manakova E, Golovinas E, Pocevičiūtė R, Sasnauskas G, Silanskas A, Rutkauskas D, Jankunec M, Zagorskaitė E, Jurgelaitis E, Grybauskas A, Venclovas Č, Zaremba M. The missing part: the Archaeoglobus fulgidus Argonaute forms a functional heterodimer with an N-L1-L2 domain protein. Nucleic Acids Res 2024; 52:2530-2545. [PMID: 38197228 PMCID: PMC10954474 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkad1241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Revised: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 12/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Argonaute (Ago) proteins are present in all three domains of life (bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes). They use small (15-30 nucleotides) oligonucleotide guides to bind complementary nucleic acid targets and are responsible for gene expression regulation, mobile genome element silencing, and defence against viruses or plasmids. According to their domain organization, Agos are divided into long and short Agos. Long Agos found in prokaryotes (long-A and long-B pAgos) and eukaryotes (eAgos) comprise four major functional domains (N, PAZ, MID and PIWI) and two structural linker domains L1 and L2. The majority (∼60%) of pAgos are short pAgos, containing only the MID and inactive PIWI domains. Here we focus on the prokaryotic Argonaute AfAgo from Archaeoglobus fulgidus DSM4304. Although phylogenetically classified as a long-B pAgo, AfAgo contains only MID and catalytically inactive PIWI domains, akin to short pAgos. We show that AfAgo forms a heterodimeric complex with a protein encoded upstream in the same operon, which is a structural equivalent of the N-L1-L2 domains of long pAgos. This complex, structurally equivalent to a long PAZ-less pAgo, outperforms standalone AfAgo in guide RNA-mediated target DNA binding. Our findings provide a missing piece to one of the first and the most studied pAgos.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Manakova
- Institute of Biotechnology, Life Sciences Center, Vilnius University, Sauletekio av. 7, LT-10257, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Edvardas Golovinas
- Institute of Biotechnology, Life Sciences Center, Vilnius University, Sauletekio av. 7, LT-10257, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Reda Pocevičiūtė
- Institute of Biotechnology, Life Sciences Center, Vilnius University, Sauletekio av. 7, LT-10257, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Giedrius Sasnauskas
- Institute of Biotechnology, Life Sciences Center, Vilnius University, Sauletekio av. 7, LT-10257, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Arunas Silanskas
- Institute of Biotechnology, Life Sciences Center, Vilnius University, Sauletekio av. 7, LT-10257, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Danielis Rutkauskas
- Institute of Biotechnology, Life Sciences Center, Vilnius University, Sauletekio av. 7, LT-10257, Vilnius, Lithuania
- Institute of Physics, Center for Physical Sciences and Technology, Savanoriu 231, LT-02300, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Marija Jankunec
- Institute of Biotechnology, Life Sciences Center, Vilnius University, Sauletekio av. 7, LT-10257, Vilnius, Lithuania
- Institute of Biochemistry, Life Sciences Center, Vilnius University, Sauletekio av. 7, LT-10257, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Evelina Zagorskaitė
- Institute of Biotechnology, Life Sciences Center, Vilnius University, Sauletekio av. 7, LT-10257, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Edvinas Jurgelaitis
- Institute of Biotechnology, Life Sciences Center, Vilnius University, Sauletekio av. 7, LT-10257, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Algirdas Grybauskas
- Institute of Biotechnology, Life Sciences Center, Vilnius University, Sauletekio av. 7, LT-10257, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Česlovas Venclovas
- Institute of Biotechnology, Life Sciences Center, Vilnius University, Sauletekio av. 7, LT-10257, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Mindaugas Zaremba
- Institute of Biotechnology, Life Sciences Center, Vilnius University, Sauletekio av. 7, LT-10257, Vilnius, Lithuania
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10
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Finocchio G, Koopal B, Potocnik A, Heijstek C, Westphal AH, Jinek M, Swarts DC. Target DNA-dependent activation mechanism of the prokaryotic immune system SPARTA. Nucleic Acids Res 2024; 52:2012-2029. [PMID: 38224450 PMCID: PMC10899771 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkad1248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Revised: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/16/2024] Open
Abstract
In both prokaryotic and eukaryotic innate immune systems, TIR domains function as NADases that degrade the key metabolite NAD+ or generate signaling molecules. Catalytic activation of TIR domains requires oligomerization, but how this is achieved varies in distinct immune systems. In the Short prokaryotic Argonaute (pAgo)/TIR-APAZ (SPARTA) immune system, TIR NADase activity is triggered upon guide RNA-mediated recognition of invading DNA by an unknown mechanism. Here, we describe cryo-EM structures of SPARTA in the inactive monomeric and target DNA-activated tetrameric states. The monomeric SPARTA structure reveals that in the absence of target DNA, a C-terminal tail of TIR-APAZ occupies the nucleic acid binding cleft formed by the pAgo and TIR-APAZ subunits, inhibiting SPARTA activation. In the active tetrameric SPARTA complex, guide RNA-mediated target DNA binding displaces the C-terminal tail and induces conformational changes in pAgo that facilitate SPARTA-SPARTA dimerization. Concurrent release and rotation of one TIR domain allow it to form a composite NADase catalytic site with the other TIR domain within the dimer, and generate a self-complementary interface that mediates cooperative tetramerization. Combined, this study provides critical insights into the structural architecture of SPARTA and the molecular mechanism underlying target DNA-dependent oligomerization and catalytic activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giada Finocchio
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Balwina Koopal
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Wageningen University, 6708 WE Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Ana Potocnik
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Wageningen University, 6708 WE Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Clint Heijstek
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Wageningen University, 6708 WE Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Adrie H Westphal
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Wageningen University, 6708 WE Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Martin Jinek
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Daan C Swarts
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Wageningen University, 6708 WE Wageningen, the Netherlands
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11
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Lu X, Xiao J, Wang L, Zhu B, Huang F. The nuclease-associated short prokaryotic Argonaute system nonspecifically degrades DNA upon activation by target recognition. Nucleic Acids Res 2024; 52:844-855. [PMID: 38048327 PMCID: PMC10810196 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkad1145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 11/10/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 12/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Prokaryotic Argonautes (pAgos) play a vital role in host defense by utilizing short nucleic acid guides to recognize and target complementary nucleic acids. Despite being the majority of pAgos, short pAgos have only recently received attention. Short pAgos are often associated with proteins containing an APAZ domain and a nuclease domain including DUF4365, SMEK, or HNH domain. In contrast to long pAgos that specifically cleave the target DNA, our study demonstrates that the short pAgo from Thermocrispum municipal, along with its associated DUF4365-APAZ protein, forms a heterodimeric complex. Upon RNA-guided target DNA recognition, this complex is activated to nonspecifically cleave DNA. Additionally, we found that the TmuRE-Ago complex shows a preference for 5'-OH guide RNA, specifically requires a uridine nucleotide at the 5' end of the guide RNA, and is sensitive to single-nucleotide mismatches between the guide RNA and target DNA. Based on its catalytic properties, our study has established a novel nucleic acid detection method and demonstrated its feasibility. This study not only expands our understanding of the defense mechanism employed by short pAgo systems but also suggests their potential applications in nucleic acid detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xueling Lu
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics, the Ministry of Education, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, China
| | - Jun Xiao
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China
| | - Longfei Wang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China
| | - Bin Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics, the Ministry of Education, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, China
- Shenzhen Huazhong University of Science and Technology Research Institute, Shenzhen 518063, China
| | - Fengtao Huang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics, the Ministry of Education, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, China
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12
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Zhen X, Xu X, Ye L, Xie S, Huang Z, Yang S, Wang Y, Li J, Long F, Ouyang S. Structural basis of antiphage immunity generated by a prokaryotic Argonaute-associated SPARSA system. Nat Commun 2024; 15:450. [PMID: 38200015 PMCID: PMC10781750 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-44660-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 12/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Argonaute (Ago) proteins are ubiquitous across all kingdoms of life. Eukaryotic Agos (eAgos) use small RNAs to recognize transcripts for RNA silencing in eukaryotes. In contrast, the functions of prokaryotic counterparts (pAgo) are less well known. Recently, short pAgos in conjunction with the associated TIR or Sir2 (SPARTA or SPARSA) were found to serve as antiviral systems to combat phage infections. Herein, we present the cryo-EM structures of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)-bound SPARSA with and without nucleic acids at resolutions of 3.1 Å and 3.6 Å, respectively. Our results reveal that the APAZ (Analogue of PAZ) domain and the short pAgo form a featured architecture similar to the long pAgo to accommodate nucleic acids. We further identified the key residues for NAD+ binding and elucidated the structural basis for guide RNA and target DNA recognition. Using structural comparisons, molecular dynamics simulations, and biochemical experiments, we proposed a putative mechanism for NAD+ hydrolysis in which an H186 loop mediates nucleophilic attack by catalytic water molecules. Overall, our study provides mechanistic insight into the antiphage role of the SPARSA system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangkai Zhen
- Key Laboratory of Microbial Pathogenesis and Interventions of Fujian Province University, the Key Laboratory of Innate Immune Biology of Fujian Province, Biomedical Research Center of South China, Key Laboratory of OptoElectronic Science and Technology for Medicine of the Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, 350117, China
| | - Xiaolong Xu
- Key Laboratory of Combinatorial Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Neurosurgery, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430071, China
| | - Le Ye
- Key Laboratory of Microbial Pathogenesis and Interventions of Fujian Province University, the Key Laboratory of Innate Immune Biology of Fujian Province, Biomedical Research Center of South China, Key Laboratory of OptoElectronic Science and Technology for Medicine of the Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, 350117, China
| | - Song Xie
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, 350116, Fuzhou, China
| | - Zhijie Huang
- Key Laboratory of Microbial Pathogenesis and Interventions of Fujian Province University, the Key Laboratory of Innate Immune Biology of Fujian Province, Biomedical Research Center of South China, Key Laboratory of OptoElectronic Science and Technology for Medicine of the Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, 350117, China
| | - Sheng Yang
- Key Laboratory of Microbial Pathogenesis and Interventions of Fujian Province University, the Key Laboratory of Innate Immune Biology of Fujian Province, Biomedical Research Center of South China, Key Laboratory of OptoElectronic Science and Technology for Medicine of the Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, 350117, China
| | - Yanhui Wang
- Key Laboratory of Combinatorial Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Neurosurgery, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430071, China
| | - Jinyu Li
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, 350116, Fuzhou, China.
| | - Feng Long
- Key Laboratory of Combinatorial Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Neurosurgery, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430071, China.
| | - Songying Ouyang
- Key Laboratory of Microbial Pathogenesis and Interventions of Fujian Province University, the Key Laboratory of Innate Immune Biology of Fujian Province, Biomedical Research Center of South China, Key Laboratory of OptoElectronic Science and Technology for Medicine of the Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, 350117, China.
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13
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Gao X, Shang K, Zhu K, Wang L, Mu Z, Fu X, Yu X, Qin B, Zhu H, Ding W, Cui S. Nucleic-acid-triggered NADase activation of a short prokaryotic Argonaute. Nature 2024; 625:822-831. [PMID: 37783228 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06665-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023]
Abstract
Argonaute (Ago) proteins mediate RNA- or DNA-guided inhibition of nucleic acids1,2. Although the mechanisms used by eukaryotic Ago proteins and long prokaryotic Ago proteins (pAgos) are known, that used by short pAgos remains elusive. Here we determined the cryo-electron microscopy structures of a short pAgo and the associated TIR-APAZ proteins (SPARTA) from Crenotalea thermophila (Crt): a free-state Crt-SPARTA; a guide RNA-target DNA-loaded Crt-SPARTA; two Crt-SPARTA dimers with distinct TIR organization; and a Crt-SPARTA tetramer. These structures reveal that Crt-SPARTA is composed of a bilobal-fold Ago lobe that connects with a TIR lobe. Whereas the Crt-Ago contains a MID and a PIWI domain, Crt-TIR-APAZ has a TIR domain, an N-like domain, a linker domain and a trigger domain. The bound RNA-DNA duplex adopts a B-form conformation that is recognized by base-specific contacts. Nucleic acid binding causes conformational changes because the trigger domain acts as a 'roadblock' that prevents the guide RNA 5' ends and the target DNA 3' ends from reaching their canonical pockets; this disorders the MID domain and promotes Crt-SPARTA dimerization. Two RNA-DNA-loaded Crt-SPARTA dimers form a tetramer through their TIR domains. Four Crt-TIR domains assemble into two parallel head-to-tail-organized TIR dimers, indicating an NADase-active conformation, which is supported by our mutagenesis study. Our results reveal the structural basis of short-pAgo-mediated defence against invading nucleic acids, and provide insights for optimizing the detection of SPARTA-based programmable DNA sequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaopan Gao
- NHC Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Pathogen Infection Prevention and Control, Peking Union Medical College, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Kun Shang
- Beijing National Laboratory for Condensed Matter Physics, Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Medical School, Yan'an University, Yan'an, China
| | - Kaixiang Zhu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Pathogen Infection Prevention and Control, Peking Union Medical College, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Linyue Wang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Pathogen Infection Prevention and Control, Peking Union Medical College, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Zhixia Mu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Pathogen Infection Prevention and Control, Peking Union Medical College, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Xingke Fu
- Beijing National Laboratory for Condensed Matter Physics, Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xia Yu
- National Clinical Laboratory on Tuberculosis, Beijing Key Laboratory for Drug-resistant Tuberculosis Research, Beijing Chest Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing Tuberculosis and Thoracic Tumor Institute, Beijing, China
| | - Bo Qin
- NHC Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Pathogen Infection Prevention and Control, Peking Union Medical College, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Hongtao Zhu
- Beijing National Laboratory for Condensed Matter Physics, Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
| | - Wei Ding
- Beijing National Laboratory for Condensed Matter Physics, Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
| | - Sheng Cui
- NHC Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China.
- Key Laboratory of Pathogen Infection Prevention and Control, Peking Union Medical College, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China.
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14
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Beskrovnaia M, Agapov A, Makasheva K, Zharkov DO, Esyunina D, Kulbachinskiy A. Sensing of DNA modifications by pAgo proteins in vitro. Biochimie 2023; 220:39-47. [PMID: 38128776 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2023.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Revised: 12/09/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
Many prokaryotic Argonaute (pAgo) proteins act as programmable nucleases that use small guide DNAs for recognition and cleavage of complementary target DNA. Recent studies suggested that pAgos participate in cell defense against invader DNA and may also be involved in other genetic processes, including DNA replication and repair. The ability of pAgos to recognize specific targets potentially make them an invaluable tool for DNA manipulations. Here, we demonstrate that DNA-guided DNA-targeting pAgo nucleases from three bacterial species, DloAgo from Dorea longicatena, CbAgo from Clostridium butyricum and KmAgo from Kurthia massiliensis, can sense site-specific modifications in the target DNA, including 8-oxoguanine, thymine glycol, ethenoadenine and pyrimidine dimers. The effects of DNA modifications on the activity of pAgos strongly depend on their positions relative to the site of cleavage and are comparable to or exceed the effects of guide-target mismatches at corresponding positions. For all tested pAgos, the strongest effects are observed when DNA lesions are located at the cleavage position. The results demonstrate that DNA cleavage by pAgos is strongly affected by DNA modifications, thus making possible their use as sensors of DNA damage.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Aleksei Agapov
- Institute of Gene Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119334, Russia
| | - Kristina Makasheva
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, SB RAS, Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia
| | - Dmitry O Zharkov
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, SB RAS, Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia
| | - Daria Esyunina
- Institute of Gene Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119334, Russia
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15
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Affiliation(s)
- Arpita Chakravarti
- Structural Biology Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Dinshaw J Patel
- Structural Biology Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA.
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