Nr2e3 is a genetic modifier that rescues retinal degeneration and promotes homeostasis in multiple models of retinitis pigmentosa

NR2E3 inhibits the inflammation and apoptosis in diabetic retinopathy by regulating the AHR/IL-17A signaling pathway

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is the most prevalent microvascular complication of diabetes mellitus, and it is the primary cause of blindness in the working-age population worldwide. Nevertheless, the pathogenic molecular mechanisms of DR remain elusive. Hub genes were identified through bioinformatics analysis in the GSE102485 and GSE60436 datasets. The DR mouse model was induced using streptozotocin (STZ, 150 mg/kg), and pathological changes in retinal tissue were assessed via HE staining. Apoptosis in retinal tissue cells was evaluated by the TUNEL assay. RT-qPCR and ELISA assays were employed to measure hub genes and inflammatory factor levels, respectively. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR)/interleukin (IL)-17A (AHR/IL-17A) pathway-associated proteins were detected by western blot. In the high glucose (HG)-induced ARPE-19 cells, CCK-8 and flow cytometry were used to perform cell function studies. Six hub genes associated with DR were screened. The expression levels of RHO, PRPH2, CRX, RCVRN, and NR2E3 were reduced, while the COL1A2 was elevated. NR2E3 overexpression reduced inflammatory factor (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) and cell apoptosis levels in DR. Furthermore, NR2E3 overexpression promoted HG-induced ARPE-19 cell proliferation. Mechanistically, NR2E3 overexpression facilitated the protein expression of AHR, while suppressing the IL-17 and ACT1 expressions. The introduction of Kyn-101, an AHR inhibitor, notably reversed the inhibitory effects of NR2E3 overexpression on inflammation and apoptosis, which were validated both in vivo and in vitro. NR2E3 inhibits the inflammation and apoptosis by regulating the AHR/IL-17A pathway, providing new insights into the DR treatment.

Inherited retinal dystrophies and orphan designations in the European Union

Inherited Retinal Dystrophies (IRD) are diverse rare diseases that affect the retina and lead to visual impairment or blindness. Research in this field is ongoing, with over 60 EU orphan medicinal products designated in this therapeutic area by the Committee for Orphan Medicinal Products (COMP) at the European Medicines Agency (EMA). Up to now, COMP has used traditional disease terms, like retinitis pigmentosa, for orphan designation regardless of the product's mechanism of action. The COMP reviewed the designation approach for IRDs taking into account all previous Orphan Designations (OD) experience in IRDs, the most relevant up to date scientific literature and input from patients and clinical experts. Following the review, the COMP decided that there should be three options available for orphan designation concerning the condition: i) an amended set of OD groups for therapies that might be used in a broad spectrum of conditions, ii) a gene-specific designation for targeted therapies, and iii) an occasional term for products that do not fit in the above two categories. The change in the approach to orphan designation in IRDs caters for different scenarios to allow an optimum approach for future OD applications including the option of a gene-specific designation. By applying this new approach, the COMP increases the regulatory clarity, efficiency, and predictability for sponsors, aligns EU regulatory tools with the latest scientific and medical developments in the field of IRDs, and ensures that all potentially treatable patients will be included in the scope of an OD.

A Comparative Analysis of Models for AAV-Mediated Gene Therapy for Inherited Retinal Diseases

Inherited retinal diseases (IRDs) represent a diverse group of genetic disorders leading to progressive degeneration of the retina due to mutations in over 280 genes. This review focuses on the various methodologies for the preclinical characterization and evaluation of adeno-associated virus (AAV)-mediated gene therapy as a potential treatment option for IRDs, particularly focusing on gene therapies targeting mutations, such as those in the RPE65 and FAM161A genes. AAV vectors, such as AAV2 and AAV5, have been utilized to deliver therapeutic genes, showing promise in preserving vision and enhancing photoreceptor function in animal models. Despite their advantages-including high production efficiency, low pathogenicity, and minimal immunogenicity-AAV-mediated therapies face limitations such as immune responses beyond the retina, vector size constraints, and challenges in large-scale manufacturing. This review systematically compares different experimental models used to investigate AAV-mediated therapies, such as mouse models, human retinal explants (HREs), and induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived retinal organoids. Mouse models are advantageous for genetic manipulation and detailed investigations of disease mechanisms; however, anatomical differences between mice and humans may limit the translational applicability of results. HREs offer valuable insights into human retinal pathophysiology but face challenges such as tissue degradation and lack of systemic physiological effects. Retinal organoids, on the other hand, provide a robust platform that closely mimics human retinal development, thereby enabling more comprehensive studies on disease mechanisms and therapeutic strategies, including AAV-based interventions. Specific outcomes targeted in these studies include vision preservation and functional improvements of retinas damaged by genetic mutations. This review highlights the strengths and weaknesses of each experimental model and advocates for their combined use in developing targeted gene therapies for IRDs. As research advances, optimizing AAV vector design and delivery methods will be critical for enhancing therapeutic efficacy and improving clinical outcomes for patients with IRDs.

Evaluating therapeutic potential of NR2E3 doses in the rd7 mouse model of retinal degeneration

Retinitis Pigmentosa is a leading cause of severe vision loss. Retinitis Pigmentosa can present with a broad range of phenotypes impacted by disease age of onset, severity, and progression. This variation is influenced both by different gene mutations as well as unique variants within the same gene. Mutations in the nuclear hormone receptor 2 family e, member 3 are associated with several forms of retinal degeneration, including Retinitis Pigmentosa. In our previous studies we demonstrated that subretinal administration of one Nr2e3 dose attenuated retinal degeneration in rd7 mice for at least 3 months. Here we expand the studies to evaluate the efficacy and longitudinal impact of the NR2E3 therapeutic by examining three different doses administered at early or intermediate stages of retinal degeneration in the rd7 mice. Our study revealed retinal morphology was significantly improved 6 months post for all doses in the early-stage treatment groups and for the low and mid doses in the intermediate stage treatment groups. Similarly, photoreceptor function was significantly improved in the early stage for all doses and intermediate stage low and mid dose groups 6 months post treatment. This study demonstrated efficacy in multiple doses of NR2E3 therapy.

Retinoic acid related orphan receptor α is a genetic modifier that rescues retinal degeneration in a mouse model of Stargardt disease and Dry AMD

Degeneration of the macula is associated with several overlapping diseases including age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and Stargardt Disease (STGD). Mutations in ATP Binding Cassette Subfamily A Member 4 (ABCA4) are associated with late-onset dry AMD and early-onset STGD. Additionally, both forms of macular degeneration exhibit deposition of subretinal material and photoreceptor degeneration. Retinoic acid related orphan receptor α (RORA) regulates the AMD inflammation pathway that includes ABCA4, CD59, C3 and C5. In this translational study, we examined the efficacy of RORA at attenuating retinal degeneration and improving the inflammatory response in Abca4 knockout (Abca4-/-) mice. AAV5-hRORA-treated mice showed reduced deposits, restored CD59 expression and attenuated amyloid precursor protein (APP) expression compared with untreated eyes. This molecular rescue correlated with statistically significant improvement in photoreceptor function. This is the first study evaluating the impact of RORA modifier gene therapy on rescuing retinal degeneration. Our studies demonstrate efficacy of RORA in improving STGD and dry AMD-like disease.

Preclinical dose response study shows NR2E3 can attenuate retinal degeneration in the retinitis pigmentosa mouse model RhoP23H+/. Gene Ther 2024;31:255-262. [PMID: 38273095 PMCID: PMC11090815 DOI: 10.1038/s41434-024-00440-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0]

Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is a heterogeneous disease and the main cause of vision loss within the group of inherited retinal diseases (IRDs). IRDs are a group of rare disorders caused by mutations in one or more of over 280 genes which ultimately result in blindness. Modifier genes play a key role in modulating disease phenotypes, and mutations in them can affect disease outcomes, rate of progression, and severity. Our previous studies have demonstrated that the nuclear hormone receptor 2 family e, member 3 (Nr2e3) gene reduced disease progression and loss of photoreceptor cell layers in RhoP23H-/- mice. This follow up, pharmacology study evaluates a longitudinal NR2E3 dose response in the clinically relevant heterozygous RhoP23H mouse. Reduced retinal degeneration and improved retinal morphology was observed 6 months following treatment evaluating three different NR2E3 doses. Histological and immunohistochemical analysis revealed regions of photoreceptor rescue in the treated retinas of RhoP23H+/- mice. Functional assessment by electroretinogram (ERG) showed attenuated photoreceptor degeneration with all doses. This study demonstrates the effectiveness of different doses of NR2E3 at reducing retinal degeneration and informs dose selection for clinical trials of RhoP23H-associated RP.

Germline knockout of Nr2e3 protects photoreceptors in three distinct mouse models of retinal degeneration

Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is a common form of retinal dystrophy that can be caused by mutations in any one of dozens of rod photoreceptor genes. The genetic heterogeneity of RP represents a significant challenge for the development of effective therapies. Here, we present evidence for a potential gene-independent therapeutic strategy based on targeting Nr2e3, a transcription factor required for the normal differentiation of rod photoreceptors. Nr2e3 knockout results in hybrid rod photoreceptors that express the full complement of rod genes, but also a subset of cone genes. We show that germline deletion of Nr2e3 potently protects rods in three mechanistically diverse mouse models of retinal degeneration caused by bright-light exposure (light damage), structural deficiency (rhodopsin-deficient Rho-/- mice), or abnormal phototransduction (phosphodiesterase-deficient rd10 mice). Nr2e3 knockout confers strong neuroprotective effects on rods without adverse effects on their gene expression, structure, or function. Furthermore, in all three degeneration models, prolongation of rod survival by Nr2e3 knockout leads to lasting preservation of cone morphology and function. These findings raise the possibility that upregulation of one or more cone genes in Nr2e3-deficient rods may be responsible for the neuroprotective effects we observe.

Epigenetic Switches in Retinal Homeostasis and Target for Drug Development

Retinal homeostasis, a tightly regulated process maintaining the functional integrity of the retina, is vital for visual function. Emerging research has unveiled the critical role of epigenetic regulation in controlling gene expression patterns during retinal development, maintenance, and response to mutational loads and injuries. Epigenetic switches, including DNA methylation, histone modifications, and non-coding RNAs, play pivotal roles in orchestrating retinal gene expression and cellular responses through various intracellular, extracellular, and environmental modulators. This review compiles the current knowledge on epigenetic switches in retinal homeostasis, providing a deeper understanding of their impact on retinal structural integrity and function and using them as potential targets for therapeutic interventions.

Deciphering complexity: TULP1 variants linked to an atypical retinal dystrophy phenotype

Introduction: TULP1 exemplifies the remarkable clinical and genetic heterogeneity observed in inherited retinal dystrophies. Our research describes the clinical and molecular characteristics of a patient manifesting an atypical retinal dystrophy pattern, marked by the identification of both a previously unreported and a rarely encountered TULP1 variant. Methods: Whole-exome sequencing was performed to identify potential causative variants. The pathogenicity of the identified TULP1 variants was evaluated through in silico predictors and a minigene splice assay, specifically designed to assess the effect of the unreported TULP1 variant. Results: We identified two TULP1 gene variants in a patient exhibiting unusual and symmetrical alterations in both retinas, characterized by an increase in autofluorescence along the distribution of retinal vessels. These variants included a known rare missense variant, c.1376T>C, and a novel splice site variant, c.822G>T. For the latter variant (c.822G>T), we conducted a minigene splice assay that demonstrated the incorporation of a premature stop codon. This finding suggests a likely activation of the nonsense-mediated mRNA decay mechanism, ultimately resulting in the absence of protein production from this allele. Segregation analysis confirmed that these variants were in trans. Discussion: Our data support that individuals with biallelic TULP1 variants may present with a unique pattern of macular degeneration and periarteriolar vascular pigmentation. This study highlights the importance of further clinical and molecular characterization of TULP1 variants to elucidate genotype-phenotype correlations in the context of inherited retinal dystrophies.

Seeing the Future: A Review of Ocular Therapy

Ocular diseases present a unique challenge and opportunity for therapeutic development. The eye has distinct advantages as a therapy target given its accessibility, compartmentalization, immune privilege, and size. Various methodologies for therapeutic delivery in ocular diseases are under investigation that impact long-term efficacy, toxicity, invasiveness, and delivery range. While gene, cell, and antibody therapy and nanoparticle delivery directly treat regions that have been damaged by disease, they can be limited in the duration of the therapeutic delivery and have a focal effect. In contrast, contact lenses and ocular implants can more effectively achieve sustained and widespread delivery of therapies; however, they can increase dilution of therapeutics, which may result in reduced effectiveness. Current therapies either offer a sustained release or a broad therapeutic effect, and future directions should aim toward achieving both. This review discusses current ocular therapy delivery systems and their applications, mechanisms for delivering therapeutic products to ocular tissues, advantages and challenges associated with each delivery system, current approved therapies, and clinical trials. Future directions for the improvement in existing ocular therapies include combination therapies, such as combined cell and gene therapies, as well as AI-driven devices, such as cortical implants that directly transmit visual information to the cortex.

Unleashing the potential of CRISPR multiplexing: Harnessing Cas12 and Cas13 for precise gene modulation in eye diseases

Gene therapy is a flourishing field with the potential to revolutionize the treatment of genetic diseases. The emergence of CRISPR-Cas9 has significantly advanced targeted and efficient genome editing. Although CRISPR-Cas9 has demonstrated promising potential applications in various genetic disorders, it faces limitations in simultaneously targeting multiple genes. Novel CRISPR systems, such as Cas12 and Cas13, have been developed to overcome these challenges, enabling multiplexing and providing unique advantages. Cas13, in particular, targets mRNA instead of genomic DNA, permitting precise gene expression control and mitigating off-target effects. This review investigates the potential of Cas12 and Cas13 in ocular gene therapy applications, such as suppression of inflammation and cell death. In addition, the capabilities of Cas12 and Cas13 are explored in addressing potential targets related with disease mechanisms such as aberrant isoforms, mitochondrial genes, cis-regulatory sequences, modifier genes, and long non-coding RNAs. Anatomical accessibility and relative immune privilege of the eye provide an ideal organ system for evaluating these novel techniques' efficacy and safety. By targeting multiple genes concurrently, CRISPR-Cas12 and Cas13 systems hold promise for treating a range of ocular disorders, including glaucoma, retinal dystrophies, and age-related macular degeneration. Nonetheless, additional refinement is required to ascertain the safety and efficacy of these approaches in ocular disease treatments. Thus, the development of Cas12 and Cas13 systems marks a significant advancement in gene therapy, offering the potential to devise effective treatments for ocular disorders.

Disease modeling and pharmacological rescue of autosomal dominant Retinitis Pigmentosa associated with RHO copy number variation

Retinitis pigmentosa (RP), a heterogenous group of inherited retinal disorder causes slow progressive vision loss with no effective treatments available. Mutations in the rhodopsin gene (RHO), account for ~25% cases of autosomal dominant RP (adRP). In this study, we describe the disease characteristics of the first ever reported mono-allelic copy number variation (CNV) in RHO as a novel cause of adRP. We (1) show advanced retinal degeneration in a male patient (60-70 year old) harboring four transcriptionally active intact copies of rhodopsin, (2) recapitulated the clinical phenotypes using retinal organoids, and (3) assessed the utilization of a small molecule, Photoregulin3 (PR3), as a clinically viable strategy to target and modify disease progression in RP patients associated with RHO-CNV. Patient retinal organoids showed photoreceptors dysgenesis, with rod photoreceptors displaying stunted outer segments with occasional elongated cilia-like projections (microscopy); increased RHO mRNA expression (qRT-PCR and bulk RNA-sequencing); and elevated levels and mislocalization of rhodopsin protein (RHO) within the cell body of rod photoreceptors (western blotting and immunohistochemistry) over the extended (300-days) culture time period when compared against control organoids. Lastly, we utilized PR3 to target NR2E3, an upstream regulator of RHO, to alter RHO expression and observed a partial rescue of RHO protein localization from the cell body to the inner/outer segments of rod photoreceptors in patient organoids. These results provide a proof-of-principle for personalized medicine and suggest that RHO expression requires precise control. Taken together, this study supports the clinical data indicating that adRP due to RHO-CNV develops due protein overexpression overloading the photoreceptor post-translational modification machinery.

One transgene, two myopathies: an MTM1 'cross gene therapy' for BIN1 deficiency?

This scientific commentary refers to ‘MTM1 overexpression prevents and reverts BIN1-related centronuclear myopathy’ by Giraud et al. (https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awad251).

Regulation of the stem‑like properties of estrogen receptor‑positive breast cancer cells through NR2E3/NR2C2 signaling

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are major drivers of metastasis, drug resistance and recurrence in numerous cancers. However, critical factors that can modulate CSC stemness have not been clearly identified. Nuclear receptor subfamily 2 group E member 3 (nr2e3) expression has been previously reported to be positively associated with drug sensitivity and favorable clinical outcomes in patients with estrogen receptor (ER)+ breast cancer. This suggests that nr2e3 expression may be inversely associated with CSC stemness in this type of tumor cells. The present study aimed to investigate the regulatory roles of NR2E3 in the stem-like properties of ER+ breast cancer cells and to identify the underlying mechanisms. Bioinformatics analysis was performed using the data derived from the Cancer Genome Atlas database. Nr2e3-specific shRNA and nuclear receptor subfamily 2 group C member 2 (nr2c2) overexpressed plasmids were constructed to silence and enhance the expression of nr2e3 and nr2c2, respectively. Transwell and wound healing experiments were conducted to evaluate the migration and invasion ability of MCF7 cells, while colony formation tests were used to evaluate the clonality. Flow cytometry was used to detect the percentage of CD44+CD24-/low cells. Reverse transcription-quantitative PCR and western blotting were performed to detect expression at the mRNA and protein levels. The results showed that compared with normal breast tissues and MCF10A cells, the expression of nr2e3 was increased in ER+ breast tumor tissues and cell lines. Nr2e3 silencing promoted the migration, invasion and colony-forming ability of the ER+ MCF7 cells. It also increased the expression of epithelial-mesenchymal transition markers and stem cell-related transcription factors, in addition to the percentage of CD44+CD24-/low cells. The expression of nr2e3 and nr2c2 was found to be positively correlated. Nr2e3 knockdown decreased the mRNA and protein expression levels of nr2c2, whereas nr2c2 overexpression reversed the elevated CD44+CD24-/low cell ratio and the increased migratory activity caused by nr2e3 silencing. The results of the present study suggest that NR2E3 may serve an important role in modulating the stem-like properties of ER+ breast cancer cells, where NR2E3/NR2C2 signaling may be a therapeutic target in ER+ breast cancer.

Nuclear Receptor Subfamily 2 Group E Member 3 (NR2E3): Role in Retinal Development and Disease

NR2E3 is a nuclear hormone receptor gene required for the correct development of the retinal rod photoreceptors. Expression of NR2E3 protein in rod cell precursors suppresses cone-specific gene expression and, in concert with other transcription factors including NRL, activates the expression of rod-specific genes. Pathogenic variants involving NR2E3 cause a spectrum of retinopathies, including enhanced S-cone syndrome, Goldmann-Favre syndrome, retinitis pigmentosa, and clumped pigmentary retinal degeneration, with limited evidence of genotype-phenotype correlations. A common feature of NR2E3-related disease is an abnormally high number of cone photoreceptors that are sensitive to short wavelength light, the S-cones. This characteristic has been supported by mouse studies, which have also revealed that loss of Nr2e3 function causes photoreceptors to develop as cells that are intermediate between rods and cones. While there is currently no available cure for NR2E3-related retinopathies, there are a number of emerging therapeutic strategies under investigation, including the use of viral gene therapy and gene editing, that have shown promise for the future treatment of patients with NR2E3 variants and other inherited retinal diseases. This review provides a detailed overview of the current understanding of the role of NR2E3 in normal development and disease, and the associated clinical phenotypes, animal models, and therapeutic studies.

Natural disease history of a canine model of oligogenic RPGRIP1-cone-rod dystrophy establishes variable effects of previously and newly mapped modifier loci

Canine RPGRIP1-cone-rod dystrophy (CRD), a model for human inherited retinal diseases (IRDs), was originally identified as autosomal recessive early-onset blindness. However, later studies revealed extensive phenotypic variability among RPGRIP1 mutants. This led to the identification of a homozygous MAP9 variant as a modifier associated with early-onset disease. Based on further phenotypic variation affecting cone photoreceptor function, we report mapping of L3 as an additional modifier locus, within a 4.1-Mb locus on canine chromosome 30. We establish the natural disease history of RPGRIP1-CRD based on up to 9-year long-term functional and structural retinal data from 58 dogs including 44 RPGRIP1 mutants grouped according to the modifier status. RPGRIP1 mutants affected by both MAP9 and L3 modifiers exhibited the most severe phenotypes with rapid disease progression. MAP9 alone was found to act as an overall accelerator of rod and cone diseases, while L3 had a cone-specific effect. Ultrastructural analysis of photoreceptors revealed varying degrees of rod and cone damage, while the connecting cilia appeared structurally preserved in all groups. We conclude that RPGRIP1-CRD is an oligogenic disease with at least three loci contributing to the pathogenesis. While the RPGRIP1 variant is required for developing the disease, MAP9 and L3 modifiers exacerbate the phenotype, individually and cumulatively. Oligogenic canine RPGRIP1-CRD illustrates the impact of multiple genetic modifiers on disease phenotype and thus has the potential to reveal new targets for broad-spectrum therapies for oligogenic or polygenic forms of human IRDs.

Potential therapeutic targets for age-related macular degeneration: The nuclear option

The functions and activities of nuclear receptors, the largest family of transcription factors in the human genome, have classically focused on their ability to act as steroid and hormone sensors in endocrine organs. However, they are responsible for a diverse array of physiological functions, including cellular homeostasis and metabolism, during development and aging. Though the eye is not a traditional endocrine organ, recent studies have revealed high expression levels of nuclear receptors in cells throughout the posterior pole. These findings have precipitated an interest in investigating the role of these transcription factors in the eye as a function of age and ocular disease, in particular age-related macular degeneration (AMD). As the leading cause of vision impairment in the elderly, identifying signaling pathways that may be targeted for AMD therapy is of great importance, given the lack of therapeutic options for over 85% of patients with this disease. Herein we review this relatively new field and recent findings supporting the hypothesis that the eye is a secondary endocrine organ, in which nuclear receptors serve as the bedrock for biological processes in cells vulnerable in AMD, including retinal pigment epithelial and choroidal endothelial cells, and discuss the therapeutic potential of targeting these receptors for AMD.

Gene-agnostic approaches to treating inherited retinal degenerations

Most patients with inherited retinal degenerations (IRDs) have been waiting for treatments that are "just around the corner" for decades, with only a handful of seminal breakthroughs happening in recent years. Highlighting the difficulties in the quest for curative therapeutics, Luxturna required 16 years of development before finally obtaining United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval and its international equivalents. IRDs are both genetically and phenotypically heterogeneous. While this diversity offers many opportunities for gene-by-gene precision medicine-based approaches, it also poses a significant challenge. For this reason, alternative (or parallel) strategies to identify more comprehensive, across-the-board therapeutics for the genetically and phenotypically diverse IRD patient population are very appealing. Even when gene-specific approaches may be available and become approved for use, many patients may have reached a disease stage whereby these approaches may no longer be viable. Thus, alternate visual preservation or restoration therapeutic approaches are needed at these stages. In this review, we underscore several gene-agnostic approaches that are being developed as therapeutics for IRDs. From retinal supplementation to stem cell transplantation, optogenetic therapy and retinal prosthetics, these strategies would bypass at least in part the need for treating every individual gene or mutation or provide an invaluable complement to them. By considering the diverse patient population and treatment strategies suited for different stages and patterns of retinal degeneration, gene agnostic approaches are very well poised to impact favorably outcomes and prognosis for IRD patients.

Tocilizumab-coated solid lipid nanoparticles loaded with cannabidiol as a novel drug delivery strategy for treating COVID-19: A review

Commonly used clinical strategies against coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19), including the potential role of monoclonal antibodies for site-specific targeted drug delivery, are discussed here. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) tailored with tocilizumab (TCZ) and loading cannabidiol (CBD) are proposed for the treatment of COVID-19 by oral route. TCZ, as a humanized IgG1 monoclonal antibody and an interleukin-6 (IL-6) receptor agonist, can attenuate cytokine storm in patients infected with SARS-CoV-2. CBD (an anti-inflammatory cannabinoid and TCZ agonist) alleviates anxiety, schizophrenia, and depression. CBD, obtained from Cannabis sativa L., is known to modulate gene expression and inflammation and also shows anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory properties. It has also been recognized to modulate angiotensin-converting enzyme II (ACE2) expression in SARS-CoV-2 target tissues. It has already been proven that immunosuppressive drugs targeting the IL-6 receptor may ameliorate lethal inflammatory responses in COVID-19 patients. TCZ, as an immunosuppressive drug, is mainly used to treat rheumatoid arthritis, although several attempts have been made to use it in the active hyperinflammatory phase of COVID-19, with promising outcomes. TCZ is currently administered intravenously. It this review, we discuss the potential advances on the use of SLN for oral administration of TCZ-tailored CBD-loaded SLN, as an innovative platform for managing SARS-CoV-2 and related infections.

Gene-agnostic therapeutic approaches for inherited retinal degenerations

Inherited retinal diseases (IRDs) are associated with mutations in over 250 genes and represent a major cause of irreversible blindness worldwide. While gene augmentation or gene editing therapies could address the underlying genetic mutations in a small subset of patients, their utility remains limited by the great genetic heterogeneity of IRDs and the costs of developing individualised therapies. Gene-agnostic therapeutic approaches target common pathogenic pathways that drive retinal degeneration or provide functional rescue of vision independent of the genetic cause, thus offering potential clinical benefits to all IRD patients. Here, we review the key gene-agnostic approaches, including retinal cell reprogramming and replacement, neurotrophic support, immune modulation and optogenetics. The relative benefits and limitations of these strategies and the timing of clinical interventions are discussed.

Enhanced S-cone Syndrome, a Mini-review

Enhanced S-cone Syndrome (ESCS) is an autosomal recessive inherited retinal disease mostly associated with disease-causing variants in the NR2E3 gene. During retinal development in ESCS, rod photoreceptor precursors are misdirected to form photoreceptors similar to short-wavelength cones, or S-cones. Compared to a normal human retina, patients with ESCS have no rods and significantly increased numbers of S-cones. Night blindness is the main visual symptom, and visual acuity and color vision can be normal at early disease stages. Histology of donor eyes and adaptive optics imaging revealed increased S-cone density outside of the fovea compared to normal. Visual function testing reveals absent rod function and abnormally enhanced sensitivity to short-wavelength light. Unlike most retinal degenerative diseases, ESCS results in a gain in S-cone photoreceptor function. Research involving ESCS could improve understanding of this rare retinal condition and also shed light on the role of NR2E3 expression in photoreceptor survival.

Disease-causing mutations in genes encoding transcription factors critical for photoreceptor development

Photoreceptor development of the vertebrate visual system is controlled by a complex transcription regulatory network. OTX2 is expressed in the mitotic retinal progenitor cells (RPCs) and controls photoreceptor genesis. CRX that is activated by OTX2 is expressed in photoreceptor precursors after cell cycle exit. NEUROD1 is also present in photoreceptor precursors that are ready to specify into rod and cone photoreceptor subtypes. NRL is required for the rod fate and regulates downstream rod-specific genes including the orphan nuclear receptor NR2E3 which further activates rod-specific genes and simultaneously represses cone-specific genes. Cone subtype specification is also regulated by the interplay of several transcription factors such as THRB and RXRG. Mutations in these key transcription factors are responsible for ocular defects at birth such as microphthalmia and inherited photoreceptor diseases such as Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA), retinitis pigmentosa (RP) and allied dystrophies. In particular, many mutations are inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion, including the majority of missense mutations in CRX and NRL. In this review, we describe the spectrum of photoreceptor defects that are associated with mutations in the above-mentioned transcription factors, and summarize the current knowledge of molecular mechanisms underlying the pathogenic mutations. At last, we deliberate the outstanding gaps in our understanding of the genotype-phenotype correlations and outline avenues for future research of the treatment strategies.

Nuclear Receptor Atlases of Choroidal Tissues Reveal Candidate Receptors Associated with Age-Related Macular Degeneration

The choroid is a vulnerable tissue site in the eye, impacted in several blinding diseases including age related macular degeneration (AMD), which is the leading cause of central vision loss in the aging population. Choroidal thinning and choriocapillary dropout are features of the early form of AMD, and endothelial dysfunction and vascular changes are primary characteristics of the neovascular clinical sub-type of AMD. Given the importance, the choroidal endothelium and outer vasculature play in supporting visual function, a better understanding of baseline choroidal signaling pathways engaged in tissue and cellular homeostasis is needed. Nuclear receptors are a large family of transcription factors responsible for maintaining various cellular processes during development, aging and disease. Herein we developed a comprehensive nuclear receptor atlas of human choroidal endothelial cells and freshly isolated choroidal tissue by examining the expression levels of all members of this transcription family using quantitative real time PCR. Given the close relationship between the choroid and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), this data was cross-referenced with the expression profile of nuclear receptors in human RPE cells, to discover potential overlap versus cell-specific nuclear receptor expression. Finally, to identify candidate receptors that may participate in the pathobiology of AMD, we cataloged nuclear receptor expression in a murine model of wet AMD, from which we discovered a subset of nuclear receptors differentially regulated following neovascularization. Overall, these databases serve as useful resources establishing the influence of nuclear receptor signaling pathways on the outer vascular tissue of the eye, while providing a list of receptors, for more focused investigations in the future, to determine their suitability as potential therapeutic targets for diseases, in which the choroid is affected.

Posterior Polar Hemispheric Choroidal Dystrophy: Case Report and Presentation of Genetic Screening

Purpose:

Posterior polar hemispheric choroidal dystrophy is a rare dystrophy affecting the choroid and retina with a characteristic clinical appearance that distinguishes it from a broad variety of other retinal diseases. The disease process has a morphology described in the literature that preferentially affects the outer macula and spares the fovea with no arteriolar attenuation or optic nerve pallor.

Methods:

This case report illustrates the use of multimodal retinal imaging, visual field testing, electroretinogram, and genetic testing of a patient who we believe fits the clinical pattern established by previous studies describing this condition.

Results:

Fundus imaging in addition to further imaging modalities such as fluorescein angiography helped further characterize this disease process and aided in the diagnosis. In addition, genetic testing revealed unique allele variants found in this patient.

Conclusions:

By taking a multifaceted approach to the diagnosis of retinal pathology, clinicians can make informed decisions regarding patient care.

Biliverdin regulates NR2E3 and zebrafish retinal photoreceptor development

NR2E3 is an orphan nuclear receptor whose loss-of-function causes abnormal retinal photoreceptor development and degeneration. However, despite that many nuclear receptors are regulated by binding of small molecule ligands, biological small molecule ligands regulating NR2E3 have not been identified. Identification of an endogenous NR2E3 ligand might reveal a previously unrecognized component contributing to retinal development and maintenance. Here we report that biliverdin, a conserved green pigment from heme catabolism, regulates NR2E3 and is necessary for zebrafish retinal photoreceptor development. Biliverdin from retinal extracts specifically bound to NR2E3’s ligand-binding domain and induced NR2E3-dependent reporter gene expression. Inhibition of biliverdin synthesis decreased photoreceptor cell populations in zebrafish larvae, and this phenotype was alleviated by exogenously supplied biliverdin. Thus, biliverdin is an endogenous small molecule ligand for NR2E3 and a component necessary for the proper development of photoreceptor cells. This result suggests a possible role of heme metabolism in the regulation of retinal photoreceptor cell development.

CRISPR-Based Genome Editing as a New Therapeutic Tool in Retinal Diseases

Retinal diseases are the primary reasons for severe visual defects and irreversible blindness. Retinal diseases are also inherited and acquired. Both of them are caused by mutations in genes or disruptions in specific gene expression, which can be treated by gene-editing therapy. Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR-Cas9) system is a frontier of gene-editing tools with great potential for therapeutic applications in the ophthalmology field to modify abnormal genes and treat the genome or epigenome-related retinal diseases. The CRISPR system is able to edit and trim the gene include deletion, insertion, inhibition, activation, replacing, remodeling, epigenetic alteration, and modify the gene expression. CRISPR-based genome editing techniques have indicated the enormous potential to treat retinal diseases that previous treatment was not available for them. Also, recent CRISPR genome surgery experiments have shown the improvement of patient's vision who suffered from severe visual loss. In this article, we review the applications of the CRISPR-Cas9 system in human or animal models for treating retinal diseases such as retinitis pigmentosa (RP), Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA), age-related macular degeneration (AMD), proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR), and proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR), then we survey limitations of CRISPR system for clinical therapy.

Common polymorphic OTC variants can act as genetic modifiers of enzymatic activity

Understanding the role of common polymorphisms in modulating the clinical phenotype when they co‐occur with a disease‐causing lesion is of critical importance in medical genetics. We explored the impact of apparently neutral common polymorphisms, using the gene encoding the urea cycle enzyme, ornithine transcarbamylase (OTC), as a model system. Distinct combinations of genetic backgrounds embracing two missense polymorphisms were created in cis with the pathogenic p.Arg40His replacement. In vitro enzymatic assays revealed that the polymorphic variants were able to modulate OTC activity both in the presence or absence of the pathogenic lesion. First, we found that the combination of the minor alleles of polymorphisms p.Lys46Arg and p.Gln270Arg significantly enhanced enzymatic activity in the wild‐type protein. Second, enzymatic assays revealed that the minor allele of the p.Gln270Arg polymorphism was capable of ameliorating OTC activity when combined in cis with the pathogenic p.Arg40His replacement. Structural analysis predicted that the minor allele of the p.Gln270Arg polymorphism would serve to stabilize the OTC wild‐type protein, thereby corroborating the results of the experimental assays. Our findings demonstrate the potential importance of cis‐interactions between common polymorphic variants and pathogenic missense mutations and illustrate how standing genetic variation can modulate protein function.

Inherited retinal diseases: Therapeutics, clinical trials and end points-A review

Inherited retinal diseases (IRDs) are a clinically and genetically heterogeneous group of disorders characterised by photoreceptor degeneration or dysfunction. These disorders typically present with severe vision loss that can be progressive, with disease onset ranging from congenital to late adulthood. The advances in genetics, retinal imaging and molecular biology, have conspired to create the ideal environment for establishing treatments for IRDs, with the first approved gene therapy and the commencement of multiple clinical trials. The scope of this review is to familiarise clinicians and scientists with the current management and the prospects for novel therapies for: (1) macular dystrophies, (2) cone and cone-rod dystrophies, (3) cone dysfunction syndromes, (4) Leber congenital amaurosis, (5) rod-cone dystrophies, (6) rod dysfunction syndromes and (7) chorioretinal dystrophies. We also briefly summarise the investigated end points for the ongoing trials.

Interspecies Correlations between Human and Mouse NR2E3-Associated Recessive Disease

NR2E3-associated recessive disease in humans is historically defined by congenital night blinding retinopathy, characterized by an initial increase in short-wavelength (S)-cone sensitivity and progressive loss of rod and cone function. The retinal degeneration 7 (rd7) murine model, harboring a recessive mutation in the mouse ortholog of NR2E3, has been a well-studied disease model and recently evaluated as a therapeutic model for NR2E3-associated retinal degenerations. This study aims to draw parallels between human and mouse NR2E3-related disease through examination of spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) imaging between different stage of human disease and its murine counterpart. We propose that SD-OCT is a useful non-invasive diagnostic tool to compare human clinical dystrophy presentation with that of the rd7 mouse and make inference that may be of therapeutically relevance. Additionally, a longitudinal assessment of rd7 disease progression, utilizing available clinical data from our patients as well as extensive retrospective analysis of visual acuity data from published cases of human NR2E3-related disease, was curated to identify further valuable correlates between human and mouse Nr2e3 disease. Results of this study validate the slow progression of NR2E3-associated disease in humans and the rd7 mice and identify SD-OCT characteristics in patients at or near the vascular arcades that correlate well with the whorls and rosettes that are seen also in the rd7 mouse and point to imaging features that appear to be associated with better preserved S-cone mediated retinal function. The correlation of histological findings between rd7 mice and human imaging provides a solid foundation for diagnostic use of pathophysiological and prognostic information to further define characteristics and a relevant timeline for therapeutic intervention in the field of NR2E3-associated retinopathies.

In vivo retinal imaging in translational regenerative research

Regenerative translational studies must include a longitudinal assessment of the changes in retinal structure and function that occur as part of the natural history of the disease and those that result from the studied intervention. Traditionally, retinal structural changes have been evaluated by histological analysis which necessitates sacrificing the animals. In this review, we describe key imaging approaches such as fundus imaging, optical coherence tomography (OCT), OCT-angiography, adaptive optics (AO), and confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (cSLO) that enable noninvasive, non-contact, and fast in vivo imaging of the posterior segment. These imaging technologies substantially reduce the number of animals needed and enable progression analysis and longitudinal follow-up in individual animals for accurate assessment of disease natural history, effects of interventions and acute changes. We also describe the benefits and limitations of each technology, as well as outline possible future directions that can be taken in translational retinal imaging studies.

Novel Pathogenic Sequence Variants in NR2E3 and Clinical Findings in Three Patients

A retrospective review of the clinical records of patients seen at the Oxford Eye Hospital identified as having NR2E3 mutations was performed. The data included symptoms, best-corrected visual acuity, multimodal retinal imaging, visual fields and electrophysiology testing. Three participants were identified with biallelic NR2E3 pathogenic sequence variants detected using a targeted NGS gene panel, two of which were novel. Participant I was a Nepalese male aged 68 years, and participants II and III were white Caucasian females aged 69 and 10 years old, respectively. All three had childhood onset nyctalopia, a progressive decrease in central vision, and visual field loss. Patients I and III had photopsia, patient II had photosensitivity and patient III also had photophobia. Visual acuities in patients I and II were preserved even into the seventh decade, with the worst visual acuity measured at 6/36. Visual field constriction was severe in participant I, less so in II, and fields were full to bright targets targets in participant III. Electrophysiology testing in all three demonstrated loss of rod function. The three patients share some of the typical distinctive features of NR2E3 retinopathies, as well as a novel clinical observation of foveal ellipsoid thickening.

Nr2e3 functional domain ablation by CRISPR-Cas9D10A identifies a new isoform and generates retinitis pigmentosa and enhanced S-cone syndrome models

Mutations in NR2E3 cause retinitis pigmentosa (RP) and enhanced S-cone syndrome (ESCS) in humans. This gene produces a large isoform encoded in 8 exons and a previously unreported shorter isoform of 7 exons, whose function is unknown. We generated two mouse models by targeting exon 8 of Nr2e3 using CRISPR/Cas9-D10A nickase. Allele Δ27 is an in-frame deletion of 27 bp that ablates the dimerization domain H10, whereas allele ΔE8 (full deletion of exon 8) produces only the short isoform, which lacks the C-terminal part of the ligand binding domain (LBD) that encodes both H10 and the AF2 domain involved in the Nr2e3 repressor activity. The Δ27 mutant shows developmental alterations and a non-progressive electrophysiological dysfunction that resembles the ESCS phenotype. The ΔE8 mutant exhibits progressive retinal degeneration, as occurs in human RP patients. Our mutants suggest a role for Nr2e3 as a cone-patterning regulator and provide valuable models for studying mechanisms of NR2E3-associated retinal dystrophies and evaluating potential therapies.

Genetic modifiers and phenotypic variability in neuromuscular disorders

Neuromuscular disorders are mostly rare diseases with autosomal dominant, recessive, or X-linked inheritance. Interestingly, among patients carrying the same mutations, a range of phenotypic severity is reported. This phenotypic variability in neuromuscular disorders is still not fully understood. This review will focus on genetic modifiers and will briefly describe metabolic pathways, in which they are involved. Genetic modifiers are variants in the same or other genes that modulate the phenotype. Proteins encoded by genetic modifiers in neuromuscular diseases are taking part in different metabolic processes, most commonly in inflammation, growth and regeneration, endoplasmic reticulum metabolism, and cytoskeletal activities. Recent advances in omics technologies, development of computational algorithms, and establishing large international consortia intensified discovery sped up investigation of genetic modifiers. As more individuals affected by neuromuscular disorders are tested, it is often suggested that classic models of genetic causation cannot explain phenotypic variability. There is a growing interest in their discovery and identifying shared metabolic pathways can contribute to design targeted therapies. We provide an update on variants acting as genetic modifiers in neuromuscular disorders and strategies used for their discovery.

Novel Therapeutic Approaches for the Treatment of Retinal Degenerative Diseases: Focus on CRISPR/Cas-Based Gene Editing

Inherited retinal diseases encompass a highly heterogenous group of disorders caused by a wide range of genetic variants and with diverse clinical symptoms that converge in the common trait of retinal degeneration. Indeed, mutations in over 270 genes have been associated with some form of retinal degenerative phenotype. Given the immune privileged status of the eye, cell replacement and gene augmentation therapies have been envisioned. While some of these approaches, such as delivery of genes through recombinant adeno-associated viral vectors, have been successfully tested in clinical trials, not all patients will benefit from current advancements due to their underlying genotype or phenotypic traits. Gene editing arises as an alternative therapeutic strategy seeking to correct mutations at the endogenous locus and rescue normal gene expression. Hence, gene editing technologies can in principle be tailored for treating retinal degeneration. Here we provide an overview of the different gene editing strategies that are being developed to overcome the challenges imposed by the post-mitotic nature of retinal cell types. We further discuss their advantages and drawbacks as well as the hurdles for their implementation in treating retinal diseases, which include the broad range of mutations and, in some instances, the size of the affected genes. Although therapeutic gene editing is at an early stage of development, it has the potential of enriching the portfolio of personalized molecular medicines directed at treating genetic diseases.

Targeting of the NRL Pathway as a Therapeutic Strategy to Treat Retinitis Pigmentosa

Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is an inherited retinal dystrophy (IRD) with a prevalence of 1:4000, characterized by initial rod photoreceptor loss and subsequent cone photoreceptor loss with accompanying nyctalopia, visual field deficits, and visual acuity loss. A diversity of causative mutations have been described with autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, and X-linked inheritance and sporadic mutations. The diversity of mutations makes gene therapy challenging, highlighting the need for mutation-agnostic treatments. Neural leucine zipper (NRL) and NR2E3 are factors important for rod photoreceptor cell differentiation and homeostasis. Germline mutations in NRL or NR2E3 leads to a loss of rods and an increased number of cones with short wavelength opsin in both rodents and humans. Multiple groups have demonstrated that inhibition of NRL or NR2E3 activity in the mature retina could endow rods with certain properties of cones, which prevents cell death in multiple rodent RP models with diverse mutations. In this review, we summarize the literature on NRL and NR2E3, therapeutic strategies of NRL/NR2E3 modulation in preclinical RP models, as well as future directions of research. In summary, inhibition of the NRL/NR2E3 pathway represents an intriguing mutation agnostic and disease-modifying target for the treatment of RP.