1
|
Martin BT, Sparks D, Hein AM, Liao JC. Fish couple forecasting with feedback control to chase and capture moving prey. Proc Biol Sci 2024; 291:20241463. [PMID: 39317312 PMCID: PMC11421899 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2024.1463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2024] [Revised: 08/08/2024] [Accepted: 08/09/2024] [Indexed: 09/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Predator-prey interactions are fundamental to ecological and evolutionary dynamics. Yet, predicting the outcome of such interactions-whether predators intercept prey or fail to do so-remains a challenge. An emerging hypothesis holds that interception trajectories of diverse predator species can be described by simple feedback control laws that map sensory inputs to motor outputs. This form of feedback control is widely used in engineered systems but suffers from degraded performance in the presence of processing delays such as those found in biological brains. We tested whether delay-uncompensated feedback control could explain predator pursuit manoeuvres using a novel experimental system to present hunting fish with virtual targets that manoeuvred in ways that push the limits of this type of control. We found that predator behaviour cannot be explained by delay-uncompensated feedback control, but is instead consistent with a pursuit algorithm that combines short-term forecasting of self-motion and prey motion with feedback control. This model predicts both predator interception trajectories and whether predators capture or fail to capture prey on a trial-by-trial basis. Our results demonstrate how animals can combine short-term forecasting with feedback control to generate robust flexible behaviours in the face of significant processing delays.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin T Martin
- Department of Theoretical and Computational Ecology, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904 , Amsterdam 1098 XH, The Netherlands
| | - David Sparks
- Department of Biology, The Whitney Laboratory for Marine Bioscience, University of Florida , Saint Augustine, FL 32080, USA
| | - Andrew M Hein
- Department of Computational Biology, Cornell University, Weill Hall, 102, Tower Rd , Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
| | - James C Liao
- Department of Biology, The Whitney Laboratory for Marine Bioscience, University of Florida , Saint Augustine, FL 32080, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Freymiller GA, Whitford MD, McGowan CP, Higham TE, Clark RW. Springing into action: Comparing escape responses between bipedal and quadrupedal rodents. Ecol Evol 2024; 14:e70292. [PMID: 39310732 PMCID: PMC11413494 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.70292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2024] [Revised: 08/23/2024] [Accepted: 08/30/2024] [Indexed: 09/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Predation is a fundamental selective pressure on animal morphology, as morphology is directly linked with physical performance and evasion. Bipedal heteromyid rodents, which are characterized by unique morphological traits such as enlarged hindlimbs, appear to be more successful than sympatric quadrupedal rodents at escaping predators such as snakes and owls, but no studies have directly compared the escape performance of bipedal and quadrupedal rodents. We used simulated predator attacks to compare the evasive jumping ability of bipedal kangaroo rats (Dipodomys) to that of three quadrupedal rodent groups-pocket mice (Chaetodipus), woodrats (Neotoma), and ground squirrels (Otospermophilus). Jumping performance of pocket mice was remarkably similar to that of kangaroo rats, which may be driven by their shared anatomical features (such as enlarged hindlimb muscles) and facilitated by their relatively small body size. Woodrats and ground squirrels, in contrast, almost never jumped as a startle response, and they took longer to perform evasive escape maneuvers than the heteromyid species (kangaroo rats and pocket mice). Among the heteromyids, take-off velocity was the only jump performance metric that differed significantly between species. These results support the idea that bipedal body plans facilitate vertical leaping in larger-bodied rodents as a means of predator escape and that vertical leaping likely translates to better evasion success.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Grace A. Freymiller
- Department of BiologyClovis Community CollegeFresnoCaliforniaUSA
- Department of BiologySan Diego State UniversitySan DiegoCaliforniaUSA
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal BiologyUniversity of California, RiversideRiversideCaliforniaUSA
| | - Malachi D. Whitford
- Department of BiologyClovis Community CollegeFresnoCaliforniaUSA
- Department of BiologySan Diego State UniversitySan DiegoCaliforniaUSA
| | - Craig P. McGowan
- Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCaliforniaUSA
| | - Timothy E. Higham
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal BiologyUniversity of California, RiversideRiversideCaliforniaUSA
| | - Rulon W. Clark
- Department of BiologySan Diego State UniversitySan DiegoCaliforniaUSA
- Chiricahua Desert MuseumRodeoNew MexicoUSA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Peterson AN, Swanson N, McHenry MJ. Fish communicate with water flow to enhance a school's social network. J Exp Biol 2024; 227:jeb247507. [PMID: 39109661 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.247507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2024] [Accepted: 07/29/2024] [Indexed: 09/12/2024]
Abstract
Schooling fish rely on a social network created through signaling between its members to interact with their environment. Previous studies have established that vision is necessary for schooling and that flow sensing by the lateral line system may aid in a school's cohesion. However, it remains unclear to what extent flow provides a channel of communication between schooling fish. Based on kinematic measurements of the speed and heading of schooling tetras (Petitella rhodostoma), we found that compromising the lateral line by chemical treatment reduced the mutual information between individuals by ∼13%. This relatively small reduction in pairwise communication propagated through schools of varying size to reduce the degree and connectivity of the social network by more than half. Treated schools additionally showed more than twice the spatial heterogeneity of fish with unaltered flow sensing. These effects were much more substantial than the changes that we measured in the nearest-neighbor distance, speed and intermittency of individual fish by compromising flow sensing. Therefore, flow serves as a valuable supplement to visual communication in a manner that is revealed through a school's network properties.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ashley N Peterson
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, 321 Steinhaus Hall, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Nathan Swanson
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, 321 Steinhaus Hall, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Matthew J McHenry
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, 321 Steinhaus Hall, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Tan M, Zhang S, Stevens M, Li D, Tan EJ. Antipredator defences in motion: animals reduce predation risks by concealing or misleading motion signals. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2024; 99:778-796. [PMID: 38174819 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Revised: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/15/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Motion is a crucial part of the natural world, yet our understanding of how animals avoid predation whilst moving remains rather limited. Although several theories have been proposed for how antipredator defence may be facilitated during motion, there is often a lack of supporting empirical evidence, or conflicting findings. Furthermore, many studies have shown that motion often 'breaks' camouflage, as sudden movement can be detected even before an individual is recognised. Whilst some static camouflage strategies may conceal moving animals to a certain extent, more emphasis should be given to other modes of camouflage and related defences in the context of motion (e.g. flicker fusion camouflage, active motion camouflage, motion dazzle, and protean motion). Furthermore, when motion is involved, defence strategies are not necessarily limited to concealment. An animal can also rely on motion to mislead predators with regards to its trajectory, location, size, colour pattern, or even identity. In this review, we discuss the various underlying antipredator strategies and the mechanisms through which they may be linked to motion, conceptualising existing empirical and theoretical studies from two perspectives - concealing and misleading effects. We also highlight gaps in our understanding of these antipredator strategies, and suggest possible methodologies for experimental designs/test subjects (i.e. prey and/or predators) and future research directions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Min Tan
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
| | - Shichang Zhang
- Centre for Behavioural Ecology & Evolution, State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, Hubei, China
| | - Martin Stevens
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn, TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Daiqin Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
- Centre for Behavioural Ecology & Evolution, State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, Hubei, China
| | - Eunice J Tan
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
- Division of Science, Yale-NUS College, 16 College Avenue West, Singapore, 138527, Singapore
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Bradley-Cronkwright M, Moore S, Hou L, Cote S, Rolian C. Impact of hindlimb length variation on jumping dynamics in the Longshanks mouse. J Exp Biol 2024; 227:jeb246808. [PMID: 38634230 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.246808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024]
Abstract
Distantly related mammals (e.g. jerboa, tarsiers, kangaroos) have convergently evolved elongated hindlimbs relative to body size. Limb elongation is hypothesized to make these species more effective jumpers by increasing their kinetic energy output (through greater forces or acceleration distances), thereby increasing take-off velocity and jump distance. This hypothesis, however, has rarely been tested at the population level, where natural selection operates. We examined the relationship between limb length, muscular traits and dynamics using Longshanks mice, which were selectively bred over 22 generations for longer tibiae. Longshanks mice have approximately 15% longer tibiae and 10% longer femora compared with random-bred Control mice from the same genetic background. We collected in vivo measures of locomotor kinematics and force production, in combination with behavioral data and muscle morphology, to examine how changes in bone and muscle structure observed in Longshanks mice affect their hindlimb dynamics during jumping and clambering. Longshanks mice achieved higher mean and maximum lunge-jump heights than Control mice. When jumping to a standardized height (14 cm), Longshanks mice had lower maximum ground reaction forces, prolonged contact times and greater impulses, without significant differences in average force, power or whole-body velocity. While Longshanks mice have longer plantarflexor muscle bodies and tendons than Control mice, there were no consistent differences in muscular cross-sectional area or overall muscle volume; improved lunge-jumping performance in Longshanks mice is not accomplished by simply possessing larger muscles. Independent of other morphological or behavioral changes, our results point to the benefit of longer hindlimbs for performing dynamic locomotion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Sarah Moore
- Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, AB, Canada, T2N 4N1
| | - Lily Hou
- Department of Anthropology and Archaeology, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, AB, Canada, T2N 1N4
| | - Susanne Cote
- Department of Anthropology and Archaeology, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, AB, Canada, T2N 1N4
| | - Campbell Rolian
- Department of Comparative Biology and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, AB, Canada, T2N 4N1
- McCaig Institute for Bone and Joint Health, Calgary, AB, Canada, T2N 4N1
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 0C7
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Mitelut C, Diez Castro M, Peterson RE, Goncalves M, Li J, Gamer MM, Nilsson SRO, Pereira TD, Sanes DH. A behavioral roadmap for the development of agency in the rodent. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2023.11.10.566632. [PMID: 38014127 PMCID: PMC10680634 DOI: 10.1101/2023.11.10.566632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
Behavioral interactions within the nuclear family play a pivotal role in the emergence of agency: the capacity to regulate physiological, psychological and social needs. While behaviors may develop over days or weeks in line with nervous system maturation, individual behaviors can occur on sub-second time scales making it challenging to track development in lab studies with brief observation periods, or in field studies with limited temporal precision and animal identification. Here we study development in families of gerbils, a highly social rodent, collecting tens of millions of behavior time points and implementing machine learning methods to track individual subjects. We provided maturing gerbils with a large, undisturbed environment between postnatal day 15 and the age at which they would typically disperse from the family unit (day 30). We identified complex and distinct developmental trajectories for food and water acquisition, solitary exploration, and social behaviors, some of which displayed sex differences and diurnal patterns. Our work supports the emergence of well-delineated autonomous and social behavior phenotypes that correlate with specific periods and loci of neural maturation.
Collapse
|
7
|
Park J, Son M, Park J, Bang SY, Ha J, Moon H, Lee YN, Lee SI, Jablonski PG. Escape behaviors in prey and the evolution of pennaceous plumage in dinosaurs. Sci Rep 2024; 14:549. [PMID: 38272887 PMCID: PMC10811223 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-50225-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 12/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Numerous non-avian dinosaurs possessed pennaceous feathers on their forelimbs (proto-wings) and tail. Their functions remain unclear. We propose that these pennaceous feathers were used in displays to flush hiding prey through stimulation of sensory-neural escape pathways in prey, allowing the dinosaurs to pursue the flushed prey. We evaluated the escape behavior of grasshoppers to hypothetical visual flush-displays by a robotic dinosaur, and we recorded neurophysiological responses of grasshoppers' escape pathway to computer animations of the hypothetical flush-displays by dinosaurs. We show that the prey of dinosaurs would have fled more often when proto-wings were present, especially distally and with contrasting patterns, and when caudal plumage, especially of a large area, was used during the hypothetical flush-displays. The reinforcing loop between flush and pursue functions could have contributed to the evolution of larger and stiffer feathers for faster running, maneuverability, and stronger flush-displays, promoting foraging based on the flush-pursue strategy. The flush-pursue hypothesis can explain the presence and distribution of the pennaceous feathers, plumage color contrasts, as well as a number of other features observed in early pennaraptorans. This scenario highlights that sensory-neural processes underlying prey's antipredatory reactions may contribute to the origin of major evolutionary innovations in predators.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jinseok Park
- School of Biological Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Minyoung Son
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Jeongyeol Park
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, South Korea
| | - Sang Yun Bang
- School of Biological Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Jungmoon Ha
- School of Biological Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hyungpil Moon
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, South Korea.
| | - Yuong-Nam Lee
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea.
| | - Sang-Im Lee
- Department of New Biology, DGIST, Taegu, South Korea.
| | - Piotr G Jablonski
- School of Biological Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea.
- Museum and Institute of Zoology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Goode CK, Woodrow C, Harrison SL, Deeming DC, Sutton GP. Control of high-speed jumps in muscle and spring actuated systems: a comparative study of take-off energetics in bush-crickets (Mecopoda elongata) and locusts (Schistocerca gregaria). J Comp Physiol B 2023; 193:597-605. [PMID: 37857900 PMCID: PMC10613148 DOI: 10.1007/s00360-023-01524-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2023] [Revised: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/29/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
The Orthoptera are a diverse insect order well known for their locomotive capabilities. To jump, the bush-cricket uses a muscle actuated (MA) system in which leg extension is actuated by contraction of the femoral muscles of the hind legs. In comparison, the locust uses a latch mediated spring actuated (LaMSA) system, in which leg extension is actuated by the recoil of spring-like structure in the femur. The aim of this study was to describe the jumping kinematics of Mecopoda elongata (Tettigoniidae) and compare this to existing data in Schistocerca gregaria (Acrididae), to determine differences in control of rotation during take-off between similarly sized MA and LaMSA jumpers. 269 jumps from 67 individuals of M. elongata with masses from 0.014 g to 3.01 g were recorded with a high-speed camera setup. In M. elongata, linear velocity increased with mass0.18 and the angular velocity (pitch) decreased with mass-0.13. In S. gregaria, linear velocity is constant and angular velocity decreases with mass-0.24. Despite these differences in velocity scaling, the ratio of translational kinetic energy to rotational kinetic energy was similar for both species. On average, the energy distribution of M. elongata was distributed 98.8% to translational kinetic energy and 1.2% to rotational kinetic energy, whilst in S. gregaria it is 98.7% and 1.3%, respectively. This energy distribution was independent of size for both species. Despite having two different jump actuation mechanisms, the ratio of translational and rotational kinetic energy formed during take-off is fixed across these distantly related orthopterans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chloe K Goode
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Lincoln, Joseph Banks Laboratories, Green Lane, Lincoln, LN6 7DL, UK
| | - Charlie Woodrow
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Lincoln, Joseph Banks Laboratories, Green Lane, Lincoln, LN6 7DL, UK
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Norbyvägen 18 D, 752 36, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Shannon L Harrison
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Lincoln, Joseph Banks Laboratories, Green Lane, Lincoln, LN6 7DL, UK
| | - D Charles Deeming
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Lincoln, Joseph Banks Laboratories, Green Lane, Lincoln, LN6 7DL, UK
| | - Gregory P Sutton
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Lincoln, Joseph Banks Laboratories, Green Lane, Lincoln, LN6 7DL, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Thompson AA, Peterson AN, McHenry MJ, Paley DA. A lionfish-inspired predation strategy in planar structured environments . BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2023; 18:046022. [PMID: 37339652 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/ace016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/22/2023]
Abstract
This paper investigates a pursuit-evasion game with a single pursuer and evader in a bounded environment, inspired by observations of predation attempts by lionfish (Pterois sp.). The pursuer tracks the evader with a pure pursuit strategy while using an additional bioinspired tactic to trap the evader, i.e. minimize the evader's escape routes. Specifically, the pursuer employs symmetric appendages inspired by the large pectoral fins of lionfish, but this expansion increases its drag and therefore its work to capture the evader. The evader employs a bioinspired randomly-directed escape strategy to avoid capture and collisions with the boundary. Here we investigate the trade-off between minimizing the work to capture the evader and minimizing the evader's escape routes. By using the pursuer's expected work to capture as a cost function, we determine when the pursuer should expand its appendages as a function of the relative distance to the evader and the evader's proximity to the boundary. Visualizing the pursuer's expected work to capture everywhere in the bounded domain, yields additional insights about optimal pursuit trajectories and illustrates the role of the boundary in predator-prey interactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anthony A Thompson
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, United States of America
| | - Ashley N Peterson
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, United States of America
| | - Matthew J McHenry
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, United States of America
| | - Derek A Paley
- Department of Aerospace Engineering and the Institute for Systems Research, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Bortoni A, Swartz SM, Vejdani H, Corcoran AJ. Strategic predatory pursuit of the stealthy, highly manoeuvrable, slow flying bat Corynorhinus townsendii. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20230138. [PMID: 37357862 PMCID: PMC10291723 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.0138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/27/2023] Open
Abstract
A predator's capacity to catch prey depends on its ability to navigate its environment in response to prey movements or escape behaviour. In predator-prey interactions that involve an active chase, pursuit behaviour can be studied as the collection of rules that dictate how a predator should steer to capture prey. It remains unclear how variable this behaviour is within and across species since most studies have detailed the pursuit behaviour of high-speed, open-area foragers. In this study, we analyse the pursuit behaviour in 44 successful captures by Corynorhinus townsendii, Townsend's big-eared bat (n = 4). This species forages close to vegetation using slow and highly manoeuvrable flight, which contrasts with the locomotor capabilities and feeding ecologies of other taxa studied to date. Our results indicate that this species relies on an initial stealthy approach, which is generally sufficient to capture prey (32 out of 44 trials). In cases where the initial approach is not sufficient to perform a capture attempt (12 out of 44 trials), C. townsendii continues its pursuit by reacting to prey movements in a manner best modelled with a combination of pure pursuit, or following prey directly, and proportional navigation, or moving to an interception point.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Bortoni
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Organismal Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
| | - Sharon M. Swartz
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Organismal Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
- School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
| | - Hamid Vejdani
- Mechanical, Robotics, and Industrial Engineering, Lawrence Technological University, Southfield, MI 48075, USA
| | - Aaron J. Corcoran
- Department of Biology, University of Colorado, Colorado Springs, CO 80918, USA
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Krama T, Munkevics M, Krams R, Grigorjeva T, Trakimas G, Jõers P, Popovs S, Zants K, Elferts D, Rantala MJ, Sledevskis E, Contreras-Garduño J, de Bivort BL, Krams IA. Development under predation risk increases serotonin-signaling, variability of turning behavior and survival in adult fruit flies Drosophila melanogaster. Front Behav Neurosci 2023; 17:1189301. [PMID: 37304760 PMCID: PMC10248140 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2023.1189301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The development of high-throughput behavioral assays, where numerous individual animals can be analyzed in various experimental conditions, has facilitated the study of animal personality. Previous research showed that isogenic Drosophila melanogaster flies exhibit striking individual non-heritable locomotor handedness. The variability of this trait, i.e., the predictability of left-right turn biases, varies across genotypes and under the influence of neural activity in specific circuits. This suggests that the brain can dynamically regulate the extent of animal personality. It has been recently shown that predators can induce changes in prey phenotypes via lethal or non-lethal effects affecting the serotonergic signaling system. In this study, we tested whether fruit flies grown with predators exhibit higher variability/lower predictability in their turning behavior and higher survival than those grown with no predators in their environment. We confirmed these predictions and found that both effects were blocked when flies were fed an inhibitor (αMW) of serotonin synthesis. The results of this study demonstrate a negative association between the unpredictability of turning behavior of fruit flies and the hunting success of their predators. We also show that the neurotransmitter serotonin controls predator-induced changes in the turning variability of fruit flies, regulating the dynamic control of behavioral predictability.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tatjana Krama
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Life Sciences and Technologies, Daugavpils University, Daugavpils, Latvia
- Chair of Plant Health, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Māris Munkevics
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Life Sciences and Technologies, Daugavpils University, Daugavpils, Latvia
- Department of Zoology and Animal Ecology, Faculty of Biology, University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia
| | - Ronalds Krams
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Life Sciences and Technologies, Daugavpils University, Daugavpils, Latvia
- Chair of Plant Health, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Tatjana Grigorjeva
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Life Sciences and Technologies, Daugavpils University, Daugavpils, Latvia
| | - Giedrius Trakimas
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Life Sciences and Technologies, Daugavpils University, Daugavpils, Latvia
- Institute of Biosciences, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Priit Jõers
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Sergejs Popovs
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Life Sciences and Technologies, Daugavpils University, Daugavpils, Latvia
| | - Krists Zants
- Department of Zoology and Animal Ecology, Faculty of Biology, University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia
| | - Didzis Elferts
- Department of Botany and Ecology, Faculty of Biology, University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia
| | - Markus J. Rantala
- Department of Biology, Turku Brain and Mind Center, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Eriks Sledevskis
- Department of Technology, Institute of Life Sciences and Technologies, Daugavpils University, Daugavpils, Latvia
| | - Jorge Contreras-Garduño
- Escuela Nacional de Estudios Superiores, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Morelia, Mexico
- Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Benjamin L. de Bivort
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Indrikis A. Krams
- Department of Zoology and Animal Ecology, Faculty of Biology, University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia
- Latvian Biomedical Research and Study Centre, Riga, Latvia
- Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
- Department of Psychology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Knoxville, TN, United States
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Reznikova Z. Information Theory Opens New Dimensions in Experimental Studies of Animal Behaviour and Communication. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13071174. [PMID: 37048430 PMCID: PMC10093743 DOI: 10.3390/ani13071174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Revised: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Over the last 40–50 years, ethology has become increasingly quantitative and computational. However, when analysing animal behavioural sequences, researchers often need help finding an adequate model to assess certain characteristics of these sequences while using a relatively small number of parameters. In this review, I demonstrate that the information theory approaches based on Shannon entropy and Kolmogorov complexity can furnish effective tools to analyse and compare animal natural behaviours. In addition to a comparative analysis of stereotypic behavioural sequences, information theory can provide ideas for particular experiments on sophisticated animal communications. In particular, it has made it possible to discover the existence of a developed symbolic “language” in leader-scouting ant species based on the ability of these ants to transfer abstract information about remote events.
Collapse
|
13
|
Tay NE, Warburton NM, Moseby KE, Fleming PA. Predator escape behaviour in threatened marsupials. Anim Conserv 2023. [DOI: 10.1111/acv.12847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- N. E. Tay
- Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch University Murdoch WA Australia
| | - N. M. Warburton
- Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch University Murdoch WA Australia
| | - K. E. Moseby
- Centre for Ecosystem Science School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales Sydney Australia
- Arid Recovery Ltd. P.O. Box 147 Roxby Downs 5725 Australia
| | - P. A. Fleming
- Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch University Murdoch WA Australia
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Villacís Núñez CN, Ray AP, Cooper KL, Moore TY. Metatarsal fusion resisted bending as jerboas (Dipodidae) transitioned from quadrupedal to bipedal. Proc Biol Sci 2022; 289:20221322. [PMID: 36196542 PMCID: PMC9532996 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.1322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Hind limbs undergo dramatic changes in loading conditions during the transition from quadrupedal to bipedal locomotion. For example, the most early diverging bipedal jerboas (Rodentia: Dipodidae) are some of the smallest mammals in the world, with body masses that range between 2–4 g. The larger jerboa species exhibit developmental and evolutionary fusion of the central three metatarsals into a single cannon bone. We hypothesize that small body size and metatarsal fusion are mechanisms to maintain the safety factor of the hind limb bones despite the higher ground reaction forces associated with bipedal locomotion. Using finite-element analysis to model collisions between the substrate and the metatarsals, we found that body size reduction was insufficient to reduce bone stress on unfused metatarsals, based on the scaled dynamics of larger jerboas, and that fused bones developed lower stresses than unfused bones when all metatarsals are scaled to the same size and loading conditions. Based on these results, we conclude that fusion reinforces larger jerboa metatarsals against high ground reaction forces. Because smaller jerboas with unfused metatarsals develop higher peak stresses in response to loading conditions scaled from larger jerboas, we hypothesize that smaller jerboas use alternative dynamics of bipedal locomotion to reduce the impact of collisions between the foot and substrate.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Andrew P. Ray
- Materials Science Engineering Department, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 48109, MI, USA
| | - Kimberly L. Cooper
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, San Diego 92093, CA, USA
| | - Talia Y. Moore
- Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 48109, MI, USA
- Robotics Department, Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Department, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 48109, MI, USA
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Larson BT, Garbus J, Pollack JB, Marshall WF. A unicellular walker controlled by a microtubule-based finite-state machine. Curr Biol 2022; 32:3745-3757.e7. [PMID: 35963241 PMCID: PMC9474717 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2022.07.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Revised: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 07/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Cells are complex biochemical systems whose behaviors emerge from interactions among myriad molecular components. Computation is often invoked as a general framework for navigating this cellular complexity. However, it is unclear how cells might embody computational processes such that the theories of computation, including finite-state machine models, could be productively applied. Here, we demonstrate finite-state-machine-like processing embodied in cells using the walking behavior of Euplotes eurystomus, a ciliate that walks across surfaces using fourteen motile appendages (cirri). We found that cellular walking entails regulated transitions among a discrete set of gait states. The set of observed transitions decomposes into a small group of high-probability, temporally irreversible transitions and a large group of low-probability, time-symmetric transitions, thus revealing stereotypy in the sequential patterns of state transitions. Simulations and experiments suggest that the sequential logic of the gait is functionally important. Taken together, these findings implicate a finite-state-machine-like process. Cirri are connected by microtubule bundles (fibers), and we found that the dynamics of cirri involved in different state transitions are associated with the structure of the fiber system. Perturbative experiments revealed that the fibers mediate gait coordination, suggesting a mechanical basis of gait control.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ben T Larson
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA.
| | - Jack Garbus
- Computer Science Department, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA 02453, USA
| | - Jordan B Pollack
- Computer Science Department, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA 02453, USA
| | - Wallace F Marshall
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Responsive robotic prey reveal how predators adapt to predictability in escape tactics. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2117858119. [PMID: 35658072 PMCID: PMC9191677 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2117858119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A widespread strategy used by prey animals, seen in insects, mammals, amphibians, crustaceans, fish, and reptiles, is to vary the direction in which they escape when attacked by a predator. This unpredictability is thought to benefit prey by inhibiting predators from predicting the prey’s escape trajectory, but experimental evidence is lacking. Using fish predators repeatedly tested with interactive, robot-controlled prey escaping in the same (predictable) or in random (unpredictable) directions, we find no clear benefit to prey of escaping unpredictably, driven by behavioral counteradaptation by the predators. The benefit of unpredictable escape behavior may depend on whether predators are able to counteract prey escape tactics by flexibly modifying their behavior, or unpredictability may instead be explained biomechanical or sensory constraints. To increase their chances of survival, prey often behave unpredictably when escaping from predators. However, the response of predators to, and hence the effectiveness of, such tactics is unknown. We programmed interactive prey to flee from an approaching fish predator (the blue acara, Andinoacara pulcher) using real-time computer vision and two-wheeled robots that controlled the prey’s movements via magnets. This allowed us to manipulate the prey’s initial escape direction and how predictable it was between successive trials with the same individual predator. When repeatedly exposed to predictable prey, the predators adjusted their behavior before the prey even began to escape: prey programmed to escape directly away were approached more rapidly than prey escaping at an acute angle. These faster approach speeds compensated for a longer time needed to capture such prey during the subsequent pursuit phase. By contrast, when attacking unpredictable prey, the predators adopted intermediate approach speeds and were not sensitive to the prey’s escape angle but instead showed greater acceleration during the pursuit. Collectively, these behavioral responses resulted in the prey’s predictability having no net effect on the time taken to capture prey, suggesting that unpredictable escape behavior may be advantageous to prey in fewer circumstances than originally thought. Rather than minimizing capture times, the predators in our study appear to instead adjust their behavior to maintain an adequate level of performance during prey capture.
Collapse
|
17
|
Ding J, Moore TY, Gan Z. A Template Model Explains Jerboa Gait Transitions Across a Broad Range of Speeds. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 10:804826. [PMID: 35600899 PMCID: PMC9121427 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.804826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2021] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
For cursorial animals that maintain high speeds for extended durations of locomotion, transitions between footfall patterns (gaits) predictably occur at distinct speed ranges. How do transitions among gaits occur for non-cursorial animals? Jerboas (Jaculus) are bipedal hopping rodents that frequently transition between gaits throughout their entire speed range. It has been hypothesized that these non-cursorial bipedal gait transitions are likely to enhance their maneuverability and predator evasion ability. However, it is difficult to use the underlying dynamics of these locomotion patterns to predict gait transitions due to the large number of degrees of freedom expressed by the animals. To this end, we used empirical jerboa kinematics and dynamics to develop a unified spring Loaded Inverted Pendulum model with defined passive swing leg motions. To find periodic solutions of this model, we formulated the gait search as a boundary value problem and described an asymmetrical running gait exhibited by the jerboas that emerged from the numerical search. To understand how jerboas change from one gait to another, we employed an optimization approach and used the proposed model to reproduce observed patterns of jerboa gait transitions. We then ran a detailed numerical study of the structure of gait patterns using a continuation approach in which transitions are represented by bifurcations. We found two primary mechanisms to increase the range of speeds at which gait transitions can occur. Coupled changes in the neutral leg swing angle alter leg dynamics. This mechanism generates changes in gait features (e.g., touchdown leg angle and timings of gait events) that have previously been shown to induce gait transitions. This mechanism slightly alters the speeds at which existing gait transitions occur. The model can also uncouple the left and right neutral leg swing angle, which generates asymmetries between left and right leg dynamics. New gait transitions emerge from uncoupled models across a broad range of speeds. In both the experimental observations and in the model, the majority of the gait transitions involve the skipping and asymmetrical running gaits generated by the uncoupled neutral leg swing angle mechanism. This simulated jerboa model is capable of systematically reproducing all biologically relevant gait transitions at a broad range of speeds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jiayu Ding
- Dynamic Locomotion and Robotics Laboratory, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, United States
| | - Talia Y. Moore
- Evolution and Motion of Biology and Robotics Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Robotics Institute, Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, and Museum of Zoology, University of MI, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Zhenyu Gan
- Dynamic Locomotion and Robotics Laboratory, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, United States
- *Correspondence: Zhenyu Gan,
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Zheng B, Xuan Q, Li C. A Minimalistic Stochastic Dynamics Model of Cluttered Obstacle Traversal. IEEE Robot Autom Lett 2022. [DOI: 10.1109/lra.2022.3150831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
|
19
|
Freymiller GA, Whitford MD, Schwaner MJ, McGowan CP, Higham TE, Clark RW. Comparative analysis of Dipodomys species indicates that kangaroo rat hindlimb anatomy is adapted for rapid evasive leaping. J Anat 2022; 240:466-474. [PMID: 34648184 PMCID: PMC8819043 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Revised: 10/02/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Body size is a key factor that influences antipredator behavior. For animals that rely on jumping to escape from predators, there is a theoretical trade-off between jump distance and acceleration as body size changes at both the inter- and intraspecific levels. Assuming geometric similarity, acceleration will decrease with increasing body size due to a smaller increase in muscle cross-sectional area than body mass. Smaller animals will likely have a similar jump distance as larger animals due to their shorter limbs and faster accelerations. Therefore, in order to maintain acceleration in a jump across different body sizes, hind limbs must be disproportionately bigger for larger animals. We explored this prediction using four species of kangaroo rats (Dipodomys spp.), a genus of bipedal rodent with similar morphology across a range of body sizes (40-150 g). Kangaroo rat jump performance was measured by simulating snake strikes to free-ranging individuals. Additionally, morphological measurements of hind limb muscles and segment lengths were obtained from thawed frozen specimens. Overall, jump acceleration was constant across body sizes and jump distance increased with increasing size. Additionally, kangaroo rat hind limb muscle mass and cross-sectional area scaled with positive allometry. Ankle extensor tendon cross-sectional area also scaled with positive allometry. Hind limb segment length scaled isometrically, with the exception of the metatarsals, which scaled with negative allometry. Overall, these findings support the hypothesis that kangaroo rat hind limbs are built to maintain jump acceleration rather than jump distance. Selective pressure from single-strike predators, such as snakes and owls, likely drives this relationship.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Grace A. Freymiller
- Department of BiologySan Diego State UniversitySan DiegoCaliforniaUSA
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal BiologyUniversity of CaliforniaRiversideCaliforniaUSA
| | - Malachi D. Whitford
- Department of BiologySan Diego State UniversitySan DiegoCaliforniaUSA
- Graduate Group in EcologyUniversity of CaliforniaDavisCaliforniaUSA
| | - M. Janneke Schwaner
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of CaliforniaIrvineCaliforniaUSA
| | - Craig P. McGowan
- Keck School of MedicineUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCaliforniaUSA
| | - Timothy E. Higham
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal BiologyUniversity of CaliforniaRiversideCaliforniaUSA
| | - Rulon W. Clark
- Department of BiologySan Diego State UniversitySan DiegoCaliforniaUSA
- Chiricahua Desert MuseumRodeoNew MexicoUSA
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Gabaldon J, Zhang D, Lauderdale L, Miller L, Johnson-Roberson M, Barton K, Shorter KA. Computer-vision object tracking for monitoring bottlenose dolphin habitat use and kinematics. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0254323. [PMID: 35113869 PMCID: PMC8812882 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0254323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
This research presents a framework to enable computer-automated observation and monitoring of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in a zoo environment. The resulting approach enables detailed persistent monitoring of the animals that is not possible using manual annotation methods. Fixed overhead cameras were used to opportunistically collect ∼100 hours of observations, recorded over multiple days, including time both during and outside of formal training sessions, to demonstrate the viability of the framework. Animal locations were estimated using convolutional neural network (CNN) object detectors and Kalman filter post-processing. The resulting animal tracks were used to quantify habitat use and animal kinematics. Additionally, Kolmogorov-Smirnov analyses of the swimming kinematics were used in high-level behavioral mode classification. The object detectors achieved a minimum Average Precision of 0.76, and the post-processed results yielded 1.24 × 107 estimated dolphin locations. Animal kinematic diversity was found to be lowest in the morning and peaked immediately before noon. Regions of the zoo habitat displaying the highest activity levels correlated to locations associated with animal care specialists, conspecifics, or enrichment. The work presented here demonstrates that CNN object detection is viable for large-scale marine mammal tracking, and results from the proposed framework will enable future research that will offer new insights into dolphin behavior, biomechanics, and how environmental context affects movement and activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joaquin Gabaldon
- Robotics Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States of America
| | - Ding Zhang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States of America
| | - Lisa Lauderdale
- Chicago Zoological Society, Brookfield Zoo, Brookfield, IL, United States of America
| | - Lance Miller
- Chicago Zoological Society, Brookfield Zoo, Brookfield, IL, United States of America
| | - Matthew Johnson-Roberson
- Robotics Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States of America
- Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States of America
| | - Kira Barton
- Robotics Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States of America
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States of America
| | - K. Alex Shorter
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Diurnal and nocturnal mosquitoes escape looming threats using distinct flight strategies. Curr Biol 2022; 32:1232-1246.e5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2022.01.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
|
22
|
Christensen BA, Lin DC, Schwaner MJ, McGowan CP. Elastic energy storage across speeds during steady-state hopping of desert kangaroo rats (Dipodomys deserti). J Exp Biol 2022; 225:273978. [PMID: 35019972 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.242954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 12/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Small bipedal hoppers, including kangaroo rats, are thought to not benefit from substantial elastic energy storage and return during hopping. However, recent species-specific material properties research suggests that, despite relative thickness, the ankle extensor tendons of these small hoppers are considerably more compliant than had been assumed. With faster locomotor speeds demanding higher forces, a lower tendon stiffness suggests greater tendon deformation and thus a greater potential for elastic energy storage and return with increasing speed. Using the elastic modulus values specific to kangaroo rat tendons, we sought to determine how much elastic energy is stored and returned during hopping across a range of speeds. In vivo techniques were used to record tendon force in the ankle extensors during steady-speed hopping. Our data support the hypothesis that the ankle extensor tendons of kangaroo rats store and return elastic energy in relation to hopping speed, storing more at faster speeds. Despite storing comparatively less elastic energy than larger hoppers, this relationship between speed and energy storage offer novel evidence of a functionally similar energy storage mechanism, operating irrespective of body size or tendon thickness, across the distal muscle-tendon units of both small and large bipedal hoppers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brooke A Christensen
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow ID, USA.,Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine CA, USA
| | - David C Lin
- Voiland School of Chemical Engineering and Bioengineering, Washington State University, Pullman WA, USA.,Department of Integrative Physiology and Neuroscience, Washington State University, Pullman WA, USA.,Washington Center for Muscle Biology, Washington State University, Pullman WA, USA
| | - M Janneke Schwaner
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow ID, USA.,Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine CA, USA
| | - Craig P McGowan
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow ID, USA.,Washington Center for Muscle Biology, Washington State University, Pullman WA, USA.,Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles CA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Pagès JF, Bartumeus F, Romero J, Alcoverro T. The scent of fear makes sea urchins go ballistic. MOVEMENT ECOLOGY 2021; 9:50. [PMID: 34627405 PMCID: PMC8502380 DOI: 10.1186/s40462-021-00287-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Classic ecological formulations of predator-prey interactions often assume that predators and prey interact randomly in an information-limited environment. In the field, however, most prey can accurately assess predation risk by sensing predator chemical cues, which typically trigger some form of escape response to reduce the probability of capture. Here, we explore under laboratory-controlled conditions the long-term (minutes to hours) escaping response of the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus, a key species in Mediterranean subtidal macrophyte communities. METHODS Behavioural experiments involved exposing a random sample of P. lividus to either one of two treatments: (i) control water (filtered seawater) or (ii) predator-conditioned water (with cues from the main P. lividus benthic predator-the gastropod Hexaplex trunculus). We analysed individual sea urchin trajectories, computed their heading angles, speed, path straightness, diffusive properties, and directional entropy (as a measure of path unpredictability). To account for the full picture of escaping strategies, we followed not only the first instants post-predator exposure, but also the entire escape trajectory. We then used linear models to compare the observed results from control and predators treatments. RESULTS The trajectories from sea urchins subjected to predator cues were, on average, straighter and faster than those coming from controls, which translated into differences in the diffusive properties and unpredictability of their movement patterns. Sea urchins in control trials showed complex diffusive properties in an information-limited environment, with highly variable trajectories, ranging from Brownian motion to superdiffusion, and even marginal ballistic motion. In predator cue treatments, variability reduced, and trajectories became more homogeneous and predictable at the edge of ballistic motion. CONCLUSIONS Despite their old evolutionary origin, lack of cephalization, and homogenous external appearance, the trajectories that sea urchins displayed in information-limited environments were complex and ranged widely between individuals. Such variable behavioural repertoire appeared to be intrinsic to the species and emerged when the animals were left unconstrained. Our results highlight that fear from predators can be an important driver of sea urchin movement patterns. All in all, the observation of anomalous diffusion, highly variable trajectories and the behavioural shift induced by predator cues, further highlight that the functional forms currently used in classical predator-prey models are far from realistic.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jordi F Pagès
- Departament de Biologia Evolutiva, Ecologia i Ciències Ambientals, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
- Centre d'Estudis Avançats de Blanes (CEAB-CSIC), Blanes, Spain.
| | - Frederic Bartumeus
- Centre d'Estudis Avançats de Blanes (CEAB-CSIC), Blanes, Spain
- Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain
- Centre de Recerca Ecològica i Aplicacions Forestals (CREAF), Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
| | - Javier Romero
- Departament de Biologia Evolutiva, Ecologia i Ciències Ambientals, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Teresa Alcoverro
- Centre d'Estudis Avançats de Blanes (CEAB-CSIC), Blanes, Spain
- Nature Conservation Foundation, Amritha, 1311, 12th Cross, Vijayanagar 1st Stage, Mysore, 570017, India
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Mcelroy EJ, Mcbrayer LD. Escape behaviour varies with distance from safe refuge. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blab127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Locomotor performance and behaviour are important for escape from predators, yet the intersection of these strategies is poorly studied. Escape behaviour is context dependent, and optimal escape theory predicts that animals that are farther from a safe refuge will generally use faster running speeds but might choose to use more variable escape paths. We studied locomotor performance and behaviour of six-lined racerunner lizards (Aspidoscelis sexlineata) escaping on natural surface runways that were varied experimentally to be either 5 or 10 m from a safe refuge. On the 5 m runway, lizards usually escaped directly towards the refuge, attained a slower maximal running speed (3.2 m s−1) at ~3 m from the start, and reached the target refuge in most of the trials (80%). On the 10 m runway, lizards used more variable behaviour, including reversals and turns, attained a faster maximal running speed (3.7 m s−1) at ~6 m from the start, and reached the final refuge in only 43% of trials. Free-ranging racerunners were rarely > 5 m from their nearest refuge and used escape paths that were typically < 5 m. Our findings align with predictions from optimal escape theory, in that the perceived risk of a predator–prey encounter can drive adjustments in locomotor behaviour and performance. Additionally, we show that the escape behaviour of free-ranging lizards closely matches their escape behaviour and performance during controlled escape trials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eric J Mcelroy
- Department of Biology, College of Charleston, Charleston, SC, USA
| | - Lance D Mcbrayer
- Department of Biology, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Hein AM, Altshuler DL, Cade DE, Liao JC, Martin BT, Taylor GK. An Algorithmic Approach to Natural Behavior. Curr Biol 2021; 30:R663-R675. [PMID: 32516620 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2020.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Uncovering the mechanisms and implications of natural behavior is a goal that unites many fields of biology. Yet, the diversity, flexibility, and multi-scale nature of these behaviors often make understanding elusive. Here, we review studies of animal pursuit and evasion - two special classes of behavior where theory-driven experiments and new modeling techniques are beginning to uncover the general control principles underlying natural behavior. A key finding of these studies is that intricate sequences of pursuit and evasion behavior can often be constructed through simple, repeatable rules that link sensory input to motor output: we refer to these rules as behavioral algorithms. Identifying and mathematically characterizing these algorithms has led to important insights, including the discovery of guidance rules that attacking predators use to intercept mobile prey, and coordinated neural and biomechanical mechanisms that animals use to avoid impending collisions. Here, we argue that algorithms provide a good starting point for studies of natural behavior more generally. Rather than beginning at the neural or ecological levels of organization, we advocate starting in the middle, where the algorithms that link sensory input to behavioral output can provide a solid foundation from which to explore both the implementation and the ecological outcomes of behavior. We review insights that have been gained through such an algorithmic approach to pursuit and evasion behaviors. From these, we synthesize theoretical principles and lay out key modeling tools needed to apply an algorithmic approach to the study of other complex natural behaviors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew M Hein
- Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA; Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA; Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA.
| | - Douglas L Altshuler
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T1Z4, Canada
| | - David E Cade
- Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA; Hopkins Marine Station, Department of Biology, Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA
| | - James C Liao
- The Whitney Laboratory for Marine Bioscience, Department of Biology, University of Florida, 9505 Ocean Shore Blvd., St. Augustine, FL 32080, USA
| | - Benjamin T Martin
- Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA; Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA; Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Graham K Taylor
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, 11a Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3SZ, UK
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Bressman NR, Morrison CH, Ashley-Ross MA. Reffling: A Novel Locomotor Behavior Used by Neotropical Armored Catfishes (Loricariidae) in Terrestrial Environments. ICHTHYOLOGY & HERPETOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1643/i2020084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
|
27
|
Siddall R, Byrnes G, Full RJ, Jusufi A. Mechanisms for mid-air reorientation using tail rotation in gliding geckos. Integr Comp Biol 2021; 61:478-490. [PMID: 34143210 PMCID: PMC8427175 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icab132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Revised: 05/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Arboreal animals face numerous challenges when negotiating complex three-dimensional terrain. Directed aerial descent or gliding flight allows for rapid traversal of arboreal environments, but presents control challenges. Some animals, such as birds or gliding squirrels, have specialized structures to modulate aerodynamic forces while airborne. However, many arboreal animals do not possess these specializations but still control posture and orientation in mid-air. One of the largest inertial segments in lizards is their tail. Inertial reorientation can be used to attain postures appropriate for controlled aerial descent. Here, we discuss the role of tail inertia in a range of mid-air reorientation behaviors using experimental data from geckos in combination with mathematical and robotic models. Geckos can self-right in mid-air by tail rotation alone. Equilibrium glide behavior of geckos in a vertical wind tunnel show that they can steer toward a visual stimulus by using rapid, circular tail rotations to control pitch and yaw. Multiple coordinated tail responses appear to be required for the most effective terminal velocity gliding. A mathematical model allows us to explore the relationship between morphology and the capacity for inertial reorientation by conducting sensitivity analyses, and testing control approaches. Robotic models further define the limits of performance and generate new control hypotheses. Such comparative analysis allows predictions about the diversity of performance across lizard morphologies, relative limb proportions, and provides insights into the evolution of aerial behaviors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Robert Siddall
- Locomotion in Biorobotic and Somatic Systems Group, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Heisenbergstraße 3, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Greg Byrnes
- Department of Biology, Siena College, 515 Loudon Rd, New York, 12211, USA
| | - Robert J Full
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, 3040 Valley Life Sciences Building 3140, California, 94720-3140, USA
| | - Ardian Jusufi
- Locomotion in Biorobotic and Somatic Systems Group, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Heisenbergstraße 3, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Tay NE, Fleming PA, Warburton NM, Moseby KE. Predator exposure enhances the escape behaviour of a small marsupial, the burrowing bettong. Anim Behav 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2021.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
|
29
|
Brembs B. The brain as a dynamically active organ. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2020; 564:55-69. [PMID: 33317833 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2020.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2020] [Revised: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 12/04/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Nervous systems are typically described as static networks passively responding to external stimuli (i.e., the 'sensorimotor hypothesis'). However, for more than a century now, evidence has been accumulating that this passive-static perspective is wrong. Instead, evidence suggests that nervous systems dynamically change their connectivity and actively generate behavior so their owners can achieve goals in the world, some of which involve controlling their sensory feedback. This review provides a brief overview of the different historical perspectives on general brain function and details some select modern examples falsifying the sensorimotor hypothesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Björn Brembs
- Universität Regensburg, Institut für Zoologie - Neurogenetik, Regensburg, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Xuan Q, Li C. Randomness in appendage coordination facilitates strenuous ground self-righting. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2020; 15:065004. [PMID: 32750690 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/abac47] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 08/04/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Randomness is common in biological and artificial systems, resulting either from stochasticity of the environment or noise in organisms or devices themselves. In locomotor control, randomness is typically considered a nuisance. For example, during dynamic walking, randomness in stochastic terrain leads to metastable dynamics, which must be mitigated to stabilize the system around limit cycles. Here, we studied whether randomness in motion is beneficial for strenuous locomotor tasks. Our study used robotic simulation modeling of strenuous, leg-assisted, winged ground self-righting observed in cockroaches, in which unusually large randomness in wing and leg motions is present. We developed a simplified simulation robot capable of generating similar self-righting behavior and varied the randomness level in wing-leg coordination. During each wing opening attempt, the more randomness added to the time delay between wing opening and leg swinging, the more likely it was for the naive robot (which did not know what coordination is best) to self-right within a finite time. Wing-leg coordination, measured by the phase between wing and leg oscillations, had a crucial impact on self-righting outcome. Without randomness, periodic wing and leg oscillations often limited the system to visit a few bad phases, leading to failure to escape from the metastable state. With randomness, the system explored phases thoroughly and had a better chance of encountering good phases to self-right. Our study complements previous work by demonstrating that randomness helps destabilize locomotor systems from being trapped in undesired metastable states, a situation common in strenuous locomotion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qihan Xuan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, United States of America
| | - Chen Li
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Weaver LN, Grossnickle DM. Functional diversity of small-mammal postcrania is linked to both substrate preference and body size. Curr Zool 2020; 66:539-553. [PMID: 33293932 PMCID: PMC7705507 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoaa057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Selective pressures favor morphologies that are adapted to distinct ecologies, resulting in trait partitioning among ecomorphotypes. However, the effects of these selective pressures vary across taxa, especially because morphology is also influenced by factors such as phylogeny, body size, and functional trade-offs. In this study, we examine how these factors impact functional diversification in mammals. It has been proposed that trait partitioning among mammalian ecomorphotypes is less pronounced at small body sizes due to biomechanical, energetic, and environmental factors that favor a “generalist” body plan, whereas larger taxa exhibit more substantial functional adaptations. We title this the Divergence Hypothesis (DH) because it predicts greater morphological divergence among ecomorphotypes at larger body sizes. We test DH by using phylogenetic comparative methods to examine the postcranial skeletons of 129 species of taxonomically diverse, small-to-medium-sized (<15 kg) mammals, which we categorize as either “tree-dwellers” or “ground-dwellers.” In some analyses, the morphologies of ground-dwellers and tree-dwellers suggest greater between-group differentiation at larger sizes, providing some evidence for DH. However, this trend is neither particularly strong nor supported by all analyses. Instead, a more pronounced pattern emerges that is distinct from the predictions of DH: within-group phenotypic disparity increases with body size in both ground-dwellers and tree-dwellers, driven by morphological outliers among “medium”-sized mammals. Thus, evolutionary increases in body size are more closely linked to increases in within-locomotor-group disparity than to increases in between-group disparity. We discuss biomechanical and ecological factors that may drive these evolutionary patterns, and we emphasize the significant evolutionary influences of ecology and body size on phenotypic diversity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lucas N Weaver
- Department of Biology, Life Sciences Building, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - David M Grossnickle
- Department of Biology, Life Sciences Building, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Heim S, Millard M, Le Mouel C, Badri-Spröwitz A. A little damping goes a long way: a simulation study of how damping influences task-level stability in running. Biol Lett 2020; 16:20200467. [PMID: 32961093 PMCID: PMC7532711 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2020.0467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2020] [Accepted: 08/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
It is currently unclear if damping plays a functional role in legged locomotion, and simple models often do not include damping terms. We present a new model with a damping term that is isolated from other parameters: that is, the damping term can be adjusted without retuning other model parameters for nominal motion. We systematically compare how increased damping affects stability in the face of unexpected ground-height perturbations. Unlike most studies, we focus on task-level stability: instead of observing whether trajectories converge towards a nominal limit-cycle, we quantify the ability to avoid falls using a recently developed mathematical measure. This measure allows trajectories to be compared quantitatively instead of only being separated into a binary classification of 'stable' or 'unstable'. Our simulation study shows that increased damping contributes significantly to task-level stability; however, this benefit quickly plateaus after only a small amount of damping. These results suggest that the low intrinsic damping values observed experimentally may have stability benefits and are not simply minimized for energetic reasons. All Python code and data needed to generate our results are available open source.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Steve Heim
- Intelligent Control Systems Group, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Matthew Millard
- Optimization, Robotics and Biomechanics, Institute of Computer Engineering, University of Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Charlotte Le Mouel
- Department of Movement Science, Institute of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
Spatial planning with long visual range benefits escape from visual predators in complex naturalistic environments. Nat Commun 2020; 11:3057. [PMID: 32546681 PMCID: PMC7298009 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-16102-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2019] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
It is uncontroversial that land animals have more elaborated cognitive abilities than their aquatic counterparts such as fish. Yet there is no apparent a-priori reason for this. A key cognitive faculty is planning. We show that in visually guided predator-prey interactions, planning provides a significant advantage, but only on land. During animal evolution, the water-to-land transition resulted in a massive increase in visual range. Simulations of behavior identify a specific type of terrestrial habitat, clustered open and closed areas (savanna-like), where the advantage of planning peaks. Our computational experiments demonstrate how this patchy terrestrial structure, in combination with enhanced visual range, can reveal and hide agents as a function of their movement and create a selective benefit for imagining, evaluating, and selecting among possible future scenarios-in short, for planning. The vertebrate invasion of land may have been an important step in their cognitive evolution.
Collapse
|
34
|
Nokelainen O, Brito JC, Scott-Samuel NE, Valkonen JK, Boratyński Z. Camouflage accuracy in Sahara-Sahel desert rodents. J Anim Ecol 2020; 89:1658-1669. [PMID: 32227336 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2019] [Accepted: 01/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Camouflage helps animals to hide from predators and is therefore key to survival. Although widespread convergence of animal phenotypes to their natural environment is well-established, there is a lack of knowledge about how species compromise camouflage accuracy across different background types in their habitat. Here we tested how background matching has responded to top-down selection by avian and mammalian predators using Sahara-Sahel desert rodents in North Africa. We show that the fur colouration of several species has become an accurate match to different types of desert habitats. This is supported by a correlation analysis of colour and pattern metrics, investigation of animal-to-background similarities at different spatial scales and is confirmed by modelling of two predator vision systems. The background match was closest across large (or global) spatial scales, suggesting a generalist camouflage tactic for many background types. Some species, may have a better match to the background over small (or focal) spatial scales, which could be the result of habitat choices or differential predation. Nevertheless, predicted discrimination distances of fur colouration were virtually indistinguishable for mammalian and low for avian vision model, which implies effective camouflage. Our study provides one of the best documented cases of multilevel camouflage accuracy in geographically widespread taxa. We conclude that background matching has become an effective and common adaptation against predatory threat in Sahara-Sahelian desert rodents.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ossi Nokelainen
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - José Carlos Brito
- CIBIO-InBIO Associate Laboratory, Research Center in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | | | - Janne K Valkonen
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Zbyszek Boratyński
- CIBIO-InBIO Associate Laboratory, Research Center in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Zamora-Camacho FJ. Toads modulate flight strategy according to distance to refuge. ZOOLOGY 2020; 139:125741. [PMID: 32062301 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2019.125741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2019] [Revised: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Among antipredator behaviours, escaping and hiding in a refuge are widespread in nature. Frequently, threatened prey flee towards a refuge nearby, if available. Therefore, refuge proximity may affect the fleeing strategy of a prey. In this work, I tested this hypothesis in Epidalea calamita, a cursorial toad that flees by means of intermittent runs. In a linear runway in standardized conditions, toads were recorded while conducting a short-distance (refuge at 70 cm), a medium-distance (refuge at 140 cm, divided in two 70-cm tracks), and a long-distance trial (refuge at 210 cm, divided in three 70-cm tracks), in a random sequence. Video analyses permitted to calculate sprint speed and run rates (number of runs per meter) in each track. Distance to refuge affected toad flight strategy. Toads started flights at a faster speed in the short-distance trials. In the medium- and the long-distance trials, toads accelerated after the first track, seemingly not motivated by refuge proximity. In these trials, run rate was greater in the first tracks. Altogether, these findings suggest that threatened toads respond firstly with slow, intermittent movements, and only shift to less intermittent, faster sprints if the threat persists. However, run rate was lower in the short-distance trial than in the first tracks of the other trials, suggesting straighter (and faster) flight toward the refuge when it is close. The effects of refuge proximity were greater in males, which (jointly with faster sprint speed) could reflect a greater conspicuousness of males to predator resulting in better escape strategies.
Collapse
|
36
|
Abello MA, Candela AM. Paleobiology of Argyrolagus (Marsupialia, Argyrolagidae): an astonishing case of bipedalism among South American mammals. J MAMM EVOL 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s10914-019-09470-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
|
37
|
Calede JJM, Samuels JX, Chen M. Locomotory adaptations in entoptychine gophers (Rodentia: Geomyidae) and the mosaic evolution of fossoriality. J Morphol 2019; 280:879-907. [PMID: 31006903 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.20990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2018] [Revised: 03/28/2019] [Accepted: 03/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Pocket gophers (family Geomyidae) are the dominant burrowing rodents in North America today. Their fossil record is also incredibly rich; in particular, entoptychine gophers, a diverse extinct subfamily of the Geomyidae, are known from countless teeth and jaws from Oligocene and Miocene-aged deposits of the western United States and Mexico. Their postcranial remains, however, are much rarer and little studied. Yet, they offer the opportunity to investigate the locomotion of fossil gophers, shed light on the evolution of fossoriality, and enable ecomorphological comparisons with contemporaneous rodents. We present herein a quantitative study of the cranial and postcranial remains of eight different species of entoptychine gophers as well as many contemporary rodent species. We find a range of burrowing capabilities within Entoptychinae, including semifossorial scratch-digging animals and fossorial taxa with cranial adaptations to burrowing. Our results suggest the repeated evolution of chisel-tooth digging across genera. Comparisons between entoptychine gophers and contemporaneous rodent taxa show little ecomorphological overlap and suggest that the succession of burrowing rodent taxa on the landscape may have had more to do with habitat partitioning than competition.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan J M Calede
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University at Marion, Marion, Ohio
| | - Joshua X Samuels
- Department of Geosciences, Don Sundquist Center of Excellence in Paleontology, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, Tennessee
| | - Meng Chen
- Nanjing University, School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Centre for Research and Education on Biological Evolution and Environment, Qixia District, Nanjing, China.,State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, Academy of Sciences, Nanjing, China
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Escalante I, Badger MA, Elias DO. Variation in movement: multiple locomotor gaits in Neotropical harvestmen. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blz047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ignacio Escalante
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Policy, & Management, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Marc A Badger
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Damian O Elias
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Policy, & Management, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Using the Data-Compression Method for Studying Hunting Behavior in Small Mammals. ENTROPY 2019; 21:e21040368. [PMID: 33267082 PMCID: PMC7514852 DOI: 10.3390/e21040368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2018] [Revised: 03/27/2019] [Accepted: 04/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Using the data-compression method we revealed a similarity between hunting behaviors of the common shrew, which is insectivorous, and several rodent species with different types of diet. Seven rodent species studied displayed succinct, highly predictable hunting stereotypes, in which it was easy for the data compressor to find regularities. The generalist Norway rat, with its changeable manipulation of prey and less predictable transitions between stereotype elements, significantly differs from other species. The levels of complexities of hunting stereotypes in young and adult rats are similar, and both groups had no prior experience with the prey, so one can assume that it is not learning, but rather the specificity of the organization of the stereotype that is responsible for the nature of the hunting behavior in rats. We speculate that rodents possess different types of hunting behaviors, one of which is based on a succinct insectivorous standard, and another type, perhaps characteristic of generalists, which is less ordered and is characterized by poorly predictable transitions between elements. We suggest that the data-compression method may well be more broadly applicable to behavioral analysis.
Collapse
|
40
|
Evans DA, Stempel AV, Vale R, Branco T. Cognitive Control of Escape Behaviour. Trends Cogn Sci 2019; 23:334-348. [PMID: 30852123 PMCID: PMC6438863 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2019.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2018] [Revised: 01/24/2019] [Accepted: 01/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
When faced with potential predators, animals instinctively decide whether there is a threat they should escape from, and also when, how, and where to take evasive action. While escape is often viewed in classical ethology as an action that is released upon presentation of specific stimuli, successful and adaptive escape behaviour relies on integrating information from sensory systems, stored knowledge, and internal states. From a neuroscience perspective, escape is an incredibly rich model that provides opportunities for investigating processes such as perceptual and value-based decision-making, or action selection, in an ethological setting. We review recent research from laboratory and field studies that explore, at the behavioural and mechanistic levels, how elements from multiple information streams are integrated to generate flexible escape behaviour.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dominic A Evans
- Sainsbury Wellcome Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, UCL, London, UK; These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - A Vanessa Stempel
- Sainsbury Wellcome Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, UCL, London, UK; These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Ruben Vale
- Sainsbury Wellcome Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, UCL, London, UK; These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Tiago Branco
- Sainsbury Wellcome Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, UCL, London, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Whitford MD, Freymiller GA, Higham TE, Clark RW. Determinants of predation success: How to survive an attack from a rattlesnake. Funct Ecol 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.13318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Malachi D. Whitford
- Department of Biology San Diego State University San Diego California
- Ecology Graduate Group University of California Davis California
| | - Grace A. Freymiller
- Department of Biology San Diego State University San Diego California
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology University of California Riverside California
| | - Timothy E. Higham
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology University of California Riverside California
| | - Rulon W. Clark
- Department of Biology San Diego State University San Diego California
- Chiricahua Desert Museum Rodeo New Mexico
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Freymiller GA, Whitford MD, Higham TE, Clark RW. Escape dynamics of free-ranging desert kangaroo rats (Rodentia: Heteromyidae) evading rattlesnake strikes. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blz027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Grace A Freymiller
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Malachi D Whitford
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
- Graduate Group in Ecology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Timothy E Higham
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Rulon W Clark
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
- Chiricahua Desert Museum, Rodeo, NM, USA
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Abstract
Foraging is a goal-directed behavior that balances the need to explore the environment for resources with the need to exploit those resources. In Drosophila melanogaster, distinct phenotypes have been observed in relation to the foraging gene (for), labeled the rover and sitter. Adult rovers explore their environs more extensively than do adult sitters. We explored whether this distinction would be conserved in humans. We made use of a distinction from regulatory mode theory between those who "get on with it," so-called locomotors, and those who prefer to ensure they "do the right thing," so-called assessors. In this logic, rovers and locomotors share similarities in goal pursuit, as do sitters and assessors. We showed that genetic variation in PRKG1, the human ortholog of for, is associated with preferential adoption of a specific regulatory mode. Next, participants performed a foraging task to see whether genetic differences associated with distinct regulatory modes would be associated with distinct goal pursuit patterns. Assessors tended to hug the boundary of the foraging environment, much like behaviors seen in Drosophila adult sitters. In a patchy foraging environment, assessors adopted more cautious search strategies maximizing exploitation. These results show that distinct patterns of goal pursuit are associated with particular genotypes of PRKG1, the human ortholog of for.
Collapse
|
44
|
Kluever BM, Smith TN, Gese EM. Group effects of a non‐native plant invasion on rodent abundance. Ecosphere 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.2544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Bryan M. Kluever
- United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services National Wildlife Research Center Florida Field Station Gainesville Florida 32641‐6033 USA
| | - Trinity N. Smith
- Department of Wildland Resources Utah State University Logan Utah 84322‐5230 USA
| | - Eric M. Gese
- United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services National Wildlife Research Center Utah State University Department of Wildland Resources Logan Utah 84322‐5230 USA
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
McGowan CP, Collins CE. Why do mammals hop? Understanding the ecology, biomechanics and evolution of bipedal hopping. J Exp Biol 2018; 221:221/12/jeb161661. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.161661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Bipedal hopping is a specialized mode of locomotion that has arisen independently in at least five groups of mammals. We review the evolutionary origins of these groups, examine three of the most prominent hypotheses for why bipedal hopping may have arisen, and discuss how this unique mode of locomotion influences the behavior and ecology of modern species. While all bipedal hoppers share generally similar body plans, differences in underlying musculoskeletal anatomy influence what performance benefits each group may derive from this mode of locomotion. Based on a review of the literature, we conclude that the most likely reason that bipedal hopping evolved is associated with predator avoidance by relatively small species in forested environments. Yet, the morphological specializations associated with this mode of locomotion have facilitated the secondary acquisition of performance characteristics that enable these species to be highly successful in ecologically demanding environments such as deserts. We refute many long-held misunderstandings about the origins of bipedal hopping and identify potential areas of research that would advance the understanding of this mode of locomotion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Craig P. McGowan
- University of Idaho, Department of Biological Sciences, Life Sciences Building, University Avenue, Moscow, ID 83844, USA
- University of Washington School of Medicine, WWAMI Regional Medical Education Program, Moscow, ID 83844, USA
| | - Clint E. Collins
- University of Idaho, Department of Biological Sciences, Life Sciences Building, University Avenue, Moscow, ID 83844, USA
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
Biewener AA. Evolutionary race as predators hunt prey. Nature 2018; 554:176-178. [DOI: 10.1038/d41586-018-01278-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
|
47
|
Abstract
Behaviors are among the most complex phenotypes, making the genetic dissection of behavioral differences extremely challenging. A careful dissection of ontogenetic differences in burrowing behavior between mouse species highlights the importance of integrative approaches to the study of behavioral evolution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Sheehan
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
| | - Caitlin H Miller
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Caleb C Vogt
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Russell A Ligon
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| |
Collapse
|
48
|
Moore TY, Rivera AM, Biewener AA. Vertical leaping mechanics of the Lesser Egyptian Jerboa reveal specialization for maneuverability rather than elastic energy storage. Front Zool 2017; 14:32. [PMID: 28680452 PMCID: PMC5496339 DOI: 10.1186/s12983-017-0215-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2016] [Accepted: 06/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Numerous historical descriptions of the Lesser Egyptian jerboa, Jaculus jaculus, a small bipedal mammal with elongate hindlimbs, make special note of their extraordinary leaping ability. We observed jerboa locomotion in a laboratory setting and performed inverse dynamics analysis to understand how this small rodent generates such impressive leaps. We combined kinematic data from video, kinetic data from a force platform, and morphometric data from dissections to calculate the relative contributions of each hindlimb muscle and tendon to the total movement. RESULTS Jerboas leapt in excess of 10 times their hip height. At the maximum recorded leap height (not the maximum observed leap height), peak moments for metatarso-phalangeal, ankle, knee, and hip joints were 13.1, 58.4, 65.1, and 66.9 Nmm, respectively. Muscles acting at the ankle joint contributed the most work (mean 231.6 mJ / kg Body Mass) to produce the energy of vertical leaping, while muscles acting at the metatarso-phalangeal joint produced the most stress (peak 317.1 kPa). The plantaris, digital flexors, and gastrocnemius tendons encountered peak stresses of 25.6, 19.1, and 6.0 MPa, respectively, transmitting the forces of their corresponding muscles (peak force 3.3, 2.0, and 3.8 N, respectively). Notably, we found that the mean elastic energy recovered in the primary tendons of both hindlimbs comprised on average only 4.4% of the energy of the associated leap. CONCLUSIONS The limited use of tendon elastic energy storage in the jerboa parallels the morphologically similar heteromyid kangaroo rat, Dipodomys spectabilis. When compared to larger saltatory kangaroos and wallabies that sustain hopping over longer periods of time, these small saltatory rodents store and recover less elastic strain energy in their tendons. The large contribution of muscle work, rather than elastic strain energy, to the vertical leap suggests that the fitness benefit of rapid acceleration for predator avoidance dominated over the need to enhance locomotor economy in the evolutionary history of jerboas.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Talia Y Moore
- Concord Field Station, Harvard University, 100 Old Causeway Road, Bedford, MA 01730 USA.,University of Michigan, Museum of Zoology and Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Ruthven Museum, 1109 Geddes Ave, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
| | - Alberto M Rivera
- Concord Field Station, Harvard University, 100 Old Causeway Road, Bedford, MA 01730 USA
| | - Andrew A Biewener
- Concord Field Station, Harvard University, 100 Old Causeway Road, Bedford, MA 01730 USA
| |
Collapse
|