In vitro DNA SCRaMbLE

Applications of genetic code expansion technology in eukaryotes

Unnatural amino acids (UAAs) have gained significant attention in protein engineering and drug development owing to their ability to introduce new chemical functionalities to proteins. In eukaryotes, genetic code expansion (GCE) enables the incorporation of UAAs and facilitates posttranscriptional modification (PTM), which is not feasible in prokaryotic systems. GCE is also a powerful tool for cell or animal imaging, the monitoring of protein interactions in target cells, drug development, and switch regulation. Therefore, there is keen interest in utilizing GCE in eukaryotic systems. This review provides an overview of the application of GCE in eukaryotic systems and discusses current challenges that need to be addressed.

Mutagenesis techniques for evolutionary engineering of microbes - exploiting CRISPR-Cas, oligonucleotides, recombinases, and polymerases

The natural process of evolutionary adaptation is often exploited as a powerful tool to obtain microbes with desirable traits. For industrial microbes, evolutionary engineering is often used to generate variants that show increased yields or resistance to stressful industrial environments, thus obtaining superior microbial cell factories. However, even in large populations, the natural supply of beneficial mutations is typically low, which implies that obtaining improved microbes is often time-consuming and inefficient. To overcome this limitation, different techniques have been developed that boost mutation rates. While some of these methods simply increase the overall mutation rate across a genome, others use recent developments in DNA synthesis, synthetic biology, and CRISPR-Cas techniques to control the type and location of mutations. This review summarizes the most important recent developments and methods in the field of evolutionary engineering in model microorganisms. It discusses how both in vitro and in vivo approaches can increase the genetic diversity of the host, with a special emphasis on in vivo techniques for the optimization of metabolic pathways for precision fermentation.

The synthetic future of algal genomes

Algae are diverse organisms with significant biotechnological potential for resource circularity. Taking inspiration from fermentative microbes, engineering algal genomes holds promise to broadly expand their application ranges. Advances in genome sequencing with improvements in DNA synthesis and delivery techniques are enabling customized molecular tool development to confer advanced traits to algae. Efforts to redesign and rebuild entire genomes to create fit-for-purpose organisms currently being explored in heterotrophic prokaryotes and eukaryotic microbes could also be applied to photosynthetic algae. Future algal genome engineering will enhance yields of native products and permit the expression of complex biochemical pathways to produce novel metabolites from sustainable inputs. We present a historical perspective on advances in engineering algae, discuss the requisite genetic traits to enable algal genome optimization, take inspiration from whole-genome engineering efforts in other microbes for algal systems, and present candidate algal species in the context of these engineering goals.

Chromosome recombination and modification by LoxP-mediated evolution in Vibrio natriegens using CRISPR-associated transposases

Chromosome rearrangement by LoxP-mediated evolution has emerged as a powerful approach to studying how chromosome architecture impacts phenotypes. However, it relies on the in vitro synthesis of artificial chromosomes. The recently reported CRISPR-associated transposases (CASTs) held great promise for the efficient insertion of abundant LoxP sites directly onto the genome of wild-type strains. In this study, with the fastest-growing bacterium Vibrio natrigens (V. natriegens) as an object, a multiplex genome integration tool derived from CASTs was employed to achieve the insertion of cargo genes at eight specific genomic loci within 2 days. Next, we introduced 30 LoxP sites onto chromosome 2 (Chr2) of V. natriegens. Rigorously induced Cre recombinase was used to demonstrate Chromosome Rearrangement and Modification by LoxP-mediated Evolution (CRaMbLE). Growth characterization and genome sequencing showed that the ~358 kb fragment on Chr2 was accountable for the rapid growth of V. natriegens. The enabling tools we developed can help identify genomic regions that influence the rapid growth of V. natriegens without a prior understanding of genome mechanisms. This groundbreaking demonstration may also be extended to other organisms such as Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas putida, Bacillus subtilis, and so on.

A robust yeast chassis: comprehensive characterization of a fast-growing Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Robust chassis are critical to facilitate advances in synthetic biology. This study describes a comprehensive characterization of a new yeast isolate Saccharomyces cerevisiae XP that grows faster than commonly used research and industrial S. cerevisiae strains. The genomic, transcriptomic, and metabolomic analyses suggest that the fast growth rate is, in part, due to the efficient electron transport chain and key growth factor synthesis. A toolbox for genetic manipulation of the yeast was developed; we used it to construct l-lactic acid producers for high lactate production. The development of genetically malleable yeast strains that grow faster than currently used strains may significantly enhance the uses of S. cerevisiae in biotechnology.IMPORTANCEYeast is known as an outstanding starting strain for constructing microbial cell factories. However, its growth rate restricts its application. A yeast strain XP, which grows fast in high concentrations of sugar and acidic environments, is revealed to demonstrate the potential in industrial applications. A toolbox was also built for its genetic manipulation including gene insertion, deletion, and ploidy transformation. The knowledge of its metabolism, which could guide the designing of genetic experiments, was generated with multi-omics analyses. This novel strain along with its toolbox was then tested by constructing an l-lactic acid efficient producer, which is conducive to the development of degradable plastics. This study highlights the remarkable competence of nonconventional yeast for applications in biotechnology.

Large-scale genomic rearrangements boost SCRaMbLE in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Synthetic Chromosome Rearrangement and Modification by LoxP-mediated Evolution (SCRaMbLE) is a promising tool to study genomic rearrangements. However, the potential of SCRaMbLE to study genomic rearrangements is currently hindered, because a strain containing all 16 synthetic chromosomes is not yet available. Here, we construct SparLox83R, a yeast strain containing 83 loxPsym sites distributed across all 16 chromosomes. SCRaMbLE of SparLox83R produces versatile genome-wide genomic rearrangements, including inter-chromosomal events. Moreover, when combined with synthetic chromosomes, SCRaMbLE of hetero-diploids with SparLox83R leads to increased diversity of genomic rearrangements and relatively faster evolution of traits compared to hetero-diploids only with wild-type chromosomes. Analysis of the SCRaMbLEd strain with increased tolerance to nocodazole demonstrates that genomic rearrangements can perturb the transcriptome and 3D genome structure and consequently impact phenotypes. In summary, a genome with sparsely distributed loxPsym sites can serve as a powerful tool for studying the consequence of genomic rearrangements and accelerating strain engineering in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Have you tried turning it off and on again? Oscillating selection to enhance fitness-landscape traversal in adaptive laboratory evolution experiments

Adaptive Laboratory Evolution (ALE) is a powerful tool for engineering and understanding microbial physiology. ALE relies on the selection and enrichment of mutations that enable survival or faster growth under a selective condition imposed by the experimental setup. Phenotypic fitness landscapes are often underpinned by complex genotypes involving multiple genes, with combinatorial positive and negative effects on fitness. Such genotype relationships result in mutational fitness landscapes with multiple local fitness maxima and valleys. Traversing local maxima to find a global maximum often requires an individual or sub-population of cells to traverse fitness valleys. Traversing involves gaining mutations that are not adaptive for a given local maximum but are necessary to 'peak shift' to another local maximum, or eventually a global maximum. Despite these relatively well understood evolutionary principles, and the combinatorial genotypes that underlie most metabolic phenotypes, the majority of applied ALE experiments are conducted using constant selection pressures. The use of constant pressure can result in populations becoming trapped within local maxima, and often precludes the attainment of optimum phenotypes associated with global maxima. Here, we argue that oscillating selection pressures is an easily accessible mechanism for traversing fitness landscapes in ALE experiments, and provide theoretical and practical frameworks for implementation.

A robust yeast biocontainment system with two-layered regulation switch dependent on unnatural amino acid

Synthetic auxotrophy in which cell viability depends on the presence of an unnatural amino acid (unAA) provides a powerful strategy to restrict unwanted propagation of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in open environments and potentially prevent industrial espionage. Here, we describe a generic approach for robust biocontainment of budding yeast dependent on unAA. By understanding escape mechanisms, we specifically optimize our strategies by introducing designed "immunity" to the generation of amber-suppressor tRNAs and developing the transcriptional- and translational-based biocontainment switch. We further develop a fitness-oriented screening method to easily obtain multiplex safeguard strains that exhibit robust growth and undetectable escape frequency (<~10-9) on solid media for 14 days. Finally, we show that employing our multiplex safeguard system could restrict the proliferation of strains of interest in a real fermentation scenario, highlighting the great potential of our yeast biocontainment strategy to protect the industrial proprietary strains.

Visioning synthetic futures for yeast research within the context of current global techno-political trends

Yeast research is entering into a new period of scholarship, with new scientific tools, new questions to ask and new issues to consider. The politics of emerging and critical technology can no longer be separated from the pursuit of basic science in fields, such as synthetic biology and engineering biology. Given the intensifying race for technological leadership, yeast research is likely to attract significant investment from government, and that it offers huge opportunities to the curious minded from a basic research standpoint. This article provides an overview of new directions in yeast research with a focus on Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and places these trends in their geopolitical context. At the highest level, yeast research is situated within the ongoing convergence of the life sciences with the information sciences. This convergent effect is most strongly pronounced in areas of AI-enabled tools for the life sciences, and the creation of synthetic genomes, minimal genomes, pan-genomes, neochromosomes and metagenomes using computer-assisted design tools and methodologies. Synthetic yeast futures encompass basic and applied science questions that will be of intense interest to government and nongovernment funding sources. It is essential for the yeast research community to map and understand the context of their research to ensure their collaborations turn global challenges into research opportunities.

Dynamics of synthetic yeast chromosome evolution shaped by hierarchical chromatin organization

Synthetic genome evolution provides a dynamic approach for systematically and straightforwardly exploring evolutionary processes. Synthetic Chromosome Rearrangement and Modification by LoxP-mediated Evolution (SCRaMbLE) is an evolutionary system intrinsic to the synthetic yeast genome that can rapidly drive structural variations. Here, we detect over 260 000 rearrangement events after the SCRaMbLEing of a yeast strain harboring 5.5 synthetic yeast chromosomes (synII, synIII, synV, circular synVI, synIXR and synX). Remarkably, we find that the rearrangement events exhibit a specific landscape of frequency. We further reveal that the landscape is shaped by the combined effects of chromatin accessibility and spatial contact probability. The rearrangements tend to occur in 3D spatially proximal and chromatin-accessible regions. The enormous numbers of rearrangements mediated by SCRaMbLE provide a driving force to potentiate directed genome evolution, and the investigation of the rearrangement landscape offers mechanistic insights into the dynamics of genome evolution.

Structural Variations and Adaptations of Synthetic Chromosome Ends Driven by SCRaMbLE in Haploid and Diploid Yeasts

Variations and adaptations of chromosome ends play an important role in eukaryotic karyotype evolution. Traditional experimental studies of the adaptations of chromosome ends mainly rely on the strategy of introducing defects; thus, the adaptation methods of survivors may vary depending on the initial defects. Here, using the SCRaMbLE strategy, we obtained a library of haploid and diploid synthetic strains with variations in chromosome ends. Analysis of the SCRaMbLEd survivors revealed four routes of adaptation: homologous recombination between nonhomologous chromosome arms (haploids) or homologous chromosome arms (diploids), site-specific recombination between intra- or interchromosomal ends, circularization of chromosomes, and loss of whole chromosomes (diploids). We also found that circularization of synthetic chromosomes can be generated by SCRaMbLE. Our study of various adaptation routes of chromosome ends provides insight into eukaryotic karyotype evolution from the viewpoint of synthetic genomics.

Investigation of Genome Biology by Synthetic Genome Engineering

Synthetic genomes were designed based on an understanding of natural genomic information, offering an opportunity to engineer and investigate biological systems on a genome-wide scale. Currently, the designer version of the M. mycoides genome and the E. coli genome, as well as most of the S. cerevisiae genome, have been synthesized, and through the cycles of design-build-test and the following engineering of synthetic genomes, many fundamental questions of genome biology have been investigated. In this review, we summarize the use of synthetic genome engineering to explore the structure and function of genomes, and highlight the unique values of synthetic genomics.

Technological advances in the production of carotenoids and their applications- A critical review

Carotenoids are naturally occurring pigments that are widely distributed in algae, fungi, bacteria, and plants. Carotenoids play a significant role in the food, feed, cosmetic, nutraceutical, and pharmaceutical industries. These pigments are effectively considered as a health-promoting compounds, which are widely used in our daily diet to reduce the risk of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer, acute lung injury, cataracts, neural disorders, etc. In this context, this review paper demonstrates the synthesis of carotenoids and their potential application in the food and pharmaceutical industries. However, the demand for carotenoid production is increasing overtime, and the extraction and production are expensive and technically challenging. The recent developments in carotenoid biosynthesis, and key challenges, bottlenecks, and future perspectives were also discussed to enhance the circular bioeconomy.

Closing the Gap between Bio-Based and Petroleum-Based Plastic through Bioengineering

Bioplastics, which are plastic materials produced from renewable bio-based feedstocks, have been investigated for their potential as an attractive alternative to petroleum-based plastics. Despite the harmful effects of plastic accumulation in the environment, bioplastic production is still underdeveloped. Recent advances in strain development, genome sequencing, and editing technologies have accelerated research efforts toward bioplastic production and helped to advance its goal of replacing conventional plastics. In this review, we highlight bioengineering approaches, new advancements, and related challenges in the bioproduction and biodegradation of plastics. We cover different types of polymers, including polylactic acid (PLA) and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs and PHBs) produced by bacterial, microalgal, and plant species naturally as well as through genetic engineering. Moreover, we provide detailed information on pathways that produce PHAs and PHBs in bacteria. Lastly, we present the prospect of using large-scale genome engineering to enhance strains and develop microalgae as a sustainable production platform.

Recent Advances in Directed Yeast Genome Evolution

Saccharomyces cerevisiae, as a Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) fungus, has become one of the most widely used chassis cells for industrial applications and basic research. However, owing to its complex genetic background and intertwined metabolic networks, there are still many obstacles that need to be overcome in order to improve desired traits and to successfully link genotypes to phenotypes. In this context, genome editing and evolutionary technology have rapidly progressed over the last few decades to facilitate the rapid generation of tailor-made properties as well as for the precise determination of relevant gene targets that regulate physiological functions, including stress resistance, metabolic-pathway optimization and organismal adaptation. Directed genome evolution has emerged as a versatile tool to enable researchers to access desired traits and to study increasingly complicated phenomena. Here, the development of directed genome evolutions in S. cerevisiae is reviewed, with a focus on different techniques driving evolutionary engineering.

Directed yeast genome evolution by controlled introduction of trans-chromosomic structural variations

Naturally occurring structural variations (SVs) are a considerable source of genomic variation that can reshape the 3D architecture of chromosomes. Controllable methods aimed at introducing the complex SVs and their related molecular mechanisms have remained farfetched. In this study, an SV-prone yeast strain was developed using Synthetic Chromosome Rearrangement and Modification by LoxP-mediated Evolution (SCRaMbLE) technology with two synthetic chromosomes, namely synV and synX. The biosynthesis of astaxanthin is used as a readout and a proof of concept for the application of SVs in industries. Our findings showed that complex SVs, including a pericentric inversion and a trans-chromosome translocation between synV and synX, resulted in two neo-chromosomes and a 2.7-fold yield of astaxanthin. Also, genetic targets were mapped, which resulted in a higher astaxanthin yield, thus demonstrating the SVs' ability to reorganize genetic information along the chromosomes. The rational design of trans-chromosome translocation and pericentric inversion enabled precise induction of these phenomena. Collectively, this study provides an effective tool to not only accelerate the directed genome evolution but also to reveal the mechanistic insight of complex SVs for altering phenotypes.

Incorporating, Quantifying, and Leveraging Noncanonical Amino Acids in Yeast

Genetic code expansion has allowed for extraordinary advances in enhancing protein chemical diversity and functionality, but there remains a critical need for understanding and engineering genetic code expansion systems for improved efficiency. Incorporation of noncanonical amino acids (ncAAs) at stop codons provides a site-specific method for introducing unique chemistry into proteins, though often at reduced yields compared to wild-type proteins. A powerful platform for ncAA incorporation supports both the expression and evaluation of chemically diverse proteins for a broad range of applications. In yeast, ncAAs have been used to study dynamic cellular processes such as protein-protein interactions and also allow for exploration of eukaryotic-specific biology such as epigenetics. Furthermore, yeast display is an advantageous technology for engineering and screening the properties of proteins in high throughput. The protocols presented in this chapter describe detailed methods for the yeast-based genetic encoding of ncAAs in proteins intracellularly or on the yeast surface. In addition, methods are presented for modifying proteins on the yeast surface using bioorthogonal chemical reactions and evaluating reaction efficiency. Finally, protocols are included for the preparation of libraries that involve genetic code expansion. Libraries of proteins that contain ncAAs or libraries of the cellular machinery required to encode ncAAs can be constructed and screened in high throughput for many biological and chemical applications. Efficient incorporation of ncAAs facilitates elucidation of fundamental eukaryotic biology and advances tools for enzyme and genome engineering to evolve host cells that are better able to accommodate alternative genetic codes.

TAQing2.0 for genome reorganization of asexual industrial yeasts by direct protein transfection

Genomic rearrangements often generate phenotypic diversification. We previously reported the TAQing system where genomic rearrangements are induced via conditional activation of a restriction endonuclease in yeast and plant cells to produce mutants with marked phenotypic changes. Here we developed the TAQing2.0 system based on the direct delivery of endonucleases into the cell nucleus by cell-penetrating peptides. Using the optimized procedure, we introduce a heat-reactivatable endonuclease TaqI into an asexual industrial yeast (torula yeast), followed by a transient heat activation of TaqI. TAQing2.0 leads to generation of mutants with altered flocculation and morphological phenotypes, which exhibit changes in chromosomal size. Genome resequencing suggested that torula yeast is triploid with six chromosomes and the mutants have multiple rearrangements including translocations having the TaqI recognition sequence at the break points. Thus, TAQing2.0 is expected as a useful method to obtain various mutants with altered phenotypes without introducing foreign DNA into asexual industrial microorganisms.

The TAQing system is upgraded and optimised as the foreign-DNA-free genome engineering technology, TAQing2.0. Genomic rearrangements are randomly induced by introducing the TaqI restriction endonuclease into non-sporulating industrial yeast with cell-penetrating peptides, leading to generation of mutants with altered phenotypes.

Visualising the next frontiers in wine yeast research

A range of game-changing biodigital and biodesign technologies are coming of age all around us, transforming our world in complex ways that are hard to predict. Not a day goes by without news of how data-centric engineering, algorithm-driven modelling, and biocyber technologies—including the convergence of artificial intelligence, machine learning, automated robotics, quantum computing, and genome editing—will change our world. If we are to be better at expecting the unexpected in the world of wine, we need to gain deeper insights into the potential and limitations of these technological developments and advances along with their promise and perils. This article anticipates how these fast-expanding bioinformational and biodesign toolkits might lead to the creation of synthetic organisms and model systems, and ultimately new understandings of biological complexities could be achieved. A total of four future frontiers in wine yeast research are discussed in this article: the construction of fully synthetic yeast genomes, including minimal genomes; supernumerary pan-genome neochromosomes; synthetic metagenomes; and synthetic yeast communities. These four concepts are at varying stages of development with plenty of technological pitfalls to overcome before such model chromosomes, genomes, strains, and yeast communities could illuminate some of the ill-understood aspects of yeast resilience, fermentation performance, flavour biosynthesis, and ecological interactions in vineyard and winery settings. From a winemaker's perspective, some of these ideas might be considered as far-fetched and, as such, tempting to ignore. However, synthetic biologists know that by exploring these futuristic concepts in the laboratory could well forge new research frontiers to deepen our understanding of the complexities of consistently producing fine wines with different fermentation processes from distinctive viticultural terroirs. As the saying goes in the disruptive technology industry, it take years to create an overnight success. The purpose of this article is neither to glorify any of these concepts as a panacea to all ills nor to crucify them as a danger to winemaking traditions. Rather, this article suggests that these proposed research endeavours deserve due consideration because they are likely to cast new light on the genetic blind spots of wine yeasts, and how they interact as communities in vineyards and wineries. Future-focussed research is, of course, designed to be subject to revision as new data and technologies become available. Successful dislodging of old paradigms with transformative innovations will require open-mindedness and pragmatism, not dogmatism—and this can make for a catch-22 situation in an archetypal traditional industry, such as the wine industry, with its rich territorial and socio-cultural connotations.

Artificial nondirectional site-specific recombination systems

Site-specific recombination systems (SRSs) are widely used in studies on synthetic biology and related disciplines. Nondirectional SRSs can randomly trigger excision, integration, reversal, and translocation, which are effective tools to achieve large-scale genome recombination. In this study, we designed 6 new nondirectional SRSs named Vika/voxsym1-4 and Dre/roxsym1-2. All 6 artificial nondirectional SRSs were able to generate random deletion and inversion in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Moreover, all six SRSs were orthogonal to Cre/loxPsym. The pairwise orthogonal nondirected SRSs can simultaneously initiate large-scale and independent gene recombination in two different regions of the genome, which could not be accomplished using previous orthogonal systems. These SRSs were found to be robust while working in the cells at different growth stages, as well as in the different spatial structure of the chromosome. These artificial pairwise orthogonal nondirected SRSs offer newfound potential for site-specific recombination in synthetic biology.

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Designed six new artificial nondirectional site-specific recombination systems

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Pairwise orthogonal nondirected recombination systems in yeast

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The deletion efficiency of systems is far greater than the inversion efficiency

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These nondirectional recombination systems were found to be robust

Establishment of genomic library technology mediated by non-homologous end joining mechanism in Yarrowia lipolytica

Genomic variants libraries are conducive to obtain dominant strains with desirable phenotypic traits. The non-homologous end joining (NHEJ), which enables foreign DNA fragments to be randomly integrated into different chromosomal sites, shows prominent capability in genomic libraries construction. In this study, we established an efficient NHEJ-mediated genomic library technology in Yarrowia lipolytica through regulation of NHEJ repair process, employment of defective Ura marker and optimization of iterative transformations, which enhanced genes integration efficiency by 4.67, 22.74 and 1.87 times, respectively. We further applied this technology to create high lycopene producing strains by multi-integration of heterologous genes of CrtE, CrtB and CrtI, with 23.8 times higher production than rDNA integration through homologous recombination (HR). The NHEJ-mediated genomic library technology also achieved random and scattered integration of loxP and vox sites, with the copy number up to 65 and 53, respectively, creating potential for further application of recombinase mediated genome rearrangement in Y. lipolytica. This work provides a high-efficient NHEJ-mediated genomic library technology, which enables random and scattered genomic integration of multiple heterologous fragments and rapid generation of diverse strains with superior phenotypes within 96 h. This novel technology also lays an excellent foundation for the development of other genetic technologies in Y. lipolytica.

Genomic markers on synthetic genomes

Genome synthesis endows scientists the ability of de novo creating genomes absent in nature, by thorough redesigning DNA sequences and introducing numerous custom features. However, the genome synthesis is a labor- and time-consuming work, and thus it is a challenge to verify and quantify the synthetic genome rapidly and precisely. Thus, specific DNA sequences different from native genomic sequences are designed into synthetic genomes during synthesis, namely genomic markers. Genomic markers can be easily detected by PCR reaction, whole-genome sequencing (WGS) and a variety of methods to identify the synthetic genome from native one. Here, we review types and applications of genomic markers utilized in synthetic genomes, with the hope of providing a guidance for future works.

Directed genome evolution driven by structural rearrangement techniques

Directed genome evolution simulates the process of natural evolution at the genomic level in the laboratory to generate desired phenotypes. Here we review the applications of recent technological advances in genome writing and editing to directed genome evolution, with a focus on structural rearrangement techniques. We highlight how these techniques can be used to generate diverse genotypes, and to accelerate the evolution of phenotypic traits. We also discuss the perspectives of directed genome evolution.

A Novel Cre/lox-Based Genetic Tool for Repeated, Targeted and Markerless Gene Integration in Yarrowia lipolytica

The unconventional yeast Yarrowia lipolytica is extensively applied in bioproduction fields owing to its excellent metabolite and protein production ability. Nonetheless, utilization of this promising host is still restricted by the limited availability of precise and effective gene integration tools. In this study, a novel and efficient genetic tool was developed for targeted, repeated, and markerless gene integration based on Cre/lox site-specific recombination system. The developed tool required only a single selection marker and could completely excise the unnecessary sequences. A total of three plasmids were created and seven rounds of marker-free gene integration were examined in Y. lipolytica. All the integration efficiencies remained above 90%, and analysis of the protein production and growth characteristics of the engineered strains confirmed that genome modification via the novel genetic tool was feasible. Further work also confirmed that the genetic tool was effective for the integration of other genes, loci, and strains. Thus, this study significantly promotes the application of the Cre/lox system and presents a powerful tool for genome engineering in Y. lipolytica.

A DNA Inversion System in Eukaryotes Established via Laboratory Evolution

DNA inversion is a type of site-specific recombination system that plays an important role in the generation of genetic diversity and phenotypic adaptation by programmed rearrangements in bacteria. However, no such inversion system exhibiting a strong directionality bias has been identified or developed in eukaryotes yet. Here, using directed evolution of Rci recombinase, a tyrosine recombinase from a bacterial DNA inversion system, we identified a mutant Rci8 with a ratio of inversion/deletion up to ∼4320 in yeast. Based on Rci8 recombinase and sfxa101 sites, we have established a DNA inversion system in yeast and mammalian cells, enabling specificity for DNA inversions between inverted sites over deletions between directly repeated sites. Our results validated that the reversible DNA inversion system can act as an on/off transcriptional switch. Moreover, we demonstrate that the inversion system can also work on linear chromosomes. The eukaryotic DNA inversion system would provide a new tool for fields of genetic circuits, cellular barcoding, and synthetic genomes.

The evolving art of creating genetic diversity: From directed evolution to synthetic biology

The ability to engineer biological systems, whether to introduce novel functionality or improved performance, is a cornerstone of biotechnology and synthetic biology. Typically, this requires the generation of genetic diversity to explore variations in phenotype, a process that can be performed at many levels, from single molecule targets (i.e., in directed evolution of enzymes) to whole organisms (e.g., in chassis engineering). Recent advances in DNA synthesis technology and automation have enhanced our ability to create variant libraries with greater control and throughput. This review highlights the latest developments in approaches to create such a hierarchy of diversity from the enzyme level to entire pathways in vitro, with a focus on the creation of combinatorial libraries that are required to navigate a target's vast design space successfully to uncover significant improvements in function.

Discovering and genotyping genomic structural variations by yeast genome synthesis and inducible evolution

Genomic structural variations (SVs) promote the evolution of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and play an important role in phenotypic diversities. Yeast genomic structures can be remodeled by design and bottom-up synthesis. The synthesis of yeast genome creates novel copy number variations (CNVs) and SVs and develops new strategies to discover gene functions. Further, an inducible evolution system SCRaMbLE, consisted of 3,932 loxPsym sites, was incorporated on synthetic yeast genome. SCRaMbLE enables genomic rearrangements at will and rapidly generates chromosomal number variations, and massive SVs under customized conditions. The impacts of genetic variations on phenotypes can be revealed by genome analysis and chromosome restructuring. Yeast genome synthesis and SCRaMbLE provide a new research paradigm to explore the genotypic mechanisms of phenotype diversities, and can be used to improve biological traits and optimize industrial chassis.

Synthetic Genomes

DNA synthesis technology has progressed to the point that it is now practical to synthesize entire genomes. Quite a variety of methods have been developed, first to synthesize single genes but ultimately to massively edit or write from scratch entire genomes. Synthetic genomes can essentially be clones of native sequences, but this approach does not teach us much new biology. The ability to endow genomes with novel properties offers special promise for addressing questions not easily approachable with conventional gene-at-a-time methods. These include questions about evolution and about how genomes are fundamentally wired informationally, metabolically, and genetically. The techniques and technologies relating to how to design, build, and deliver big DNA at the genome scale are reviewed here. A fuller understanding of these principles may someday lead to the ability to truly design genomes from scratch.

The Role of Structural Variation in Adaptation and Evolution of Yeast and Other Fungi

Mutations in DNA can be limited to one or a few nucleotides, or encompass larger deletions, insertions, duplications, inversions and translocations that span long stretches of DNA or even full chromosomes. These so-called structural variations (SVs) can alter the gene copy number, modify open reading frames, change regulatory sequences or chromatin structure and thus result in major phenotypic changes. As some of the best-known examples of SV are linked to severe genetic disorders, this type of mutation has traditionally been regarded as negative and of little importance for adaptive evolution. However, the advent of genomic technologies uncovered the ubiquity of SVs even in healthy organisms. Moreover, experimental evolution studies suggest that SV is an important driver of evolution and adaptation to new environments. Here, we provide an overview of the causes and consequences of SV and their role in adaptation, with specific emphasis on fungi since these have proven to be excellent models to study SV.

Tasting the terroir of wine yeast innovation

Wine is an archetypal traditional fermented beverage with strong territorial and socio-cultural connotations. Its 7000 year history is patterned by a tradition of innovation. Every value-adding innovation − whether in the vineyard, winery, supply chain or marketplace − that led to the invention of a new tradition spurred progress and created a brighter future from past developments. In a way, wine traditions can be defined as remembered innovations from the distant past − inherited knowledge and wisdom that withstood the test of time. Therefore, it should not be assumed a priori that tradition and innovation are polar opposites. The relations between the forces driven by the anchors of tradition and the wings of innovation do not necessarily involve displacement, conflict or exclusiveness. Innovation can strengthen wine tradition, and the reinvention of a tradition-bound practice, approach or concept can foster innovation. In cases where a paradigm-shifting innovation disrupts a tradition, the process of such an innovation transitioning into a radically new tradition can become protracted while proponents of divergent opinions duke it out. Sometimes these conflicting opinions are based on fact, and sometimes not. The imperfections of such a debate between the ‘ancients’ and the ‘moderns’ can, from time to time, obscure the line between myth and reality. Therefore, finding the right balance between traditions worth keeping and innovations worth implementing can be complex. The intent here is to harness the creative tension between science fiction and science fact when innovation's first-principles challenge the status quo by re-examining the foundational principles about a core traditional concept, such as terroir. Poignant questions are raised about the importance of the terroir (biogeography) of yeasts and the value of the microbiome of grapes to wine quality. This article imagines a metaphorical terroir free from cognitive biases where diverse perspectives can converge to uncork the effervescent power of territorial yeast populations as well as ‘nomadic’ yeast starter cultures. At the same time, this paper also engages in mental time-travel. A future scenario is imagined, explored, tested and debated where terroir-less yeast avatars are equipped with designer genomes to safely and consistently produce, individually or in combination with region-specific wild yeasts and or other starter cultures, high-quality wine according to the preferences of consumers in a range of markets. The purpose of this review is to look beyond the horizon and to synthesize a link between what we know now and what could be. This article informs readers where to look without suggesting what they must see as a way forward. In the context of one of the world's oldest fermentation industries − steeped in a rich history of tradition and innovation − the mantra here is: respect the past, lead the present and secure the future of wine.

De novo assembly and delivery to mouse cells of a 101 kb functional human gene

Design and large-scale synthesis of DNA has been applied to the functional study of viral and microbial genomes. New and expanded technology development is required to unlock the transformative potential of such bottom-up approaches to the study of larger mammalian genomes. Two major challenges include assembling and delivering long DNA sequences. Here, we describe a workflow for de novo DNA assembly and delivery that enables functional evaluation of mammalian genes on the length scale of 100 kilobase pairs (kb). The DNA assembly step is supported by an integrated robotic workcell. We demonstrate assembly of the 101 kb human HPRT1 gene in yeast from 3 kb building blocks, precision delivery of the resulting construct to mouse embryonic stem cells, and subsequent expression of the human protein from its full-length human gene in mouse cells. This workflow provides a framework for mammalian genome writing. We envision utility in producing designer variants of human genes linked to disease and their delivery and functional analysis in cell culture or animal models.

Compacting a synthetic yeast chromosome arm

BACKGROUND

Redundancy is a common feature of genomes, presumably to ensure robust growth under different and changing conditions. Genome compaction, removing sequences nonessential for given conditions, provides a novel way to understand the core principles of life. The synthetic chromosome rearrangement and modification by loxP-mediated evolution (SCRaMbLE) system is a unique feature implanted in the synthetic yeast genome (Sc2.0), which is proposed as an effective tool for genome minimization. As the Sc2.0 project is nearing its completion, we have begun to explore the application of the SCRaMbLE system in genome compaction.

RESULTS

We develop a method termed SCRaMbLE-based genome compaction (SGC) and demonstrate that a synthetic chromosome arm (synXIIL) can be efficiently reduced. The pre-introduced episomal essential gene array significantly enhances the compacting ability of SGC, not only by enabling the deletion of nonessential genes located in essential gene containing loxPsym units but also by allowing more chromosomal sequences to be removed in a single SGC process. Further compaction is achieved through iterative SGC, revealing that at least 39 out of 65 nonessential genes in synXIIL can be removed collectively without affecting cell viability at 30 °C in rich medium. Approximately 40% of the synthetic sequence, encoding 28 genes, is found to be dispensable for cell growth at 30 °C in rich medium and several genes whose functions are needed under specified conditions are identified.

CONCLUSIONS

We develop iterative SGC with the aid of eArray as a generic yet effective tool to compact the synthetic yeast genome.

Chromosomal Rearrangements of Synthetic Yeast by SCRaMbLE

Diversified genomes derived from chromosomal rearrangements are valuable materials for evolution. Naturally, chromosomal rearrangements occur at extremely low frequency to ensure genome stability. In the synthetic yeast genome project (Sc2.0), an inducible chromosome rearrangement system named Synthetic Chromosome Rearrangement and Modification by LoxP-mediated Evolution (SCRaMbLE) is built to produce chromosomal rearrangements such as deletion, duplication, inversion, and translocation at high efficiency. Here, we detail the method to activate SCRaMbLE in a synthetic strain, to analyze the SCRaMbLEd genome, and to dissect the causative rearrangements for a desired phenotype after SCRaMbLEing.

Combinatorial metabolic pathway assembly approaches and toolkits for modular assembly

Synthetic Biology is a rapidly growing interdisciplinary field that is primarily built upon foundational advances in molecular biology combined with engineering design principles such as modularity and interoperability. The field considers living systems as programmable at the genetic level and has been defined by the development of new platform technologies and methodological advances. A key concept driving the field is the Design-Build-Test-Learn cycle which provides a systematic framework for building new biological systems. One major application area for synthetic biology is biosynthetic pathway engineering that requires the modular assembly of different genetic regulatory elements and biosynthetic enzymes. In this review we provide an overview of modular DNA assembly and describe and compare the plethora of in vitro and in vivo assembly methods for combinatorial pathway engineering. Considerations for part design and methods for enzyme balancing are also presented, and we briefly discuss alternatives to intracellular pathway assembly including microbial consortia and cell-free systems for biosynthesis. Finally, we describe computational tools and automation for pathway design and assembly and argue that a deeper understanding of the many different variables of genetic design, pathway regulation and cellular metabolism will allow more predictive pathway design and engineering.

Pathway engineering in yeast for synthesizing the complex polyketide bikaverin

Fungal polyketides display remarkable structural diversity and bioactivity, and therefore the biosynthesis and engineering of this large class of molecules is therapeutically significant. Here, we successfully recode, construct and characterize the biosynthetic pathway of bikaverin, a tetracyclic polyketide with antibiotic, antifungal and anticancer properties, in S. cerevisiae. We use a green fluorescent protein (GFP) mapping strategy to identify the low expression of Bik1 (polyketide synthase) as a major bottleneck step in the pathway, and a promoter exchange strategy is used to increase expression of Bik1 and bikaverin titer. Then, we use an enzyme-fusion strategy to directly couple the monooxygenase (Bik2) and methyltransferase (Bik3) to efficiently channel intermediates between modifying enzymes, leading to an improved titer of bikaverin at 202.75 mg/L with flask fermentation (273-fold higher than the initial titer). This study demonstrates that the biosynthesis of complex fungal polyketides can be established and efficiently engineered in S. cerevisiae, highlighting the potential for natural product synthesis and large-scale fermentation in yeast.

Bikaverin is a fungal-derived tetracyclic polyketide with antibiotic, antifungal and anticancer properties. Here, the authors employ various pathway engineering strategies to achieve high level production of bikaverin in baker’s yeast.

Rapid optimisation of cellulolytic enzymes ratios in Saccharomyces cerevisiae using in vitro SCRaMbLE

BACKGROUND

For the economic production of biofuels and other valuable products from lignocellulosic waste material, a consolidated bioprocessing (CBP) organism is required. With efficient fermentation capability and attractive industrial qualities, Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a preferred candidate and has been engineered to produce enzymes that hydrolyze cellulosic biomass. Efficient cellulose hydrolysis requires the synergistic action of several enzymes, with the optimum combined activity ratio dependent on the composition of the substrate.

RESULTS

In vitro SCRaMbLE generated a library of plasmids containing different ratios of a β-glucosidase gene (CEL3A) from Saccharomycopsis fibuligera and an endoglucanase gene (CEL5A) from Trichoderma reesei. S. cerevisiae, transformed with the plasmid library, displayed a range of individual enzyme activities and synergistic capabilities. Furthermore, we show for the first time that 4,6-O-(3-ketobutylidene)-4-nitrophenyl-β-D-cellopentaoside (BPNPG5) is a suitable substrate to determine synergistic Cel3A and Cel5A action and an accurate predictive model for this synergistic action was devised. Strains with highest BPNPG5 activity had an average CEL3A and CEL5A gene cassette copy number of 1.3 ± 0.6 and 0.8 ± 0.2, respectively (ratio of 1.6:1).

CONCLUSIONS

Here, we describe a synthetic biology approach to rapidly optimise gene copy numbers to achieve efficient synergistic substrate hydrolysis. This study demonstrates how in vitro SCRaMbLE can be applied to rapidly combine gene constructs in various ratios to allow screening of synergistic enzyme activities for efficient substrate hydrolysis.

Chromosome drives via CRISPR-Cas9 in yeast

Self-propagating drive systems are capable of causing non-Mendelian inheritance. Here, we report a drive system in yeast referred to as a chromosome drive that eliminates the target chromosome via CRISPR-Cas9, enabling the transmission of the desired chromosome. Our results show that the entire Saccharomyces cerevisiae chromosome can be eliminated efficiently through only one double-strand break around the centromere via CRISPR-Cas9. As a proof-of-concept experiment of this CRISPR-Cas9 chromosome drive system, the synthetic yeast chromosome X is completely eliminated, and the counterpart wild-type chromosome X harboring a green fluorescent protein gene or the components of a synthetic violacein pathway are duplicated by sexual reproduction. We also demonstrate the use of chromosome drive to preferentially transmit complex genetic traits in yeast. Chromosome drive enables entire chromosome elimination and biased inheritance on a chromosomal scale, facilitating genomic engineering and chromosome-scale genetic mapping, and extending applications of self-propagating drives.

Site-Specific Recombination with Inverted Target Sites: A Cautionary Tale of Dicentric and Acentric Chromosomes

Site-specific recombinases are widely used tools for analysis of genetics, development, and cell biology, and many schemes have been devised to alter gene expression by recombinase-mediated DNA rearrangements. Because the FRT and lox target sites for the commonly used FLP and Cre recombinases are asymmetrical, and must pair in the same direction to recombine, construct design must take into account orientation of the target sites. Both direct and inverted configurations have been used. However, the outcome of recombination between target sites on sister chromatids is frequently overlooked. This is especially consequential with inverted target sites, where exchange between oppositely oriented target sites on sisters will produce dicentric and acentric chromosomes. By using constructs that have inverted target sites in Drosophila melanogaster and in mice, we show here that dicentric chromosomes are produced in the presence of recombinase, and that the frequency of this event is quite high. The negative effects on cell viability and behavior can be significant, and should be considered when using such constructs.

SCRaMbLEing of a Synthetic Yeast Chromosome with Clustered Essential Genes Reveals Synthetic Lethal Interactions

Genome-scale gene knockout is an important approach to the study of global genetic interactions. SCRaMbLEing of synthetic yeast chromosomes provides an efficient way to generate random deletion mutants. Here, we demonstrate the use of SCRaMbLE to explore synthetic lethal interactions. First, all essential genes of yeast chromosome III (chrIII) were clustered in a centromeric plasmid. We found that three types of reorganized clustered chrIII essential genes had similar transcriptional levels. Further, SCRaMbLEing of synthetic chromosome III (synIII) with supplementary clustered essential genes enables deletion of large chromosomal regions. Investigation of 141 SCRaMbLEd strains revealed varied deletion frequencies of synIII chromosomal regions. Among the no deletion detected regions, a hidden synthetic lethal interaction was revealed in the region of synIII 82-88 kb. This study shows that SCRaMbLE with clustered essential genes enhances streamlining of synthetic yeast chromosome and provides a novel strategy to uncover complex genetic interactions.

Application of combinatorial optimization strategies in synthetic biology

In the first wave of synthetic biology, genetic elements, combined into simple circuits, are used to control individual cellular functions. In the second wave of synthetic biology, the simple circuits, combined into complex circuits, form systems-level functions. However, efforts to construct complex circuits are often impeded by our limited knowledge of the optimal combination of individual circuits. For example, a fundamental question in most metabolic engineering projects is the optimal level of enzymes for maximizing the output. To address this point, combinatorial optimization approaches have been established, allowing automatic optimization without prior knowledge of the best combination of expression levels of individual genes. This review focuses on current combinatorial optimization methods and emerging technologies facilitating their applications.

In vitro and in vivo recombination of heterologous modules for improving biosynthesis of astaxanthin in yeast

BACKGROUND

Astaxanthin is a kind of tetraterpene and has strong antioxygenic property. The biosynthesis of astaxanthin in engineered microbial chassis has greater potential than its chemical synthesis and extraction from natural producers in an environmental-friendly way. However, the cost-offsetting production of astaxanthin in engineered microbes is still constrained by the poor efficiency of astaxanthin synthesis pathway as a heterologous pathway.

RESULTS

To address the bottleneck of limited production of astaxanthin in microbes, we developed in vitro and in vivo recombination methods respectively in engineered yeast chassis to optimize the combination of heterologous β-carotene ketolase (crtW) and hydroxylase (crtZ) modules that were selected from different species. As a result, the in vitro and in vivo recombination methods enhanced the astaxanthin yield respectively to 2.11-8.51 folds and 3.0-9.71 folds compared to the initial astaxanthin pathway, according to the different combination of particular genes. The highest astaxanthin producing strain yQDD022 was constructed by in vivo method and produced 6.05 mg g^-1 DCW of astaxanthin. Moreover, it was proved that the in vivo recombination method showed higher DNA-assembling efficiency than the in vitro method and contributed to higher stability to the engineered yeast strains.

CONCLUSIONS

The in vitro and in vivo recombination methods of heterologous modules provide simple and efficient ways to improve the astaxanthin yield in yeast. Both the two methods enable high-throughput screening of heterologous pathways through recombination of certain crtW and crtZ derived from different species. This study not only exploited the underlying optimal combination of crtZ and crtW for astaxanthin synthesis, but also provided a general approach to evolve a heterologous pathway for the enhanced accumulation of desired biochemical products.

Probing eukaryotic genome functions with synthetic chromosomes

The ability to redesign and reconstruct a cell at whole-genome level provides new platforms for biological study. The international synthetic yeast genome project-Sc2.0, designed by interrogating knowledge amassed by the yeast community to date, exemplifies how a classical synthetic biology "design-build-test-learn" engineering cycle can effectively test hypotheses about various genome fundamentals. The genome reshuffling SCRaMbLE system implemented in synthetic yeast strains also provides unprecedented diversified resources for genotype-phenotype study and yeast metabolic engineering. Further development of genome synthesis technology will shed new lights on complex biological processes in higher eukaryotes.

Improved betulinic acid biosynthesis using synthetic yeast chromosome recombination and semi-automated rapid LC-MS screening

Synthetic biology, genome engineering and directed evolution offer innumerable tools to expedite engineering of strains for optimising biosynthetic pathways. One of the most radical is SCRaMbLE, a system of inducible in vivo deletion and rearrangement of synthetic yeast chromosomes, diversifying the genotype of millions of Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells in hours. SCRaMbLE can yield strains with improved biosynthetic phenotypes but is limited by screening capabilities. To address this bottleneck, we combine automated sample preparation, an ultra-fast 84-second LC-MS method, and barcoded nanopore sequencing to rapidly isolate and characterise the best performing strains. Here, we use SCRaMbLE to optimise yeast strains engineered to produce the triterpenoid betulinic acid. Our semi-automated workflow screens 1,000 colonies, identifying and sequencing 12 strains with between 2- to 7-fold improvement in betulinic acid titre. The broad applicability of this workflow to rapidly isolate improved strains from a variant library makes this a valuable tool for biotechnology.

Engineered Microbes for Pigment Production Using Waste Biomass

Agri-food waste biomass is the most abundant organic waste and has high valorisation potential for sustainable bioproducts development. These wastes are not only recyclable in nature but are also rich sources of bioactive carbohydrates, peptides, pigments, polyphenols, vitamins, natural antioxidants, etc. Bioconversion of agri-food waste to value-added products is very important towards zero waste and circular economy concepts. To reduce the environmental burden, food researchers are seeking strategies to utilize this waste for microbial pigments production and further biotechnological exploitation in functional foods or value-added products. Microbes are valuable sources for a range of bioactive molecules, including microbial pigments production through fermentation and/or utilisation of waste. Here, we have reviewed some of the recent advancements made in important bioengineering technologies to develop engineered microbial systems for enhanced pigments production using agri-food wastes biomass/by-products as substrates in a sustainable way.

Technology used to build and transfer mammalian chromosomes

In the near twenty-year existence of the human and mammalian artificial chromosome field, the technologies for artificial chromosome construction and installation into desired cell types or organisms have evolved with the rest of modern molecular and synthetic biology. Medical, industrial, pharmaceutical, agricultural, and basic research scientists seek the as yet unrealized promise of human and mammalian artificial chromosomes. Existing technologies for both top-down and bottom-up approaches to construct these artificial chromosomes for use in higher eukaryotes are very different but aspire to achieve similar results. New capacity for production of chromosome sized synthetic DNA will likely shift the field towards more bottom-up approaches, but not completely. Similarly, new approaches to install human and mammalian artificial chromosomes in target cells will compete with the microcell mediated cell transfer methods that currently dominate the field.

Off-Colony Screening of Biosynthetic Libraries by Rapid Laser-Enabled Mass Spectrometry

By leveraging advances in DNA synthesis and molecular cloning techniques, synthetic biology increasingly makes use of large construct libraries to explore large design spaces. For biosynthetic pathway engineering, the ability to screen these libraries for a variety of metabolites of interest is essential. If the metabolite of interest or the metabolic phenotype is not easily measurable, screening soon becomes a major bottleneck involving time-consuming culturing, sample preparation, and extraction. To address this, we demonstrate the use of automated laser-assisted rapid evaporative ionization mass spectrometry (LA-REIMS)-a form of ambient laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry-to perform rapid mass spectrometry analysis direct from agar plate yeast colonies without sample preparation or extraction. We use LA-REIMS to assess production levels of violacein and betulinic acid directly from yeast colonies at a rate of 6 colonies per minute. We then demonstrate the throughput enabled by LA-REIMS by screening over 450 yeast colonies within <4 h, while simultaneously generating recoverable glycerol stocks of each colony in real time. This showcases LA-REIMS as a prescreening tool to complement downstream quantification methods such as liquid chromatography-mass spectroscopy (LCMS). By prescreening several hundred colonies with LA-REIMS, we successfully isolate and verify a strain with a 2.5-fold improvement in betulinic acid production. Finally, we show that LA-REIMS can detect 20 out of a panel of 27 diverse biological molecules, demonstrating the broad applicability of LA-REIMS to metabolite detection. The rapid and automated nature of LA-REIMS makes this a valuable new technology to complement existing screening technologies currently employed in academic and industrial workflows.

Synthetic biology for evolutionary engineering: from perturbation of genotype to acquisition of desired phenotype

With the increased attention on bio-based industry, demands for techniques that enable fast and effective strain improvement have been dramatically increased. Evolutionary engineering, which is less dependent on biological information, has been applied to strain improvement. Currently, synthetic biology has made great innovations in evolutionary engineering, particularly in the development of synthetic tools for phenotypic perturbation. Furthermore, discovering biological parts with regulatory roles and devising novel genetic circuits have promoted high-throughput screening and selection. In this review, we first briefly explain basics of synthetic biology tools for mutagenesis and screening of improved variants, and then describe how these strategies have been improved and applied to phenotypic engineering. Evolutionary engineering using advanced synthetic biology tools will enable further innovation in phenotypic engineering through the development of novel genetic parts and assembly into well-designed logic circuits that perform complex tasks.

Constructing Yeast Chimeric Pathways To Boost Lipophilic Terpene Synthesis

Synthetic chimeric biological system offers opportunities to illuminate principles of designing life, and a primary step is constructing synthetic chimeric pathways. Here, we constructed yeast chimeric pathways by transferring the genes from  Saccharomyces cerevisiae pathways into another budding yeast Yarrowia lipolytica for in vivo assembly. We efficiently diversified gene option, combination, localization order, and copy number as expected. Convergence of two yeast pathways, especially mevalonic acid (MVA) pathways, remarkably enhanced synthesis of a lipophilic terpene, lycopene. In the selected champion strain with 50-fold of enhanced lycopene production, the chimeric MVA pathway gathered three S. cerevisiae genes with particular copies and locations. Amazingly, therein we discovered distinct transcriptional up-regulation of three significant pathways correlated with acetyl-CoA supply and tuning of cellular lipid amounts and composition. Modulating these pathways further improved lycopene production to 150-fold, a final 259 mg/L (approximately 80 mg/g DCW). We primarily showed the capacity of boosting the synthesis of lipophilic products with yeast chimeric pathways.