Conservation prioritization can resolve the flagship species conundrum

Identifying habitat modification by Chinese pangolin in subtropical forests of southern China

The excavation of Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) is expected to alter habitat heterogeneity and thus affect the functioning and structure of forest ecosystems. In this study, the bioturbation of Chinese pangolin on forest soils in three regions (Heping, Tianjingshan, and Wuqinzhang) across Guangdong province was quantified. Overall, a mean of 2.66 m3·ha-1 and 83.1 m2·ha-1 of burrows and bare mounds, respectively, was excavated by Chinese pangolin; the disturbed soils had significantly lower water content and P, C, available N concentrations, but higher bulk density, pH, and microbial abundance than those undisturbed soils. The unevenness of habitat heterogeneity improvement was mainly ascribed to the stronger soil disturbance caused in resting burrows by pangolins. Patterns of altering habitat heterogeneity were site-specific, with high-intensity soil disturbance occurring most in shrubs, meadows, steep habitats at high elevations, and mountain tops in Heping, while in broad-leaved, coniferous and mixed coniferous and broad-leaved forests away from human settlements in Tianjingshan and upper mountains at high elevations far away from roads and human settlements in Wuqinzhang. Road networks are the main interference for the burrow distribution in Heping and Wuqinzhang and should be programmed.

Spatial-temporal shifting patterns and in situ conservation of spotted seal (Phoca largha) populations in the Yellow Sea ecoregion

Understanding the habitat shifting pattern is a prerequisite for implementing in situ conservation of migratory species. Spotted seals (Phoca largha) inhabiting the Yellow Sea ecoregion (YSE) comprise a small population with independent genes and represent a charismatic flagship species in this region. However, this population has declined by 80% since the 1940s, and increased support from the countries around the YSE is urgently needed to address the potential local extinction risk. A time-series niche model and life-history weighted systematic conservation planning were designed on the basis of a satellite beacon tracking survey (2010-2020) of the YSE population. The results showed clustering and spreading shifting patterns during the breeding and migratory seasons, respectively. The closed-loop migration route formed in the YSE indicated that this population might be geographically isolated from populations in other breeding areas around the world. The conservation priority area (CPA), with an area of 19 632 km2 (3.58% of the total YSE area), was the most effective response to the potential in situ risk. However, nearly 80% of the CPA was exposed outside the existing marine protected areas (MPAs). Future establishment of MPAs in China should strategically consider the conservation gap identified herein, and it is recommended for Korea's closed fishing season to be spatially set in the western Korean Peninsula from May to August. This study also exemplified that the lack of temporal information would lead to the dislocation of niche modeling for migratory species represented by spotted seals. Attention should be paid to protecting small and migratory populations in marine biodiversity conservation planning.

Flagship events and biodiversity conservation

Flagship species are a highly effective approach in conservation. We propose the distinct but complementary concept of flagship events: natural or anthropogenic occurrences that attract public attention. Flagship events have high potential value for biodiversity conservation by engaging people with wildlife and helping to garner support for conservation efforts.

The effectiveness of using giant panda as a surrogate for protecting sympatric species

The use of umbrella species to promote biodiversity conservation is practiced worldwide. The giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) an iconic species for world wildlife conservation, that inhabits regions with significant biodiversity. Given that the functions at wildlife of different trophic levels and in different body size groups are different within the ecosystem, it is unknown whether those groups of wildlife co-occurring with giant pandas are each likewise protected. To examine the umbrella effect of giant pandas on sympatric species, we used an extensive dataset of wildlife from more than 78% of giant panda habitats. We analysed the changes in distribution for four wildlife categories (large carnivores, large herbivores, medium carnivores and medium herbivores) using a generalized linear mixed model, and the underlying driving factors using binomial logistic regression models. Changes in forests in giant panda habitats were evaluated using Fragstats. The results have shown that the counts of herbivores and medium carnivores increased significantly during the decade. However, those of large carnivores significantly declined. Forest cover and nature reserves showed significant and positive effects on wildlife in 2001 and 2011, while the human population had significant and negative impacts on the herbivores and carnivores. Our results have also suggested that there has been a slight alleviation in forest fragmentation in areas unaffected by earthquakes. We concluded that the umbrella strategy of using the giant panda as an umbrella species achieved partial success by promoting the recovery of herbivores and medium carnivores. Meanwhile, this has indicated that the strategy was not sufficient for large carnivores, and therefore not enough for local ecosystems, given the critical role of large carnivores. We have suggested integrating habitat patches, controlling human disturbance, and preparing for potential human-wildlife conflict management in the Giant Panda National Park to restore large carnivore populations and maintain ecosystem functioning.

Saving the overlooked mangrove horseshoe crabs-A perspective from enhancing mangrove ecosystem conservation

Despite being widely distributed in Asia, Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda is often overlooked and, its population status remains unclear. Moreover, it is threatened by illegal harvesting and degradation of mangrove ecosystems. Protecting its habitat is essential for population and biodiversity conservation, as mangroves provide nursery grounds and food supply for C. rotundicauda. This review discusses the biological characteristics of C. rotundicauda, including ecology, nutrition, life history, toxicology, and immunology. It also presents information about its distribution and population status. The review emphasizes the challenges faced by C. rotundicauda and proposes a conservation framework that involves the participation of local residents to facilitate conservation efforts. Collaboration between local residents and communities is proposed to protect and monitor the mangrove ecosystem. Additionally, this framework can support field research, protect C. rotundicauda juveniles and other species, and ensure the livelihood of local residents through participation in carbon trading markets and eco-industries such as eco-farming and eco-tourism.

Utilizing a top predator to prioritize site protection for biodiversity conservation

Ongoing global change makes it ever more urgent to find creative solutions for biodiversity preservation, but prioritizing sites for protection can be challenging. One shortcut lies in mapping the habitat requirements of well-established biodiversity indicators, such as top predators, to identify high-biodiversity sites. Here, we planned site protection for biodiversity conservation by developing a multi-scale species distribution model (SDM) for the raptorial Northern Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis; goshawk) breeding in an extensive megacity region of Japan. Specifically, we: (1) examined the determinants of top predator occurrence and thus of high-biodiversity value in this megacity setting, (2) identified the biodiversity hotspots, (3) validated whether they actually held higher biodiversity through an independent dataset, and (4) evaluated their current protection by environmental laws. The SDM revealed that goshawks preferred secluded sites far from roads, with abundant forest within a 100 m radius and extensive forest ecotones suitable for hunting within a 900 m radius. This multi-scale landscape configuration was independently confirmed to hold higher biodiversity, yet covered only 3.2% of the study area, with only 44.0% of these sites legally protected. Thus, a rapid biodiversity assessment mediated by a top predator quickly highlighted: (1) the poor development of biodiversity-friendly urban planning in this megacity complex, an aspect overlooked for decades of rapid urban sprawl, and (2) the extreme urgency of extending legal protection to the sites missed by the current protected area network. Exigent biodiversity indicators, such as top predators, could be employed in the early or late stages of anthropogenic impacts in order to proactively incorporate biodiversity protection into planning or flag key biodiversity relics. Our results confirm and validate the applied reliability of top predatory species as biodiversity conservation tools.

Mapping suitable habitats for globally endangered raptors in Kenya: Integrating climate factors and conservation planning

Raptors face global threats like electrocution, collisions, and habitat fragmentation. Many species remain understudied, and their distribution patterns are unknown. Understanding their current and future distribution is crucial for conservation. Protecting these top predators requires knowledge of their spatial distribution and environmental influences. This study addresses knowledge gaps in raptor habitats and distributions in Kenya, considering current and future climate changes. Using species distribution models and occurrence data from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility, we evaluated suitable habitats for four endangered Kenyan raptor species: Martial eagle, Secretarybird, Bateleur, and Steppe Eagle. We assessed the impact of climatic predictors on their distribution, considering two climate change scenarios for 2020-2040. Our findings reveal that raptor distribution in Kenya is predominantly concentrated in the southwestern region, extending into the central region of the country. The most significant predictors of raptor species distribution varied for each species, with Steppe eagle and Secretarybird being highly influenced by precipitation during the warmest quarter, Martial eagle being influenced by mean temperature during the driest quarter, and Bateleur being primarily influenced by precipitation during the coldest quarter. When projecting our model into the climate change scenarios for 2020-2040, all species except the Bateleur exhibited a negative range shift. The results of our study suggest that climate change may have adverse impacts on the raptor species examined. In light of these findings, we recommend implementing targeted monitoring and conducting surveys in accordance with our current model predictions. Specifically, our focus should be on monitoring areas that exhibit the highest climate suitability, as these areas are likely to undergo significant shifts in the near future. By conducting regular monitoring and engaging in further research, we can enhance our understanding of these raptor species and gather valuable data to improve the accuracy and reliability of our model predictions.

Giant panda-focused conservation has limited value in maintaining biodiversity and carbon sequestration

Biodiversity and climate are interconnected through carbon. Drivers of climate change and biodiversity loss interact in complex ways to produce outcomes that may be synergistic, and biodiversity loss and climate change reinforce each other. Prioritizing the conservation of flagship and umbrella species is often used as a surrogate strategy for broader conservation goals, but it is unclear whether these efforts truly benefit biodiversity and carbon stocks. Conservation of the giant panda offers a paradigm to test these assumptions. Here, using the benchmark estimates of ecosystem carbon stocks and species richness, we investigated the relationships among the giant panda, biodiversity, and carbon stocks and assessed the implications of giant panda conservation for biodiversity and carbon-focused conservation efforts. We found that giant panda density and species richness were significantly positively correlated, while no correlation was found between giant panda density and soil carbon or total carbon density. The established nature reserves protect 26 % of the giant panda conservation region, but these areas contain <21 % of the ranges of other species and <21 % of total carbon stocks. More seriously, giant panda habitats are still facing high risks of habitat fragmentation. Habitat fragmentation is negatively correlated with giant panda density, species richness, and total carbon density. The ongoing giant panda habitat fragmentation is likely to cause an additional 12.24 Tg C of carbon emissions over 30 years. Thus, giant panda-focused conservation efforts have effectively prevented giant panda extinction but have been less effective in maintaining biodiversity and high‑carbon ecosystems. It is urgent for China to contribute to the development of an effective and representative national park system that integrates climate change issues into national biodiversity strategies and vice versa in dealing with the dual environmental challenges of biodiversity loss and climate change under a post-2020 framework.

Free word association analysis of German laypeople's perception of biodiversity and its loss

Due to the dramatic biodiversity crisis, it is crucial to understand how people perceive biodiversity. Knowledge of how thoughts are organized around this concept can identify which ideas are best to focus on biodiversity conservation information campaigns. The primary aim of the present study was to identify social representations of the German public regarding the concept of biodiversity and its loss using a free word association test. Furthermore, unique association networks were analyzed. For this purpose, data collection was performed in September 2021 in Germany using an online questionnaire to assess participants' associations with the prompt "biodiversity" (n  = 131) and "biodiversity loss" (n  = 130). Additionally, we used the social network software Gephi to create biodiversity (loss) association networks. The five most commonly mentioned associations for biodiversity were "animal," "plant," "nature," "human," and "flower." For biodiversity loss, the five most commonly mentioned associations were "species extinction," "climate change," "plant," "insect," and "bee." Neither "land use change" nor "invasive species," as key drivers of biodiversity loss, were present in social representations of the German public. A difference was observed in the total number of mentioned associations between biodiversity and biodiversity loss. For both, the associations "plant" and "animal" were related. However, participants associated specific taxa only with animals, such as "insects" and "birds." For plants, no specific taxa were named. Based on the network analysis, the most commonly mentioned word pairs for biodiversity and biodiversity loss were "plant - animal" and "species loss - climate change," respectively. Based on our statistical network analysis, these associations were identified as the most central associations with the greatest influence in the network. Thus, they had the most connections and the function of predicting the flow in the network. In sum, the public's multifaceted views on biodiversity and its loss, as well as the aforementioned central associations, hold great potential to be utilized more for the communication and education of biodiversity conservation. In addition, our findings contribute to the scientific community's understanding of social representations and perceptions of biodiversity and its loss.

Prioritizing species conservation programs based on IUCN Green Status and estimates of cost-sharing potential

Over 1 million species around the world are at risk of extinction, and conservation organizations have to decide where to invest their limited resources. Cost-effectiveness can be increased by leveraging funding opportunities and increasing collaborative partnerships to achieve shared conservation goals. We devised a structured decision-making framework to prioritize species' conservation programs based on a cost-benefit analysis that takes collaborative opportunities into account in an examination of national and global conservation return on investment. Conservation benefit is determined by modifying the novel International Union for the Conservation of Nature Green Status for Species to provide an efficient, high-level measure that is comparable among species, even with limited information and time constraints. We applied this prioritization approach to the Wilder Institute/Calgary Zoo, Canada, a nonprofit organization seeking to increase the number of species it assists with conservation translocations. We sought to identify and prioritize additional species' programs for which conservation translocation expertise and actions could make the most impact. Estimating the likelihood of cost-sharing potential enabled total program cost to be distinguished from costs specific to the organization. Comparing a benefit-to-cost ratio on different geographic scales allowed decision makers to weigh alternative options for investing in new species' programs in a transparent and effective manner. Our innovative analysis aligns with general conservation planning frameworks and can be adapted for any organization.

Selection of Flagship Species and Their Use as Umbrellas in Bird Conservation: A Case Study in Lishui, Zhejiang Province, China

The concept of flagship species is widely used in conservation biology. Flagship birds play a key role in raising conservation funds, increasing awareness of biodiversity conservation, and maintaining ecosystem services. This study selected flagship bird species in Lishui, Zhejiang Province, China, and assessed their conservation effectiveness and ability to serve as umbrella species. A regional bird survey program from 2019-2022 recorded 361 bird species in Lishui. This study constructed a framework of flagship species selection based on social, ecological, economic, and cultural criteria. The analytic hierarchy process-entropy weight method (AHP-EM) was used to rank the score of 361 bird species, and the MaxEnt model was used to analyze the suitable distribution areas of these species. Finally, 10 species, which covered the distribution sites of all 361 bird species, were selected as the flagship species of Lishui. The distribution areas covered all the nature reserves and the priority areas of biodiversity of Lishui, in which these 10 species can also serve as umbrella species to protect local biodiversity. The methodology and ideas in this study could provide insights into the application of conservation concepts at the local level, as well as suggest possible recommendations for local governments to select flagship species for conservation.

WASP: the World Archives of Species Perception

While human perception can play a role in influencing public support for species conservation, the mechanisms underlying human perception remain poorly understood. Some previous studies on perception have focused on a few specific taxa, which makes the understanding of the public perception of species at large a resource- and time-intensive task. Here, we introduce the World Archives of Species Perception project that consists of an animal survey and a plant survey to construct the first systematic database to study the human perception of the floral and faunal diversity at a global scale. We provide a description of our survey method, species selection, survey implementation and a discussion of the potential uses of our databases in multidisciplinary research. In the animal survey, we cover 1980 International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)-evaluated species, representing 25 classes, 192 orders, 1037 families and 1705 genera. In the plant survey, we cover 2000 IUCN-evaluated species, representing 13 classes, 93 orders, 386 families and 1968 genera. Data from the survey will be collected and made available 24 months after the publication of the article. Database URL http://wasp-project.net/.

Surprising leopard restoration in fragmented ecosystems reveals connections as the secret to conservation success

The Chinese Loess Plateau has been the cradle of Chinese civilization and the main human settlement in China for thousands of years, where anthropogenic activities are believed to have deeply eroded natural landscapes. After decades of minimal leopard sighting in forests of northern China, due to serious human interference, we recently discovered that the leopard population is recovering. This finding provides hope for successful biodiversity conservation in human-dominated ecosystems. To understand the mechanism of leopard return into such a highly fragmented landscape, we applied the concept of ecological networks (ENs) to identify key factors promoting leopard restoration and quantify the ecological links among habitats. We first determined the existence of a healthy leopard population in the study area based on the size of its home range and presence of breeding individuals. We then innovatively used the relationship between species richness and top predators to generate ENs, and found that the connectivity of ENs had a significant positive interaction with leopard survival. Our study validates the effectiveness of establishing ecologically connected habitats for leopard protection, and highlights the importance of applying ENs for conservation planning in highly fragmented ecosystems. This study provides a successful case for the protection of top predators in human-dominated landscapes.

Predator-mediated diversity of stream fish assemblages in a boreal river basin, China

Predator-prey interactions are critical for understanding species composition and community assembly; however, there is still limited research on whether and how the prey species composition or community assembly in natural communities are mediated by predators. To address this question, we performed a field investigation to examine the influence of the presence of Lutra lutra on the diversity of fish communities of the Hunchun River Basin, Jilin Province, China. Our results indicate that L. lutra, as a potential umbrella species and generalist predator in the stream ecosystem, promotes the coexistence of a vast variety of fish taxa, which emphasizes the importance of top-down control in the ecological community. We suggest that L. lutra regulates the fish community assembly likely through the stochastic process. Although this was a pilot study regarding predator-prey interactions, the results highlight the effects of predators on the prey community assembly, and emphasize the role of predators on the maintenance of biodiversity and ecosystem function. Future conservation decisions involving ecosystem biodiversity should require the inclusion of predation intensity. The inclusion of scientific research and protection of umbrella species would thus constitute an additional and important step in biodiversity conservation.

Assessing factors influencing students' perceptions towards animal species conservation

Background

The way humans perceive and interact with non-human animals is particular to each person, from antipathetic interactions evidenced by fear, aversion or repulsion, to empathy evidenced by feelings of affection, enchantment and interest in the animal. In this sense, herein we investigated the perception of university students about species belonging to different classes of wild vertebrates and the influence of social and educational factors on that.

Methods

Data were obtained through online forms answered by 700 university students from nine Brazilian states, 328 females and 372 males, aged between 18 and 65 years. The form had eight sentences to be answered in relation to 17 species of wild vertebrates. The agreement level for each of these sentences was to be indicated using a five-point Likert scale. The sentences were designed to assess aesthetic, risk, utilitarian, and preservation perceptions attributed to each species by students.

Results

We found that species perceived as useful by the students are generally also perceived as beautiful and as those that should be preserved. On the other hand, we found similarity between the species perceived as ugly and those that should not be preserved; and between the species perceived as harmful and those considered dangerous. Female and lower-income students more often agree that animals are harmful. We found that perceptions of danger in relation to animals were predominantly associated with younger respondents. However, this did not lead to less support for conservation among these students, as students of all age groups agree that species should be preserved. Our results show that students' knowledge area was an important predictor associated with empathetic and antipathetic perceptions. Environmental area students showed greater empathy in all analyzed categories (beauty, usefulness, harmlessness, and preservation) than non-environmental areas students. On the other hand, students from the area of the exact sciences showed greater dislike in all analyzed categories than students from other areas. We found a strong relationship between the areas "Environmental" and "Humanities, Languages and Arts" for the attitudinal factors associated with utility and preservation, suggesting a similar empathetic worldview for students in these areas.

Conclusions

We found that the perception directed towards wild vertebrates varies according to the gender, age, income and study area of the students, in addition to the taxon considered. Finally, our results indicate that negative perceptions should be taken into account in environmental education efforts, educational policies and in planning fauna conservation plans which should incorporate the most diverse audiences, and not only encompass charismatic species but extend to animals that arouse great aversion from the part of people.

Spatial efficiency of protected mangrove areas in Madagascar

Protected Areas (PAs) are an important nature-based solution for mangrove conservation and rehabilitation. We evaluated spatial effectiveness of PAs for mangroves toward achieving Global Conservation Targets (GCTs). The hypothesis for this study was that PAs with different attributes have insignificant effects on mangrove conservation. We assessed the proportions of the most vulnerable mangroves inside PAs, and focused on a typical mangrove country (Madagascar). First, based on remote sensing technology and big data in Google Earth Engine (GEE), we identified the exposure location of mangroves, and determined the environmental factors significantly influencing mangrove distribution. Then, Vulnerability Assessment and Hot-Spot Analysis models were used to measure spatial vulnerability and hotspots of those values, respectively. Finally, we implemented the statistics for the most vulnerable mangroves inside PAs. It was found that: i. Mangroves were mainly abundant in west and east coasts with low latitudes, and the most typical environmental factor influencing mangrove distribution was elevation and; ii. PAs sheltered 486.18 km² (22.16%) of the most vulnerable mangroves in Madagascar. Overall, PAs in Madagascar failed to match 30% of spatial requirements proposed by GCTs (A key proportion of spatial requirements used to reverse trends in biodiversity loss). This study provides a quantitative paradigm for verifying the spatial efficiency of PAs, and will inform local decision-makers on places where mangroves are facing adaption loss to optimize mangrove conservation in future.

Distribution of Breeding Population and Predicting Future Habitat under Climate Change of Black-Necked Crane (Grus nigricollis Przevalski, 1876) in Shaluli Mountains

Climate change is affecting biodiversity by altering the geographical distribution range of species, and this effect is amplified in climate-sensitive areas. Studying the geographic distribution of flagship species in response to climate change is important for the long-term conservation of species and the maintenance of regional biodiversity. Therefore, we collected field survey records from 2016 to 2020 and conducted field surveys of black-necked cranes in the Shaluli Mountains (SLLMs) in May–June and August–October 2021; 103 breeding records were acquired totally, and the geographical distribution range under the current and four future climate scenarios was modeled with the MaxEnt model to predict the impact of climate change on its distribution and habitat quality. The results showed that 152 black-necked cranes were surveyed in seven counties of SLLMs in total; the estimated number of black-necked cranes in the entire SLLMs was about 200. The currently suitable habitat area is 27,122 km2, mainly distributed in gentle meadows and wetland habitats along the lake where the Annual Mean Temperature is −1 °C and the Mean Diurnal Range (16 °C) and Precipitation Seasonality (105) are comparatively large. Furthermore, the breeding range would expand to varying degrees under future climate scenarios and showed a migration trend toward the northwest and higher elevation. Besides, as time goes by, the habitat for black-necked cranes in SLLMs would become more homogeneous and more suitable. The conservation effectiveness of the existing reserve network would keep stable with climate change, although there are large conservation gaps between protected areas, and these gaps will gradually expand over time. Overall, this study provides a preliminary understanding of the population and distribution and predicts the future distribution of black-necked cranes in the SLLMs. It also demonstrates the importance of SLLMs for protecting the central population of black-necked cranes and maintaining regional biodiversity. Therefore, we recommend long-term monitoring and conservation of the black-necked crane population and wetland resources in the region.

Species richness, relative abundance and occupancy of ground-dwelling mammals denote the ineffectiveness of chimpanzee as flagship species

In conservation biology, flagship species are defined as species that can raise support for biodiversity conservation in a given place or social context. In the newly established Gishwati–Mukura National Park in Rwanda, the Eastern chimpanzee was considered such an ambassador. To test whether the flagship species concept was effective in the park, we studied species richness, relative abundance, and species distribution (occupancy) of medium- to large-sized, ground-dwelling mammals using camera trapping technology. The impact of three environmental and three anthropogenic variables on species distribution was investigated and the ecological diversity of the fauna in the national park assessed. Over a period of 9 months, two 4 × 4 camera trapping grids were deployed in Gishwati and Mukura Forest. Sampling effort in each forest equated to 32 and 29 camera trapping locations, yielding 258 and 242 independent photographic events of eight and six species, respectively. In both forests, the Emin's giant poached rat was the most frequently encountered species, while all other species showed high relative abundance only in Gishwati Forest. The relative abundance of the endangered Eastern chimpanzee in Gishwati Forest was 0.54, the estimated occupancy was 0.31. Single-species, single-season occupancy models revealed that forest cover, altitude and distance to forest edge influenced the detectability of L'Hoest's monkey and squirrel species, while no effect was found on their occupancy. Notably, no larger herbivore or carnivore species were observed in the park, while the flagship species, i.e., the Eastern chimpanzee, was relatively abundant. Moreover, in both forests, all detected carnivores were small- to medium-sized, suggesting a meso-predator release phenomenon, i.e., populations of medium-sized predators increased after the removal of larger, top carnivores, due to relaxed competition. It appears that the prioritization of the flagship species resulted in the neglect of other mammalian species, leading eventually into the demise of entire functional guilds. Based on these results, the Gishwati–Mukura NP was categorized as a ‘depleted forest’. We, therefore, strongly object chimpanzees as a suitable flagship species—at least in the Gishwati–Mukura NP—and recommend collating more knowledge on the release of meso-predators and the loss of forest ungulates to improve their future conservation in Afro-montane forest habitats.

An overview of reviews of conservation flagships: evaluating fundraising ability and surrogate power

The main role of flagship species in biodiversity conservation is to raise awareness and funds for conservation. Because of their marketing role, flagship species are often selected based on other than biodiversity related criteria, such as species charisma or aesthetic appeal. Nonetheless, funds raised through flagship species are often used to protect the species itself, making it important to evaluate the effectiveness of flagship species as conservation tools: For example, could superior fundraising ability outweigh the low biodiversity surrogate power of a flagship, justifying this ambivalent role in conservation? To assess flagship effectiveness from this dual perspective, we must synthesize evidence on a) the fundraising potential of flagship species vs. other conservation targets, such as ecosystems or biodiversity, and b) the biodiversity surrogate power of potential flagship taxa. We approached this broad topic through an overview of reviews on both subtopics. We found no evidence that charismatic flagship species were superior fundraisers over other conservation targets. In addition, studies evaluating the biodiversity surrogacy power of different taxa had mainly resulted in mixed findings, contesting the overall usefulness of the concept in conservation. The variability of study setups and methods made comparisons between studies difficult, highlighting the need to standardize future research (e.g., standardizing explanatory variables). Further possible reasons for lack of conclusive evidence on fundraising potential are the dominance of factors other than flagship identity (e.g., scope and conservation status) and differences in donor preferences. We recommend Environmental NGOs to develop and diversify their fundraising strategies based on best available knowledge, and rely less on mere species charisma.

Identifying engaging bird species and traits with community science observations

Identifying rates at which birders engage with different species can inform the impact and efficacy of conservation outreach and the scientific use of community-collected biodiversity data. Species that are thought to be “charismatic” are often prioritized in conservation, and previous researchers have used sociological experiments and digital records to estimate charisma indirectly. In this study, we take advantage of community science efforts as another record of human engagement with animals that can reveal observer biases directly, which are in part driven by observer preference. We apply a multistage analysis to ask whether opportunistic birders contributing to iNaturalist engage more with larger, more colorful, and rarer birds relative to a baseline approximated from eBird contributors. We find that body mass, color contrast, and range size all predict overrepresentation in the opportunistic dataset. We also find evidence that, across 472 modeled species, 52 species are significantly overreported and 158 are significantly underreported, indicating a wide variety of species-specific effects. Understanding which birds are highly engaging can aid conservationists in creating impactful outreach materials and engaging new naturalists. The quantified differences between two prominent community science efforts may also be of use for researchers leveraging the data from one or both of them to answer scientific questions of interest.

How methodological changes have influenced our understanding of population structure in threatened species: insights from tiger populations across India

Unprecedented advances in sequencing technology in the past decade allow a better understanding of genetic variation and its partitioning in natural populations. Such inference is critical to conservation: to understand species biology and identify isolated populations. We review empirical population genetics studies of Endangered Bengal tigers within India, where 60–70% of wild tigers live. We assess how changes in marker type and sampling strategy have impacted inferences by reviewing past studies, and presenting three novel analyses including a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) panel, genome-wide SNP markers, and a whole-mitochondrial genome network. At a broad spatial scale, less than 100 SNPs revealed the same patterns of population clustering as whole genomes (with the exception of one additional population sampled only in the SNP panel). Mitochondrial DNA indicates a strong structure between the northeast and other regions. Two studies with more populations sampled revealed further substructure within Central India. Overall, the comparison of studies with varied marker types and sample sets allows more rigorous inference of population structure. Yet sampling of some populations is limited across all studies, and these should be the focus of future sampling efforts. We discuss challenges in our understanding of population structure, and how to further address relevant questions in conservation genetics.

This article is part of the theme issue ‘Celebrating 50 years since Lewontin's apportionment of human diversity’.

Conservation Education Impacts of Animal Ambassadors in Zoos

To mitigate the effects of anthropogenic environmental impacts, conservation education (CE) aims to increase public awareness of biodiversity and encourage the uptake of pro-environmental behaviours (PEB). One way of achieving this goal is the use of controlled animal interactions with animal ambassadors to promote CE goals. This study aimed to determine how differing experiences with ambassador Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti) affected visitors’ knowledge of conservation actions (CA) and their likelihood to perform PEBs in a UK zoo. A quasi-experimental repeated measures questionnaire was used to investigate this aim. Visit types were categorised as (a) ‘penguin parade’, (b) ‘animal encounter’, (c) ‘exhibit viewing’ and (d) a ‘control’ groups. A Kruskal–Wallis test was used to determine if responses to rating scale items related to PEBs differed according to experience. No significant (p > 0.05) differences were detectable between groups. Qualitative data provided in open ended questions relating to CAs were coded into themes and the percentage of responses were calculated for each theme. Whilst the ‘exhibit viewing’ group mentioned sustainable fish significantly more (p = 0.017) than the ‘control’ group, no significant difference was found for any other pair-wise comparison (p > 0.05 in all cases). Overall, this study highlights that zoo visitors gained specific conservation-based knowledge and had higher behavioural intentions towards PEBs than they previously had. However, no evidence was found to suggest that animal encounters improved CE outcomes. To ensure best practice is followed and CE outcomes are considered equally alongside ambassador animal welfare concerns, further research is recommended.

Optimizing conservation in species-specific agricultural landscapes

Recovery of grassland birds in agricultural landscapes is a global imperative. Agricultural landscapes are complex, and the value of resource patches may vary substantially among species. The spatial extent at which landscape features affect populations (i.e., scale of effect) may also differ among species. There is a need for regional-scale conservation planning that considers landscape-scale and species-specific responses of grassland birds to environmental change. We developed a spatially explicit approach to optimizing grassland conservation in the context of species-specific landscapes and prioritization of species recovery and applied it to a conservation program in Kentucky (USA). We used a hierarchical distance-sampling model with an embedded scale of effect predictor to estimate the relationship between landscape structure and abundance of eastern meadowlarks (Sturnella magna), field sparrows (Spizella pusilla), and northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus). We used a novel spatially explicit optimization procedure rooted in multi-attribute utility theory to design alternative conservation strategies (e.g., prioritize only northern bobwhite recovery or assign equal weight to each species' recovery). Eastern meadowlarks and field sparrows were more likely to respond to landscape-scale resource patch adjacencies than landscape-scale patch densities. Northern bobwhite responded to both landscape-scale resource patch adjacencies and densities and responded strongly to increased grassland density. Effects of landscape features on local abundance decreased as distance increased and had negligible influence at 0.8 km for eastern meadowlarks (0.7-1.2 km 95% Bayesian credibility intervals [BCI]), 2.5 km for field sparrows (1.5-5.8 km 95% BCI), and 8.4 km for bobwhite (6.4-26 km 95% BCI). Northern bobwhites were predicted to benefit greatly from future grassland conservation regardless of conservation priorities, but eastern meadowlark and field sparrow were not. Our results suggest similar species can respond differently to broad-scale conservation practices because of species-specific, distance-dependent relationships with landscape structure. Our framework is quantitative, conceptually simple, customizable, and predictive and can be used to optimize conservation in heterogeneous ecosystems while considering landscape-scale processes and explicit prioritization of species recovery.

Identifying the characteristics of conservation areas that appeal to potential flagship campaign donors

The conservation flagship approach is a valuable tool for raising funds and awareness, but species-based campaigns have been criticized for providing little benefit to wider biodiversity. One possible solution is to use conservation areas as flagships, but we lack data on the types of area that most appeal to potential donors. Here, we used an online choice experiment involving hypothetical overseas conservation areas to investigate how respondents value a series of conservation area attributes. We calculated the average willingness to pay for each attribute and assessed preference heterogeneity. Our results suggest that community ownership is valued the most, followed by the presence of threatened bird species, low current funding in the conservation area, the presence of charismatic mammals, and charity ownership. Respondents could be divided into three groups, based on their education, environmental organization membership and income. The group of respondents who were less wealthy and were members of environmental organizations were not willing to pay for this kind of conservation action, suggesting that flagship area campaigns targeted at them should encourage other types of involvement. The other two groups, which included respondents who were less engaged in conservation (neither group included environmental organization members, with one group less wealthy and less educated, and the other wealthier), found community ownership particularly appealing, suggesting that many potential donors may be driven by social concerns. This is a key finding and suggests flagship conservation areas could attract a new audience of donors, helping to support current global efforts to increase the management effectiveness, connectivity and extent of protected areas and land under other effective area-based conservation measures.

Evaluating conservation status and governmental efforts towards regional flagship species in Brazil

Several strategies have been adopted to optimize biodiversity conservation. The use of fauna and flora species as flagships can help increase public commitment and raise funds for their conservation. However, species choices must be well balanced, considering not only intrinsic aspects (e.g., risk of extinction and ecological role), but also social, cultural, and economic aspects of the region where the flagship will be adopted. Brazil is one of the countries with the greatest diversity on the planet. Nevertheless, there are several challenges associated with natural resources conservation. Flagships have been adopted informally for decades throughout the country but there are no efforts to evaluate these strategies results for the preservation of the selected species. The aim of this study was to carry out an extensive survey on regional flagship species, their conservation status, level of endemism, and domestic legislation currently in force for their protection or human use. A total of 62 flagships were identified, with at least one species of flora and one of fauna for each of the 27 Brazilian Federative Units. The animals most commonly used as regional symbols are birds, followed by mammals. Flora species used as regional symbols are quite diverse. However, they are all somehow used by humans. As for legal protection, there are government measures for endangered species. Nevertheless, most species used as regional symbols are not at risk of extinction and, for this reason, do not receive any legal protection. Moreover, while some flagships are endemic, others are alien species, indicating that this criterion is not considered when choosing regional symbols. In the overall analysis it was noted that species choice could be optimized to highlight the national biodiversity. Despite efforts to establish legal measures for their preservation, few effective results have been observed. Therefore, improved effective measures for their conservation should be adopted to guarantee the effectiveness of flagship species for biodiversity conservation.

Ten bridges on the road to recovering Canada’s endangered species

Wildlife is declining around the world. Many developed nations have enacted legislation on endangered species protection and provide funding for wildlife recovery. Protecting endangered species is also supported by the public and judiciary. Yet, despite what appear as enabling conditions, wild species continue to decline. Our paper explores pathways to endangered species recovery by analyzing the barriers that have been identified in Canada, the United States, and Australia. We summarize these findings based on Canada’s Species at Risk Conservation Cycle (assessment, protection, recovery planning, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation) and then identify 10 “bridges” that could help overcome these barriers and bend our current trajectory of wildlife loss to recovery. These bridges include ecosystem approaches to recovery, building capacity for community co-governance, linking wildlife recovery to ecosystem services, and improving our storytelling about the loss and recovery of wildlife. The focus of our conclusions is the Canadian setting, but our findings can be applied in other national and subnational settings to reverse the decline of wildlife and halt extinction.

Mission possible: Holistic approaches can heal marine wounds

Ocean sciences comprise a vast array of disciplines ranging from physics to socio-economics. The various approaches compete with each other for visibility, rather than cooperate and join forces. Communication beyond the science journals tends to focus on charismatic species and habitats (the ohhh tactics, aimed at provoking wonder) that does not result in the full perception (the ahhh strategy) of the role of ocean sciences for our well-being. Furthermore, natural sciences fail to establish the logical primacy of natural laws over social and economic laws, even though society and the economy cannot exist without the rest of the environment. Sustainability is universally recognized as a stringent priority, but it gives prevalence to economic and social values, relegating natural phenomena to a secondary role: natural assets are evaluated with measures of economics (in monetary terms) giving primacy to economic laws over ecological laws. The solution to these problems resides in the cultural evolution of that part of the scientific community that recognizes the necessity of evolving from reductionistic tactics to a holistic strategy, with a timely integration of ocean sciences and technologies and of their collaboration with social and economic sciences.

A GIS-based policy support tool to determine national responsibilities and priorities for biodiversity conservation

Efficient biodiversity conservation requires that limited resources be allocated in accordance with national responsibilities and priorities. Without appropriate computational tools, the process of determining these national responsibilities and conservation priorities is time intensive when considering many species across geographic scales. Here, we have developed a computational tool as a module for the ArcGIS geographic information system. The ArcGIS National Responsibility Assessment Tool (NRA-Tool) can be used to create hierarchical lists of national responsibilities and priorities for global species conservation. Our tool will allow conservationists to prioritize conservation efforts and to focus limited resources on relevant species and regions. We showcase our tool with data on 258 bird species and various biophysical regions, including Environmental Zones in 58 Asian countries and regions. Our tool provides a decision support system for conservation policy with attractive and easily interpretable visual outputs illustrating national responsibilities and priorities for species conservation. The graphical output allows for smooth integration into assessment reports, such as the European Article 17 report, the Living Planet Index report, or similar regional and global reports.

Selecting flagship species to solve a biodiversity conservation conundrum

The difficulty of effectively monitoring and managing the environment to conserve biodiversity is as yet an unsolved conundrum. A project of the Chinese Academy of Sciences has concluded that progress can be made through the use of flagship species selected using criteria drawn from conservation biology, ecosystem function, socio-economics, and cultural importance. Inclusion of the latter three criteria will help attract and maintain the commitment of the public to play full parts in carrying out any conservation measures needed. A system is proposed for scoring species to select those that are most suitable as flagships. This method can be used regardless of the size of the area chosen for attention, whether it is a region, a country, or a particular protected area.

Zoo animals as "proxy species" for threatened sister taxa: Defining a novel form of species surrogacy

The vast number of species threatened with extinction, coupled with the limited resources to support them, results in the need to prioritize species for conservation action. Similarly, zoo collection managers must prioritize species for inclusion at their institutions, which are also limited by space and resources. While conservation status is one factor considered by zoos, weight is also given to qualitative features and practical considerations when evaluating the fit of different species. Resultantly, the species prioritized by zoos have limited overlap with those prioritized for conservation. Several recent studies have highlighted that the majority of species maintained in zoos are ranked globally as least concern. Given the centrality of conservation to the modern mission of zoos, there is value in identifying clear connections between non-threatened species in zoos and the roles they can play in conservation. Surrogate species approaches have been used in many instances to facilitate indirect conservation, and several distinctive types of surrogacy have been formally described. The aim of this study is to define a novel form of species surrogacy (i.e., "proxy species") that draws utility from non-threatened species maintained in zoos. A proxy species is here defined as a non-threatened species managed ex situ that can be used as a flagship for a related threatened species that is morphologically similar but not otherwise represented in zoos. The benefits of this approach and opportunities for its application are here reviewed. This concept will provide opportunities to enhance the value of pre-existing zoo collections, and ultimately, support conservation objectives.

Spatial and Ecological Farmer Knowledge and Decision-Making about Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity

Amid climate change, biodiversity loss and food insecurity, there is the growing need to draw synergies between micro-scale environmental processes and practices, and macro-level ecosystem dynamics to facilitate conservation decision-making. Adopting this synergistic approach can improve crop yields and profitability more sustainably, enhance livelihoods and mitigate climate change. Using spatially explicit data generated through a public participatory geographic information system methodology (n = 37), complemented by spatial analysis, interviews (n = 68) and focus group discussions (n = 4), we explored the synergies between participatory farmer-to-farmer agroecology knowledge sharing, farm-level decisions and their links with macro-level prioritization of conservation strategies. We mapped farm conditions and ecosystem services (ES) of two village areas with varying knowledge systems about farming. Results of the farm-level analysis revealed variations in spatial perception among farmers, differences in understanding the dynamics of crop growth and varying priorities for extension services based on agroecological knowledge. The ES use pattern analysis revealed hotspots in the mapped ES indicators with similarities in both village areas. Despite the similarities in ES use, priorities for biodiversity conservation align with farmers’ understanding of farm processes and practices. Farmers with training in agroecology prioritized strategies that are ecologically friendly while farmers with no agroecology training prioritized the use of strict regulations. Importantly, the results show that agroecology can potentially contribute to biodiversity conservation and food security, with climate change mitigation co-benefits. The findings generally contribute to debates on land sparing and land sharing conservation strategies and advance social learning theory as it pertains to acquiring agroecological knowledge for improved yield and a sustainable environment.