Improved betulinic acid biosynthesis using synthetic yeast chromosome recombination and semi-automated rapid LC-MS screening

Synthetic biology for the food industry: advances and challenges

As global environmental pollution increases, climate change worsens, and population growth continues, the challenges of securing a safe, nutritious, and sustainable food supply have become enormous. This has led to new requirements for future food supply methods and functions. The use of synthetic biology technology to create cell factories suitable for food industry production and renewable raw material conversion into: important food components, functional food additives, and nutritional chemicals, represents an important method of solving the problems faced by the food industry. Here, we review the recent progress and applications of synthetic biology in the food industry, including alternatives to: traditional (artificial pigments, meat, starch, and milk), functional (sweeteners, sugar substitutes, nutrients, flavoring agents), and green (green fiber, degradable packing materials, green packaging materials and food traceability) foods. Furthermore, we discuss the future prospects of synthetic biology-based applications in the food industry. Thus, this review may serve as a reference for research on synthetic biology in the: food safety, food nutrition, public health, and health-related fields.

Combinatorial Metabolic Engineering for Improving Betulinic Acid Biosynthesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Betulinic acid (BA) is a lupane-type triterpenoid with potent anticancer and anti-HIV activities. Its great potential in clinical applications necessitates the development of an efficient strategy for BA synthesis. This study attempted to achieve efficient BA biosynthesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae using systematic metabolic engineering strategies. First, a de novo BA biosynthesis pathway in S. cerevisiae was constructed, which yielded a titer of 14.01 ± 0.21 mg/L. Then, by enhancing the BA synthesis pathway and dynamic inhibition of the competitive pathway, a greater proportion of the metabolic flow was directed toward BA synthesis, achieving a titer of 88.07 ± 5.83 mg/L. Next, acetyl-CoA and NADPH supply was enhanced, which increased the BA titer to 166.43 ± 1.83 mg/L. Finally, another BA synthesis pathway in the peroxisome was constructed. Dual regulation of the peroxisome and cytoplasmic metabolism increased the BA titer to 210.88 ± 4.76 mg/L. Following fed-batch fermentation process modification, the BA titer reached 682.29 ± 8.16 mg/L. Overall, this work offers a guide for building microbial cell factories that are capable of producing terpenoids with efficiency.

Synthetic Genomics: Repurposing Biological Systems for Applications in Engineering Biology

Substantial improvements in DNA sequencing and synthesis technologies and increased understanding of genome biology have empowered the development of synthetic genomics. The ability to design and construct engineered living cells boosted up by synthetic chromosomes provides opportunities to tackle enormous current and future challenges faced by humanity and the planet. Here we review the progresses, considerations, challenges, and future direction of the "design-build-test-learn" cycle used in synthetic genomics. We also discuss future applications enabled by synthetic genomics as this emerging field shapes and revolutionizes biomanufacturing and biomedicine.

An Optimized Genotyping Workflow for Identifying Highly SCRaMbLEd Synthetic Yeasts

Synthetic Sc2.0 yeast strains contain hundreds to thousands of loxPsym recombination sites that allow restructuring of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae genome by SCRaMbLE. Thus, a highly diverse yeast population can arise from a single genotype. The selection of genetically diverse candidates with rearranged synthetic chromosomes for downstream analysis requires an efficient and straightforward workflow. Here we present loxTags, a set of qPCR primers for genotyping across loxPsym sites to detect not only deletions but also inversions and translocations after SCRaMbLE. To cope with the large number of amplicons, we generated qTagGer, a qPCR genotyping primer prediction tool. Using loxTag-based genotyping and long-read sequencing, we show that light-inducible Cre recombinase L-SCRaMbLE can efficiently generate diverse recombination events when applied to Sc2.0 strains containing a linear or a circular version of synthetic chromosome III.

Chromosome recombination and modification by LoxP-mediated evolution in Vibrio natriegens using CRISPR-associated transposases

Chromosome rearrangement by LoxP-mediated evolution has emerged as a powerful approach to studying how chromosome architecture impacts phenotypes. However, it relies on the in vitro synthesis of artificial chromosomes. The recently reported CRISPR-associated transposases (CASTs) held great promise for the efficient insertion of abundant LoxP sites directly onto the genome of wild-type strains. In this study, with the fastest-growing bacterium Vibrio natrigens (V. natriegens) as an object, a multiplex genome integration tool derived from CASTs was employed to achieve the insertion of cargo genes at eight specific genomic loci within 2 days. Next, we introduced 30 LoxP sites onto chromosome 2 (Chr2) of V. natriegens. Rigorously induced Cre recombinase was used to demonstrate Chromosome Rearrangement and Modification by LoxP-mediated Evolution (CRaMbLE). Growth characterization and genome sequencing showed that the ~358 kb fragment on Chr2 was accountable for the rapid growth of V. natriegens. The enabling tools we developed can help identify genomic regions that influence the rapid growth of V. natriegens without a prior understanding of genome mechanisms. This groundbreaking demonstration may also be extended to other organisms such as Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas putida, Bacillus subtilis, and so on.

Combinatorial optimization of gene expression through recombinase-mediated promoter and terminator shuffling in yeast

Microbes are increasingly employed as cell factories to produce biomolecules. This often involves the expression of complex heterologous biosynthesis pathways in host strains. Achieving maximal product yields and avoiding build-up of (toxic) intermediates requires balanced expression of every pathway gene. However, despite progress in metabolic modeling, the optimization of gene expression still heavily relies on trial-and-error. Here, we report an approach for in vivo, multiplexed Gene Expression Modification by LoxPsym-Cre Recombination (GEMbLeR). GEMbLeR exploits orthogonal LoxPsym sites to independently shuffle promoter and terminator modules at distinct genomic loci. This approach facilitates creation of large strain libraries, in which expression of every pathway gene ranges over 120-fold and each strain harbors a unique expression profile. When applied to the biosynthetic pathway of astaxanthin, an industrially relevant antioxidant, a single round of GEMbLeR improved pathway flux and doubled production titers. Together, this shows that GEMbLeR allows rapid and efficient gene expression optimization in heterologous biosynthetic pathways, offering possibilities for enhancing the performance of microbial cell factories.

Orthogonal LoxPsym sites allow multiplexed site-specific recombination in prokaryotic and eukaryotic hosts

Site-specific recombinases such as the Cre-LoxP system are routinely used for genome engineering in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Importantly, recombinases complement the CRISPR-Cas toolbox and provide the additional benefit of high-efficiency DNA editing without generating toxic DNA double-strand breaks, allowing multiple recombination events at the same time. However, only a handful of independent, orthogonal recombination systems are available, limiting their use in more complex applications that require multiple specific recombination events, such as metabolic engineering and genetic circuits. To address this shortcoming, we develop 63 symmetrical LoxP variants and test 1192 pairwise combinations to determine their cross-reactivity and specificity upon Cre activation. Ultimately, we establish a set of 16 orthogonal LoxPsym variants and demonstrate their use for multiplexed genome engineering in both prokaryotes (E. coli) and eukaryotes (S. cerevisiae and Z. mays). Together, this work yields a significant expansion of the Cre-LoxP toolbox for genome editing, metabolic engineering and other controlled recombination events, and provides insights into the Cre-LoxP recombination process.

Large-scale genomic rearrangements boost SCRaMbLE in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Synthetic Chromosome Rearrangement and Modification by LoxP-mediated Evolution (SCRaMbLE) is a promising tool to study genomic rearrangements. However, the potential of SCRaMbLE to study genomic rearrangements is currently hindered, because a strain containing all 16 synthetic chromosomes is not yet available. Here, we construct SparLox83R, a yeast strain containing 83 loxPsym sites distributed across all 16 chromosomes. SCRaMbLE of SparLox83R produces versatile genome-wide genomic rearrangements, including inter-chromosomal events. Moreover, when combined with synthetic chromosomes, SCRaMbLE of hetero-diploids with SparLox83R leads to increased diversity of genomic rearrangements and relatively faster evolution of traits compared to hetero-diploids only with wild-type chromosomes. Analysis of the SCRaMbLEd strain with increased tolerance to nocodazole demonstrates that genomic rearrangements can perturb the transcriptome and 3D genome structure and consequently impact phenotypes. In summary, a genome with sparsely distributed loxPsym sites can serve as a powerful tool for studying the consequence of genomic rearrangements and accelerating strain engineering in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Manipulating the 3D organization of the largest synthetic yeast chromosome

Whether synthetic genomes can power life has attracted broad interest in the synthetic biology field. Here, we report de novo synthesis of the largest eukaryotic chromosome thus far, synIV, a 1,454,621-bp yeast chromosome resulting from extensive genome streamlining and modification. We developed megachunk assembly combined with a hierarchical integration strategy, which significantly increased the accuracy and flexibility of synthetic chromosome construction. Besides the drastic sequence changes, we further manipulated the 3D structure of synIV to explore spatial gene regulation. Surprisingly, we found few gene expression changes, suggesting that positioning inside the yeast nucleoplasm plays a minor role in gene regulation. Lastly, we tethered synIV to the inner nuclear membrane via its hundreds of loxPsym sites and observed transcriptional repression of the entire chromosome, demonstrating chromosome-wide transcription manipulation without changing the DNA sequences. Our manipulation of the spatial structure of synIV sheds light on higher-order architectural design of the synthetic genomes.

The construction and optimization of engineered yeast chassis for efficient biosynthesis of 8-hydroxygeraniol

Microbial production of monoterpenoid indole alkaloids (MIAs) provides a sustainable and eco-friendly means to obtain compounds with high pharmaceutical values. However, efficient biosynthesis of MIAs in heterologous microorganisms is hindered due to low supply of key precursors such as geraniol and its derivative 8-hydroxygeraniol catalyzed by geraniol 8-hydroxylase (G8H). In this study, we developed a facile evolution platform to screen strains with improved yield of geraniol by using the SCRaMbLE system embedded in the Sc2.0 synthetic yeast and confirmed the causal role of relevant genomic targets. Through genome mining, we identified several G8H enzymes that perform much better than the commonly used CrG8H for 8-hydroxygeraniol production in vivo. We further showed that the N-terminus of these G8H enzymes plays an important role in cellular activity by swapping experiments. Finally, the combination of the engineered chassis, optimized biosynthesis pathway, and utilization of G8H led to the final strain with more than 30-fold improvement in producing 8-hydroxygeraniol compared with the starting strain. Overall, this study will provide insights into the construction and optimization of yeast cells for efficient biosynthesis of 8-hydroxygeraniol and its derivatives.

Debugging and consolidating multiple synthetic chromosomes reveals combinatorial genetic interactions

The Sc2.0 project is building a eukaryotic synthetic genome from scratch. A major milestone has been achieved with all individual Sc2.0 chromosomes assembled. Here, we describe the consolidation of multiple synthetic chromosomes using advanced endoreduplication intercrossing with tRNA expression cassettes to generate a strain with 6.5 synthetic chromosomes. The 3D chromosome organization and transcript isoform profiles were evaluated using Hi-C and long-read direct RNA sequencing. We developed CRISPR Directed Biallelic URA3-assisted Genome Scan, or "CRISPR D-BUGS," to map phenotypic variants caused by specific designer modifications, known as "bugs." We first fine-mapped a bug in synthetic chromosome II (synII) and then discovered a combinatorial interaction associated with synIII and synX, revealing an unexpected genetic interaction that links transcriptional regulation, inositol metabolism, and tRNASerCGA abundance. Finally, to expedite consolidation, we employed chromosome substitution to incorporate the largest chromosome (synIV), thereby consolidating >50% of the Sc2.0 genome in one strain.

A robust yeast biocontainment system with two-layered regulation switch dependent on unnatural amino acid

Synthetic auxotrophy in which cell viability depends on the presence of an unnatural amino acid (unAA) provides a powerful strategy to restrict unwanted propagation of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in open environments and potentially prevent industrial espionage. Here, we describe a generic approach for robust biocontainment of budding yeast dependent on unAA. By understanding escape mechanisms, we specifically optimize our strategies by introducing designed "immunity" to the generation of amber-suppressor tRNAs and developing the transcriptional- and translational-based biocontainment switch. We further develop a fitness-oriented screening method to easily obtain multiplex safeguard strains that exhibit robust growth and undetectable escape frequency (<~10-9) on solid media for 14 days. Finally, we show that employing our multiplex safeguard system could restrict the proliferation of strains of interest in a real fermentation scenario, highlighting the great potential of our yeast biocontainment strategy to protect the industrial proprietary strains.

A DNA assembly toolkit to unlock the CRISPR/Cas9 potential for metabolic engineering

CRISPR/Cas9-based technologies are revolutionising the way we engineer microbial cells. One of the key advantages of CRISPR in strain design is that it enables chromosomal integration of marker-free DNA, eliminating laborious and often inefficient marker recovery procedures. Despite the benefits, assembling CRISPR/Cas9 editing systems is still not a straightforward process, which may prevent its use and applications. In this work, we have identified some of the main limitations of current Cas9 toolkits and designed improvements with the goal of making CRISPR technologies easier to access and implement. These include 1) A system to quickly switch between marker-free and marker-based integration constructs using both a Cre-expressing and standard Escherichia coli strains, 2) the ability to redirect multigene integration cassettes into alternative genomic loci via Golden Gate-based exchange of homology arms, 3) a rapid, simple in-vivo method to assembly guide RNA sequences via recombineering between Cas9-helper plasmids and single oligonucleotides. We combine these methodologies with well-established technologies into a comprehensive toolkit for efficient metabolic engineering using CRISPR/Cas9. As a proof of concept, we developed the YaliCraft toolkit for Yarrowia lipolytica, which is composed of a basic set of 147 plasmids and 7 modules with different purposes. We used the toolkit to generate and characterize a library of 137 promoters and to build a de novo strain synthetizing 373.8 mg/L homogentisic acid.

Enabling technology and core theory of synthetic biology

Synthetic biology provides a new paradigm for life science research ("build to learn") and opens the future journey of biotechnology ("build to use"). Here, we discuss advances of various principles and technologies in the mainstream of the enabling technology of synthetic biology, including synthesis and assembly of a genome, DNA storage, gene editing, molecular evolution and de novo design of function proteins, cell and gene circuit engineering, cell-free synthetic biology, artificial intelligence (AI)-aided synthetic biology, as well as biofoundries. We also introduce the concept of quantitative synthetic biology, which is guiding synthetic biology towards increased accuracy and predictability or the real rational design. We conclude that synthetic biology will establish its disciplinary system with the iterative development of enabling technologies and the maturity of the core theory.

A DNA assembly toolkit to unlock the CRISPR/Cas9 potential for metabolic engineering

CRISPR/Cas9-based technologies are revolutionising the way we engineer microbial cells. One of the key advantages of CRISPR in strain design is that it enables chromosomal integration of marker-free DNA, eliminating laborious and often inefficient marker recovery procedures. Despite the benefits, assembling CRISPR/Cas9 editing systems is still not a straightforward process, which may prevent its use and applications. In this work, we have identified some of the main limitations of current Cas9 toolkits and designed improvements with the goal of making CRISPR technologies easier to access and implement. These include 1) A system to quickly switch between marker-free and marker-based integration constructs using both a Cre-expressing and standard Escherichia coli strains, 2) the ability to redirect multigene integration cassettes into alternative genomic loci via Golden Gate-based exchange of homology arms, 3) a rapid, simple in-vivo method to assembly guide RNA sequences via recombineering between Cas9-helper plasmids and single oligonucleotides. We combine these methodologies with well-established technologies into a comprehensive toolkit for efficient metabolic engineering using CRISPR/Cas9. As a proof of concept, we generated and characterized a library of 137 promoters and built a de novo Yarrowia lipolytica strain synthetizing 373.8 mg/L homogentisic acid.

Investigation of Genome Biology by Synthetic Genome Engineering

Synthetic genomes were designed based on an understanding of natural genomic information, offering an opportunity to engineer and investigate biological systems on a genome-wide scale. Currently, the designer version of the M. mycoides genome and the E. coli genome, as well as most of the S. cerevisiae genome, have been synthesized, and through the cycles of design-build-test and the following engineering of synthetic genomes, many fundamental questions of genome biology have been investigated. In this review, we summarize the use of synthetic genome engineering to explore the structure and function of genomes, and highlight the unique values of synthetic genomics.

Systems engineering of Escherichia coli for high-level shikimate production

To further increase the production efficiency of microbial shikimate, a valuable compound widely used in the pharmaceutical and chemical industries, ten key target genes contributing to shikimate production were identified by exploiting the enzyme constraint model ec_iML1515, and subsequently used for promoting metabolic flux towards shikimate biosynthesis in the tryptophan-overproducing strain Escherichia coli TRP0. The engineered E. coli SA05 produced 78.4 g/L shikimate via fed-batch fermentation. Deletion of quinate dehydrogenase and introduction of the hydroaromatic equilibration-alleviating shikimate dehydrogenase mutant AroE^T61W/L241I reduced the contents of byproducts quinate (7.5 g/L) and 3-dehydroshikimic acid (21.4 g/L) by 89.1% and 52.1%, respectively. Furthermore, a high concentration shikimate responsive promoter P_rpoS was recruited to dynamically regulate the expression of the tolerance target ProV to enhance shikimate productivity by 23.2% (to 2 g/L/h). Finally, the shikimate titer was increased to 126.4 g/L, with a yield of 0.50 g/g glucose and productivity of 2.63 g/L/h, using a 30-L fermenter and the engineered strain E. coli SA09. This is, to the best of our knowledge, the highest reported shikimate titer and productivity in E. coli.

Enhancement and mapping of tolerance to salt stress and 5-fluorocytosine in synthetic yeast strains via SCRaMbLE

Varied environmental stress can affect cell growth and activity of the cellular catalyst. Traditional path of adaptive evolution generally takes a long time to achieve a tolerance phenotype, meanwhile, it is a challenge to dissect the underlying genetic mechanism. Here, using SCRaMbLE, a genome scale tool to generate random structural variations, a total of 222 evolved yeast strains with enhanced environmental tolerances were obtained in haploid or diploid yeasts containing six synthetic chromosomes. Whole genome sequencing of the evolved strains revealed that these strains generated different structural variants. Notably, by phenotypic-genotypic analysis of the SCRaMbLEd strains, we find that a deletion of gene YFR009W (GCN20) can improve salt tolerance of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and a deletion of gene YER056C can improve 5-flucytosine tolerance of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This study shows applications of SCRaMbLE to accelerate phenotypic evolution for varied environmental stress and to explore relationships between structural variations and evolved phenotypes.

Engineered Nucleotide Chemicapacitive Microsensor Array Augmented with Physics-Guided Machine Learning for High-Throughput Screening of Cannabidiol

The recent legalization of cannabidiol (CBD) to treat neurological conditions such as epilepsy has sparked rising interest across global pharmaceuticals and synthetic biology industries to engineer microbes for sustainable synthetic production of medicinal CBD. Since the process involves screening large amounts of samples, the main challenge is often associated with the conventional screening platform that is time consuming, and laborious with high operating costs. Here, a portable, high-throughput Aptamer-based BioSenSing System (ABS³ ) is introduced for label-free, low-cost, fully automated, and highly accurate CBD concentrations' classification in a complex biological environment. The ABS³ comprises an array of interdigitated microelectrode sensors, each functionalized with different engineered aptamers. To further empower the functionality of the ABS³ , unique electrochemical features from each sensor are synergized using physics-guided multidimensional analysis. The capabilities of this ABS³ are demonstrated by achieving excellent CBD concentrations' classification with a high prediction accuracy of 99.98% and a fast testing time of 22 µs per testing sample using the optimized random forest (RF) model. It is foreseen that this approach will be the key to the realistic transformation from fundamental research to system miniaturization for diagnostics of disease biomarkers and drug development in the field of chemical/bioanalytics.

Directed yeast genome evolution by controlled introduction of trans-chromosomic structural variations

Naturally occurring structural variations (SVs) are a considerable source of genomic variation that can reshape the 3D architecture of chromosomes. Controllable methods aimed at introducing the complex SVs and their related molecular mechanisms have remained farfetched. In this study, an SV-prone yeast strain was developed using Synthetic Chromosome Rearrangement and Modification by LoxP-mediated Evolution (SCRaMbLE) technology with two synthetic chromosomes, namely synV and synX. The biosynthesis of astaxanthin is used as a readout and a proof of concept for the application of SVs in industries. Our findings showed that complex SVs, including a pericentric inversion and a trans-chromosome translocation between synV and synX, resulted in two neo-chromosomes and a 2.7-fold yield of astaxanthin. Also, genetic targets were mapped, which resulted in a higher astaxanthin yield, thus demonstrating the SVs' ability to reorganize genetic information along the chromosomes. The rational design of trans-chromosome translocation and pericentric inversion enabled precise induction of these phenomena. Collectively, this study provides an effective tool to not only accelerate the directed genome evolution but also to reveal the mechanistic insight of complex SVs for altering phenotypes.

Combining nucleotide variations and structure variations for improving astaxanthin biosynthesis

Background

Mutational technology has been used to achieve genome-wide variations in laboratory and industrial microorganisms. Genetic polymorphisms of natural genome evolution include nucleotide variations and structural variations, which inspired us to suggest that both types of genotypic variations are potentially useful in improving the performance of chassis cells for industrial applications. However, highly efficient approaches that simultaneously generate structural and nucleotide variations are still lacking.

Results

The aim of this study was to develop a method of increasing biosynthesis of astaxanthin in yeast by Combining Nucleotide variations And Structure variations (CNAS), which were generated by combinations of Atmospheric and room temperature plasma (ARTP) and Synthetic Chromosome Recombination and Modification by LoxP-Mediated Evolution (SCRaMbLE) system. CNAS was applied to increase the biosynthesis of astaxanthin in yeast and resulted in improvements of 2.2- and 7.0-fold in the yield of astaxanthin. Furthermore, this method was shown to be able to generate structures (deletion, duplication, and inversion) as well as nucleotide variations (SNPs and InDels) simultaneously. Additionally, genetic analysis of the genotypic variations of an astaxanthin improved strain revealed that the deletion of YJR116W and the C2481G mutation of YOL084W enhanced yield of astaxanthin, suggesting a genotype-to-phenotype relationship.

Conclusions

This study demonstrated that the CNAS strategy could generate both structure variations and nucleotide variations, allowing the enhancement of astaxanthin yield by different genotypes in yeast. Overall, this study provided a valuable tool for generating genomic variation diversity that has desirable phenotypes as well as for knowing the relationship between genotypes and phenotypes in evolutionary processes.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12934-022-01793-6.

Towards one sample per second for mass spectrometric screening of engineered microbial strains

Microbial cell factories convert renewable feedstocks into desirable chemicals and materials. Due to the lack of predictive modeling, high-throughput screening remains essential for microbial strain engineering. Mass spectrometry (MS) is a label-free modality with superior sensitivity and chemical specificity. Critical advances in improving the throughput of MS assays on complex microbial samples include massively parallel cultivation, robotic sample preparation, and chromatography-free instrumentation. Here, we review the recent development and application of rapid MS assays in screening microbial libraries, achieving or approaching a rate of one sample per second. We conclude with unique challenges associated with MS screening of strain libraries and discuss future solutions.

High-throughput glycolytic inhibitor discovery targeting glioblastoma by graphite dots-assisted LDI mass spectrometry

Malignant tumors will become vulnerable if their uncontrolled biosynthesis and energy consumption engaged in metabolic reprogramming can be cut off. Here, we report finding a glycolytic inhibitor targeting glioblastoma with graphite dots-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry as an integrated drug screening and pharmacokinetic platform (GLMSD). We have performed high-throughput virtual screening to narrow an initial library of 240,000 compounds down to the docking of 40 compounds and identified five previously unknown chemical scaffolds as promising hexokinase-2 inhibitors. The best inhibitor (Compd 27) can regulate the reprogrammed metabolic pathway in U87 glioma cells (median inhibitory concentration ~ 11.3 μM) for tumor suppression. Highly effective therapy against glioblastoma has been demonstrated in both subcutaneous and orthotopic brain tumors by synergizing Compd 27 and temozolomide. Our glycolytic inhibitor discovery can inspire personalized medicine targeting reprogrammed metabolisms of malignant tumors. GLMSD enables large, high-quality data for next-generation artificial intelligence-aided drug development.

TAQing2.0 for genome reorganization of asexual industrial yeasts by direct protein transfection

Genomic rearrangements often generate phenotypic diversification. We previously reported the TAQing system where genomic rearrangements are induced via conditional activation of a restriction endonuclease in yeast and plant cells to produce mutants with marked phenotypic changes. Here we developed the TAQing2.0 system based on the direct delivery of endonucleases into the cell nucleus by cell-penetrating peptides. Using the optimized procedure, we introduce a heat-reactivatable endonuclease TaqI into an asexual industrial yeast (torula yeast), followed by a transient heat activation of TaqI. TAQing2.0 leads to generation of mutants with altered flocculation and morphological phenotypes, which exhibit changes in chromosomal size. Genome resequencing suggested that torula yeast is triploid with six chromosomes and the mutants have multiple rearrangements including translocations having the TaqI recognition sequence at the break points. Thus, TAQing2.0 is expected as a useful method to obtain various mutants with altered phenotypes without introducing foreign DNA into asexual industrial microorganisms.

The TAQing system is upgraded and optimised as the foreign-DNA-free genome engineering technology, TAQing2.0. Genomic rearrangements are randomly induced by introducing the TaqI restriction endonuclease into non-sporulating industrial yeast with cell-penetrating peptides, leading to generation of mutants with altered phenotypes.

Quantification of Metabolic Products from Microbial Hosts in Complex Media Using Optically Diffracting Hydrogels

We herein describe a highly versatile platform approach for the in situ and real-time screening of microbial biocatalysts for enhanced production of bioproducts using photonic crystal hydrogels. This approach was demonstrated by preparing optically diffracting films based on polymerized N-isopropylacrylamide that contracted in the presence of alcohols and organic acids. The hydrogel films were prepared in a microwell plate format, which allows for high-throughput screening, and characterized optically using a microwell plate reader. While demonstrating the ability to detect a broad range of relevant alcohols and organic acids, we showed that the response of the films correlated strongly with the octanol-water partition coefficient (log P) of the analyte. Differences in the secretion of ethanol and succinic acid from strains of Zymomonas mobilis and Actinobacillus succinogenes, respectively, were further detected via optical characterization of the films. These differences, which in some cases were as low as ∼3 g/L, were confirmed by high-performance liquid chromatography, thereby demonstrating the sensitivity of this approach. Our findings highlight the potential utility of this multiplexed approach for the detection of small organic analytes in complex biological media, which overcomes a major challenge in conventional optical sensing methods.

Advances in Approaches to Study Chromatin-Mediated Epigenetic Memory

Chromatin structure contains critical epigenetic information in various forms, such as histone post-translational modifications (PTMs). The deposition of certain histone PTMs can remodel the chromatin structure, resulting in gene expression alteration. The epigenetic information carried by histone PTMs could be inherited by daughter cells to maintain the gene expression status. Recently, studies revealed that several conserved replisome proteins regulate the recycling of parental histones carrying epigenetic information in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Hence, the proper recycling and deposition of parental histones onto newly synthesized DNA strands is presumed to be essential for epigenetic inheritance. Here, we first reviewed the fundamental mechanisms of epigenetic modification establishment and maintenance discovered within fungal models. Next, we discussed the functions of parental histone chaperones and the potential impacts of the parental histone recycling process on heterochromatin-mediated transcriptional silencing inheritance. Subsequently, we summarized novel synthetic biology approaches developed to analyze individual epigenetic components during epigenetic inheritance in fungal and mammalian systems. These newly emerged research paradigms enable us to dissect epigenetic systems in a bottom-up manner. Furthermore, we highlighted the approaches developed in this emerging field and discussed the potential applications of these engineered regulators to building synthetic epigenetic systems.

Genomic markers on synthetic genomes

Genome synthesis endows scientists the ability of de novo creating genomes absent in nature, by thorough redesigning DNA sequences and introducing numerous custom features. However, the genome synthesis is a labor- and time-consuming work, and thus it is a challenge to verify and quantify the synthetic genome rapidly and precisely. Thus, specific DNA sequences different from native genomic sequences are designed into synthetic genomes during synthesis, namely genomic markers. Genomic markers can be easily detected by PCR reaction, whole-genome sequencing (WGS) and a variety of methods to identify the synthetic genome from native one. Here, we review types and applications of genomic markers utilized in synthetic genomes, with the hope of providing a guidance for future works.

Directed genome evolution driven by structural rearrangement techniques

Directed genome evolution simulates the process of natural evolution at the genomic level in the laboratory to generate desired phenotypes. Here we review the applications of recent technological advances in genome writing and editing to directed genome evolution, with a focus on structural rearrangement techniques. We highlight how these techniques can be used to generate diverse genotypes, and to accelerate the evolution of phenotypic traits. We also discuss the perspectives of directed genome evolution.

Ultra-Fast Label-Free Serum Metabolic Diagnosis of Coronary Heart Disease via a Deep Stabilizer

Although mass spectrometry (MS) of metabolites has the potential to provide real-time monitoring of patient status for diagnostic purposes, the diagnostic application of MS is limited due to sample treatment and data quality/reproducibility. Here, the generation of a deep stabilizer for ultra-fast, label-free MS detection and the application of this method for serum metabolic diagnosis of coronary heart disease (CHD) are reported. Nanoparticle-assisted laser desorption/ionization-MS is used to achieve direct metabolic analysis of trace unprocessed serum in seconds. Furthermore, a deep stabilizer is constructed to map native MS results to high-quality results obtained by established methods. Finally, using the newly developed protocol and diagnosis variation characteristic surface to characterize sensitivity/specificity and variation, CHD is diagnosed with advanced accuracy in a high-throughput/speed manner. This work advances design of metabolic analysis tools for disease detection as it provides a direct label-free, ultra-fast, and stabilized platform for future protocol development in clinics.

Sample Preparation Free Mass Spectrometry Using Laser-Assisted Rapid Evaporative Ionization Mass Spectrometry: Applications to Microbiology, Metabolic Biofluid Phenotyping, and Food Authenticity

Mass spectrometry has established itself as a powerful tool in the chemical, biological, medical, environmental, and agricultural fields. However, experimental approaches and potential application areas have been limited by a traditional reliance on sample preparation, extraction, and chromatographic separation. Ambient ionization mass spectrometry methods have addressed this challenge but are still somewhat restricted in requirements for sample manipulation to make it suitable for analysis. These limitations are particularly restrictive in view of the move toward high-throughput and automated analytical workflows. To address this, we present what we consider to be the first automated sample-preparation-free mass spectrometry platform utilizing a carbon dioxide (CO₂) laser for sample thermal desorption linked to the rapid evaporative ionization mass spectrometry (LA-REIMS) methodology. We show that the pulsatile operation of the CO₂ laser is the primary factor in achieving high signal-to-noise ratios. We further show that the LA-REIMS automated platform is suited to the analysis of three diverse biological materials within different application areas. First, clinical microbiology isolates were classified to species level with an accuracy of 97.2%, the highest accuracy reported in current literature. Second, fecal samples from a type 2 diabetes mellitus cohort were analyzed with LA-REIMS, which allowed tentative identification of biomarkers which are potentially associated with disease pathogenesis and a disease classification accuracy of 94%. Finally, we showed the ability of the LA-REIMS system to detect instances of adulteration of cooking oil and determine the geographical area of production of three protected olive oil products with 100% classification accuracy.

The Role of Structural Variation in Adaptation and Evolution of Yeast and Other Fungi

Mutations in DNA can be limited to one or a few nucleotides, or encompass larger deletions, insertions, duplications, inversions and translocations that span long stretches of DNA or even full chromosomes. These so-called structural variations (SVs) can alter the gene copy number, modify open reading frames, change regulatory sequences or chromatin structure and thus result in major phenotypic changes. As some of the best-known examples of SV are linked to severe genetic disorders, this type of mutation has traditionally been regarded as negative and of little importance for adaptive evolution. However, the advent of genomic technologies uncovered the ubiquity of SVs even in healthy organisms. Moreover, experimental evolution studies suggest that SV is an important driver of evolution and adaptation to new environments. Here, we provide an overview of the causes and consequences of SV and their role in adaptation, with specific emphasis on fungi since these have proven to be excellent models to study SV.

Biocatalysis in the Chemistry of Lupane Triterpenoids

Pentacyclic triterpenes are important representatives of natural products that exhibit a wide variety of biological activities. These activities suggest that these compounds may represent potential medicines for the treatment of cancer and viral, bacterial, or protozoal infections. Naturally occurring triterpenes usually have several drawbacks, such as limited activity and insufficient solubility and bioavailability; therefore, they need to be modified to obtain compounds suitable for drug development. Modifications can be achieved either by methods of standard organic synthesis or with the use of biocatalysts, such as enzymes or enzyme systems within living organisms. In most cases, these modifications result in the preparation of esters, amides, saponins, or sugar conjugates. Notably, while standard organic synthesis has been heavily used and developed, the use of the latter methodology has been rather limited, but it appears that biocatalysis has recently sparked considerably wider interest within the scientific community. Among triterpenes, derivatives of lupane play important roles. This review therefore summarizes the natural occurrence and sources of lupane triterpenoids, their biosynthesis, and semisynthetic methods that may be used for the production of betulinic acid from abundant and inexpensive betulin. Most importantly, this article compares chemical transformations of lupane triterpenoids with analogous reactions performed by biocatalysts and highlights a large space for the future development of biocatalysis in this field. The results of this study may serve as a summary of the current state of research and demonstrate the potential of the method in future applications.

SCRaMbLE: A Study of Its Robustness and Challenges through Enhancement of Hygromycin B Resistance in a Semi-Synthetic Yeast

Recent advances in synthetic genomics launched the ambitious goal of generating the first synthetic designer eukaryote, based on the model organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Sc2.0). Excitingly, the Sc2.0 project is now nearing its completion and SCRaMbLE, an accelerated evolution tool implemented by the integration of symmetrical loxP sites (loxPSym) downstream of almost every non-essential gene, is arguably the most applicable synthetic genome-wide alteration to date. The SCRaMbLE system offers the capability to perform rapid genome diversification, providing huge potential for targeted strain improvement. Here we describe how SCRaMbLE can evolve a semi-synthetic yeast strain housing the synthetic chromosome II (synII) to generate hygromycin B resistant genotypes. Exploiting long-read nanopore sequencing, we show that all structural variations are due to recombination between loxP sites, with no off-target effects. We also highlight a phenomenon imposed on SCRaMbLE termed “essential raft”, where a fragment flanked by a pair of loxPSym sites can move within the genome but cannot be removed due to essentiality restrictions. Despite this, SCRaMbLE was able to explore the genomic space and produce alternative structural compositions that resulted in an increased hygromycin B resistance in the synII strain. We show that among the rearrangements generated via SCRaMbLE, deletions of YBR219C and YBR220C contribute to hygromycin B resistance phenotypes. However, the hygromycin B resistance provided by SCRaMbLEd genomes showed significant improvement when compared to corresponding single deletions, demonstrating the importance of the complex structural variations generated by SCRaMbLE to improve hygromycin B resistance. We anticipate that SCRaMbLE and its successors will be an invaluable tool to predict and evaluate the emergence of antibiotic resistance in yeast.

Debugging: putting the synthetic yeast chromosome to work

Synthetic genomics aims to de novo synthesize a functional genome redesigned from natural sequences with custom features. Designed genomes provide new toolkits for better understanding organisms, evolution and the construction of cellular factories. Currently maintaining the fitness of cells with synthetic genomes is particularly challenging as defective designs and unanticipated assembly errors frequently occur. Mapping and correcting bugs that arise during the synthetic process are imperative for the successful construction of a synthetic genome that can sustain a desired cellular function. Here, we review recently developed methods used to map and fix various bugs which arise during yeast genome synthesis with the hope of providing guidance for putting the synthetic yeast chromosome to work.

Engineered yeast genomes accurately assembled from pure and mixed samples

Yeast whole genome sequencing (WGS) lacks end-to-end workflows that identify genetic engineering. Here we present Prymetime, a tool that assembles yeast plasmids and chromosomes and annotates genetic engineering sequences. It is a hybrid workflow-it uses short and long reads as inputs to perform separate linear and circular assembly steps. This structure is necessary to accurately resolve genetic engineering sequences in plasmids and the genome. We show this by assembling diverse engineered yeasts, in some cases revealing unintended deletions and integrations. Furthermore, the resulting whole genomes are high quality, although the underlying assembly software does not consistently resolve highly repetitive genome features. Finally, we assemble plasmids and genome integrations from metagenomic sequencing, even with 1 engineered cell in 1000. This work is a blueprint for building WGS workflows and establishes WGS-based identification of yeast genetic engineering.

Systematical Engineering of Synthetic Yeast for Enhanced Production of Lycopene

Synthetic biology allows the re-engineering of biological systems and promotes the development of bioengineering to a whole new level, showing great potential in biomanufacturing. Here, in order to make the heterologous lycopene biosynthesis pathway compatible with the host strain YSy 200, we evolved YSy200 using a unique Synthetic Chromosome Rearrangement and Modification by LoxP-mediated Evolution (SCRaMbLE) system that is built in the Sc2.0 synthetic yeast. By inducing SCRaMbLE, we successfully identified a host strain YSy201 that can be served as a suitable host to maintain the heterologous lycopene biosynthesis pathway. Then, we optimized the lycopene biosynthesis pathway and further integrated into the rDNA arrays of YSy201 to increase its copy number. In combination with culturing condition optimization, we successfully screened out the final yeast strain YSy222, which showed a 129.5-fold increase of lycopene yield in comparison with its parental strain. Our work shows that, the strategy of combining the engineering efforts on both the lycopene biosynthesis pathway and the host strain can improve the compatibility between the heterologous pathway and the host strain, which can further effectively increase the yield of the target product.

Compacting a synthetic yeast chromosome arm

BACKGROUND

Redundancy is a common feature of genomes, presumably to ensure robust growth under different and changing conditions. Genome compaction, removing sequences nonessential for given conditions, provides a novel way to understand the core principles of life. The synthetic chromosome rearrangement and modification by loxP-mediated evolution (SCRaMbLE) system is a unique feature implanted in the synthetic yeast genome (Sc2.0), which is proposed as an effective tool for genome minimization. As the Sc2.0 project is nearing its completion, we have begun to explore the application of the SCRaMbLE system in genome compaction.

RESULTS

We develop a method termed SCRaMbLE-based genome compaction (SGC) and demonstrate that a synthetic chromosome arm (synXIIL) can be efficiently reduced. The pre-introduced episomal essential gene array significantly enhances the compacting ability of SGC, not only by enabling the deletion of nonessential genes located in essential gene containing loxPsym units but also by allowing more chromosomal sequences to be removed in a single SGC process. Further compaction is achieved through iterative SGC, revealing that at least 39 out of 65 nonessential genes in synXIIL can be removed collectively without affecting cell viability at 30 °C in rich medium. Approximately 40% of the synthetic sequence, encoding 28 genes, is found to be dispensable for cell growth at 30 °C in rich medium and several genes whose functions are needed under specified conditions are identified.

CONCLUSIONS

We develop iterative SGC with the aid of eArray as a generic yet effective tool to compact the synthetic yeast genome.

Building genomes to understand biology

Genetic manipulation is one of the central strategies that biologists use to investigate the molecular underpinnings of life and its diversity. Thus, advances in genetic manipulation usually lead to a deeper understanding of biological systems. During the last decade, the construction of chromosomes, known as synthetic genomics, has emerged as a novel approach to genetic manipulation. By facilitating complex modifications to chromosome content and structure, synthetic genomics opens new opportunities for studying biology through genetic manipulation. Here, we discuss different classes of genetic manipulation that are enabled by synthetic genomics, as well as biological problems they each can help solve.

Chromosome-level de novo assembly of Coprinopsis cinerea A43mut B43mut pab1-1 #326 and genetic variant identification of mutants using Nanopore MinION sequencing

The homokaryotic Coprinopsis cinerea strain A43mut B43mut pab1-1 #326 is a widely used experimental model for developmental studies in mushroom-forming fungi. It can grow on defined artificial media and complete the whole lifecycle within two weeks. The mutations in mating type factors A and B result in the special feature of clamp formation and fruiting without mating. This feature allows investigations and manipulations with a homokaryotic genetic background. Current genome assembly of strain #326 was based on short-read sequencing data and was highly fragmented, leading to the bias in gene annotation and downstream analyses. Here, we report a chromosome-level genome assembly of strain #326. Oxford Nanopore Technology (ONT) MinION sequencing was used to get long reads. Illumina short reads was used to polish the sequences. A combined assembly yield 13 chromosomes and a mitochondrial genome as individual scaffolds. The assembly has 15,250 annotated genes with a high synteny with the C. cinerea strain Okayama-7 #130. This assembly has great improvement on contiguity and annotations. It is a suitable reference for further genomic studies, especially for the genetic, genomic and transcriptomic analyses in ONT long reads. Single nucleotide variants and structural variants in six mutagenized and cisplatin-screened mutants could be identified and validated. A 66 bp deletion in Ras GTPase-activating protein (RasGAP) was found in all mutants. To make a better use of ONT sequencing platform, we modified a high-molecular-weight genomic DNA isolation protocol based on magnetic beads for filamentous fungi. This study showed the use of MinION to construct a fungal reference genome and to perform downstream studies in an individual laboratory. An experimental workflow was proposed, from DNA isolation and whole genome sequencing, to genome assembly and variant calling. Our results provided solutions and parameters for fungal genomic analysis on MinION sequencing platform.

Genetic Engineering and Synthetic Genomics in Yeast to Understand Life and Boost Biotechnology

The field of genetic engineering was born in 1973 with the "construction of biologically functional bacterial plasmids in vitro". Since then, a vast number of technologies have been developed allowing large-scale reading and writing of DNA, as well as tools for complex modifications and alterations of the genetic code. Natural genomes can be seen as software version 1.0; synthetic genomics aims to rewrite this software with "build to understand" and "build to apply" philosophies. One of the predominant model organisms is the baker's yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Its importance ranges from ancient biotechnologies such as baking and brewing, to high-end valuable compound synthesis on industrial scales. This tiny sugar fungus contributed greatly to enabling humankind to reach its current development status. This review discusses recent developments in the field of genetic engineering for budding yeast S. cerevisiae, and its application in biotechnology. The article highlights advances from Sc1.0 to the developments in synthetic genomics paving the way towards Sc2.0. With the synthetic genome of Sc2.0 nearing completion, the article also aims to propose perspectives for potential Sc3.0 and subsequent versions as well as its implications for basic and applied research.

Microbial Cell Factory for Efficiently Synthesizing Plant Natural Products via Optimizing the Location and Adaptation of Pathway on Genome Scale

Plant natural products (PNPs) possess important pharmacological activities and are widely used in cosmetics, health care products, and as food additives. Currently, most PNPs are mainly extracted from cultivated plants, and the yield is limited by the long growth cycle, climate change and complex processing steps, which makes the process unsustainable. However, the complex structure of PNPs significantly reduces the efficiency of chemical synthesis. With the development of metabolic engineering and synthetic biology, heterologous biosynthesis of PNPs in microbial cell factories offers an attractive alternative. Based on the in-depth mining and analysis of genome and transcriptome data, the biosynthetic pathways of a number of natural products have been successfully elucidated, which lays the crucial foundation for heterologous production. However, there are several problems in the microbial synthesis of PNPs, including toxicity of intermediates, low enzyme activity, multiple auxotrophic dependence, and uncontrollable metabolic network. Although various metabolic engineering strategies have been developed to solve these problems, optimizing the location and adaptation of pathways on the whole-genome scale is an important strategy in microorganisms. From this perspective, this review introduces the application of CRISPR/Cas9 in editing PNPs biosynthesis pathways in model microorganisms, the influences of pathway location, and the approaches for optimizing the adaptation between metabolic pathways and chassis hosts for facilitating PNPs biosynthesis.

Chassis engineering for microbial production of chemicals: from natural microbes to synthetic organisms

Chassis provides a setting for the expression of heterologous pathway genes, which often requires extensive engineering to achieve complete functions. Traditionally, chassis engineering relies on gene deletion/overexpression for the regulation of precursor/cofactor supply and product transportation, which has generated thousands of high-performance strains. With the development of synthetic biology, chassis modifications have expanded to the synthesis of artificial cellular machineries, creating synthetic cells for the biosynthesis of bioproducts. In this review, we will discuss the development of chassis engineering technologies, termed the first-generation and second-generation technologies, and their applications in the creation of chassis for the production of valued-added chemicals, with an emphasis on synthetic chassis and their applications and potential. The development of chassis engineering technologies will advance rational design and construction of customized chassis for the manufacturing of target bioproducts.