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Tavasoli M, McMaster CR. Defects in integrin complex formation promote CHKB-mediated muscular dystrophy. Life Sci Alliance 2024; 7:e202301956. [PMID: 38749543 PMCID: PMC11096732 DOI: 10.26508/lsa.202301956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Revised: 05/03/2024] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Phosphatidylcholine (PC) is the major membrane phospholipid in most eukaryotic cells. Bi-allelic loss of function variants in CHKB, encoding the first step in the synthesis of PC, is the cause of a rostrocaudal muscular dystrophy in both humans and mice. Loss of sarcolemma integrity is a hallmark of muscular dystrophies; however, how this occurs in the absence of choline kinase function is not known. We determine that in Chkb -/- mice there is a failure of the α7β1 integrin complex that is specific to affected muscle. We observed that in Chkb -/- hindlimb muscles there is a decrease in sarcolemma association/abundance of the PI(4,5)P2 binding integrin complex proteins vinculin, and α-actinin, and a decrease in actin association with the sarcolemma. In cells, pharmacological inhibition of choline kinase activity results in internalization of a fluorescent PI(4,5)P2 reporter from discrete plasma membrane clusters at the cell surface membrane to cytosol, this corresponds with a decreased vinculin localization at plasma membrane focal adhesions that was rescued by overexpression of CHKB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahtab Tavasoli
- https://ror.org/01e6qks80 Department of Pharmacology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada
| | - Christopher R McMaster
- https://ror.org/01e6qks80 Department of Pharmacology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada
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Kamradt ML, Makarewich CA. CHKB-DT: A Long Noncoding RNA Critical for Cardiovascular Health. Circ Res 2024; 134:442-444. [PMID: 38359100 PMCID: PMC10871552 DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.124.324166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael L. Kamradt
- The Heart Institute, Division of Molecular Cardiovascular Biology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Catherine A. Makarewich
- The Heart Institute, Division of Molecular Cardiovascular Biology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
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3
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Nie X, Fan J, Dai B, Wen Z, Li H, Chen C, Wang DW. LncRNA CHKB-DT Downregulation Enhances Dilated Cardiomyopathy Through ALDH2. Circ Res 2024; 134:425-441. [PMID: 38299365 DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.123.323428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 02/02/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Human cardiac long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) profiles in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) were previously analyzed, and the long noncoding RNA CHKB (choline kinase beta) divergent transcript (CHKB-DT) levels were found to be mostly downregulated in the heart. In this study, the function of CHKB-DT in DCM was determined. METHODS Long noncoding RNA expression levels in the human heart tissues were measured via quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and in situ hybridization assays. A CHKB-DT heterozygous or homozygous knockout mouse model was generated using the clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeat (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein 9 system, and the adeno-associated virus with a cardiac-specific promoter was used to deliver the RNA in vivo. Sarcomere shortening was performed to assess the primary cardiomyocyte contractility. The Seahorse XF cell mitochondrial stress test was performed to determine the energy metabolism and ATP production. Furthermore, the underlying mechanisms were explored using quantitative proteomics, ribosome profiling, RNA antisense purification assays, mass spectrometry, RNA pull-down, luciferase assay, RNA-fluorescence in situ hybridization, and Western blotting. RESULTS CHKB-DT levels were remarkably decreased in patients with DCM and mice with transverse aortic constriction-induced heart failure. Heterozygous knockout of CHKB-DT in cardiomyocytes caused cardiac dilation and dysfunction and reduced the contractility of primary cardiomyocytes. Moreover, CHKB-DT heterozygous knockout impaired mitochondrial function and decreased ATP production as well as cardiac energy metabolism. Mechanistically, ALDH2 (aldehyde dehydrogenase 2) was a direct target of CHKB-DT. CHKB-DT physically interacted with the mRNA of ALDH2 and fused in sarcoma (FUS) through the GGUG motif. CHKB-DT knockdown aggravated ALDH2 mRNA degradation and 4-HNE (4-hydroxy-2-nonenal) production, whereas overexpression of CHKB-DT reversed these molecular changes. Furthermore, restoring ALDH2 expression in CHKB-DT+/- mice alleviated cardiac dilation and dysfunction. CONCLUSIONS CHKB-DT is significantly downregulated in DCM. CHKB-DT acts as an energy metabolism-associated long noncoding RNA and represents a promising therapeutic target against DCM.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Humans
- Mice
- Adenosine Triphosphate/metabolism
- Aldehyde Dehydrogenase, Mitochondrial/genetics
- Aldehyde Dehydrogenase, Mitochondrial/metabolism
- Cardiomyopathy, Dilated/genetics
- Cardiomyopathy, Dilated/metabolism
- Down-Regulation
- In Situ Hybridization, Fluorescence
- Mice, Knockout
- Mitochondria, Heart/metabolism
- Myocytes, Cardiac/metabolism
- RNA, Long Noncoding/genetics
- RNA, Long Noncoding/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang Nie
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College (X.N., J.F., B.D., Z.W., H.L., C.C., D.W.W.), Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Jiahui Fan
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College (X.N., J.F., B.D., Z.W., H.L., C.C., D.W.W.), Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Beibei Dai
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College (X.N., J.F., B.D., Z.W., H.L., C.C., D.W.W.), Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Genetics and Molecular Mechanisms of Cardiological Disorders (B.D., Z.W., H.L.), Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Zheng Wen
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College (X.N., J.F., B.D., Z.W., H.L., C.C., D.W.W.), Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Genetics and Molecular Mechanisms of Cardiological Disorders (B.D., Z.W., H.L.), Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Huaping Li
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College (X.N., J.F., B.D., Z.W., H.L., C.C., D.W.W.), Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Genetics and Molecular Mechanisms of Cardiological Disorders (B.D., Z.W., H.L.), Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Chen Chen
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College (X.N., J.F., B.D., Z.W., H.L., C.C., D.W.W.), Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Dao Wen Wang
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College (X.N., J.F., B.D., Z.W., H.L., C.C., D.W.W.), Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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4
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Actis Dato V, Lange S, Cho Y. Metabolic Flexibility of the Heart: The Role of Fatty Acid Metabolism in Health, Heart Failure, and Cardiometabolic Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:1211. [PMID: 38279217 PMCID: PMC10816475 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25021211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Revised: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 01/28/2024] Open
Abstract
This comprehensive review explores the critical role of fatty acid (FA) metabolism in cardiac diseases, particularly heart failure (HF), and the implications for therapeutic strategies. The heart's reliance on ATP, primarily sourced from mitochondrial oxidative metabolism, underscores the significance of metabolic flexibility, with fatty acid oxidation (FAO) being a dominant source. In HF, metabolic shifts occur with an altered FA uptake and FAO, impacting mitochondrial function and contributing to disease progression. Conditions like obesity and diabetes also lead to metabolic disturbances, resulting in cardiomyopathy marked by an over-reliance on FAO, mitochondrial dysfunction, and lipotoxicity. Therapeutic approaches targeting FA metabolism in cardiac diseases have evolved, focusing on inhibiting or stimulating FAO to optimize cardiac energetics. Strategies include using CPT1A inhibitors, using PPARα agonists, and enhancing mitochondrial biogenesis and function. However, the effectiveness varies, reflecting the complexity of metabolic remodeling in HF. Hence, treatment strategies should be individualized, considering that cardiac energy metabolism is intricate and tightly regulated. The therapeutic aim is to optimize overall metabolic function, recognizing the pivotal role of FAs and the need for further research to develop effective therapies, with promising new approaches targeting mitochondrial oxidative metabolism and FAO that improve cardiac function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginia Actis Dato
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA; (V.A.D.); (S.L.)
| | - Stephan Lange
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA; (V.A.D.); (S.L.)
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, DK 8000 Aarhus, Denmark
- Steno Diabetes Center Aarhus, Aarhus University Hospital, DK 8200 Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Yoshitake Cho
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA; (V.A.D.); (S.L.)
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Mishra A, Tavasoli M, Sokolenko S, McMaster CR, Pasumarthi KB. Atrial natriuretic peptide signaling co-regulates lipid metabolism and ventricular conduction system gene expression in the embryonic heart. iScience 2024; 27:108748. [PMID: 38235330 PMCID: PMC10792247 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.108748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 09/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
It has been shown that atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and its high affinity receptor (NPRA) are involved in the formation of ventricular conduction system (VCS). Inherited genetic variants in fatty acid oxidation (FAO) genes are known to cause conduction abnormalities in newborn children. Although the effect of ANP on energy metabolism in noncardiac cell types is well documented, the role of lipid metabolism in VCS cell differentiation via ANP/NPRA signaling is not known. In this study, histological sections and primary cultures obtained from E11.5 mouse ventricles were analyzed to determine the role of metabolic adaptations in VCS cell fate determination and maturation. Exogenous treatment of E11.5 ventricular cells with ANP revealed a significant increase in lipid droplet accumulation, FAO and higher expression of VCS marker Cx40. Using specific inhibitors, we further identified PPARγ and FAO as critical downstream regulators of ANP-mediated regulation of metabolism and VCS formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhishek Mishra
- Department of Pharmacology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Mahtab Tavasoli
- Department of Pharmacology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Stanislav Sokolenko
- Department of Process Engineering and Applied Science, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
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Molecular subtypes of ALS are associated with differences in patient prognosis. Nat Commun 2023; 14:95. [PMID: 36609402 PMCID: PMC9822908 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-35494-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disease with poorly understood clinical heterogeneity, underscored by significant differences in patient age at onset, symptom progression, therapeutic response, disease duration, and comorbidity presentation. We perform a patient stratification analysis to better understand the variability in ALS pathology, utilizing postmortem frontal and motor cortex transcriptomes derived from 208 patients. Building on the emerging role of transposable element (TE) expression in ALS, we consider locus-specific TEs as distinct molecular features during stratification. Here, we identify three unique molecular subtypes in this ALS cohort, with significant differences in patient survival. These results suggest independent disease mechanisms drive some of the clinical heterogeneity in ALS.
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Zan K, Lei W, Li Y, Wang Y, Liu L, Zuo T, Jin H, Ma S. Integrative Metabolomics and Proteomics Detected Hepatotoxicity in Mice Associated with Alkaloids from Eupatorium fortunei Turcz. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14110765. [PMID: 36356015 PMCID: PMC9698670 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14110765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2022] [Revised: 11/03/2022] [Accepted: 11/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The traditional Chinese herbal medicine Eupatorium fortunei Turcz. (E. fortunei) has been widely adopted to treat nausea, diabetes, siriasis, and poor appetite. However, E. fortunei contains multiple pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs). This study aimed to investigate the hepatotoxicity of total alkaloids in E. fortunei (EFTAs) and identify the toxic mechanisms of EFTAs on hepatocytes. Liquid chromatography with a tandem mass spectrometry assay with reference standards indicated that EFTAs mainly consisted of eight PAs whose content accounted for 92.38% of EFTAs. EFTAs markedly decreased mouse body and liver weights and increased the contents of AST and ALT. The histopathological assays demonstrated that, after exposition to EFTAs, the structures of hepatocytes were damaged and the fibrosis and apoptosis in hepatocytes were accelerated. Moreover, EFTAs increased the serum level of inflammatory cytokines and aggravated circulating oxidative stress. A combination of hepatic proteomics and metabolomics was used to investigate the toxic mechanisms of EFTAs. The study revealed that EFTAs seriously disrupted glycerophospholipid metabolism by upregulating the contents of lysophosphatidylglycerol acyltransferase 1 and phosphatidylinositol and downregulating the contents of choline/ethanolamine kinase beta, choline-ethanolamine phosphotransferase 1, phospholipase D4, 1-acylglycerophosphocholine, phosphatidylcholine, and dihydroxyacetone phosphate in the liver, resulting in detrimental inflammation, fibrosis, and apoptosis. This study revealed that EFTAs induced severe hepatotoxicity by disrupting glycerophospholipid metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke Zan
- National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, Beijing 102629, China
| | - Wei Lei
- State Key Laboratory of Component-Based Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, China
- Correspondence: (W.L.); (S.M.)
| | - Yaolei Li
- National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, Beijing 102629, China
| | - Ying Wang
- National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, Beijing 102629, China
| | - Lina Liu
- National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, Beijing 102629, China
| | - Tiantian Zuo
- National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, Beijing 102629, China
| | - Hongyu Jin
- National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, Beijing 102629, China
| | - Shuangcheng Ma
- National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, Beijing 102629, China
- Correspondence: (W.L.); (S.M.)
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8
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Magri F, Antognozzi S, Ripolone M, Zanotti S, Napoli L, Ciscato P, Velardo D, Scuvera G, Nicotra V, Giacobbe A, Milani D, Fortunato F, Garbellini M, Sciacco M, Corti S, Comi GP, Ronchi D. Megaconial congenital muscular dystrophy due to novel CHKB variants: a case report and literature review. Skelet Muscle 2022; 12:23. [PMID: 36175989 PMCID: PMC9524117 DOI: 10.1186/s13395-022-00306-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 09/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Choline kinase beta (CHKB) catalyzes the first step in the de novo biosynthesis of phosphatidyl choline and phosphatidylethanolamine via the Kennedy pathway. Derangement of this pathway might also influence the homeostasis of mitochondrial membranes. Autosomal recessive CHKB mutations cause a rare form of congenital muscular dystrophy known as megaconial congenital muscular dystrophy (MCMD). Case presentation We describe a novel proband presenting MCMD due to unpublished CHKB mutations. The patient is a 6-year-old boy who came to our attention for cognitive impairment and slowly progressive muscular weakness. He was the first son of non-consanguineous healthy parents from Sri Lanka. Neurological examination showed proximal weakness at four limbs, weak osteotendinous reflexes, Gowers’ maneuver, and waddling gate. Creatine kinase levels were mildly increased. EMG and brain MRI were normal. Left quadriceps skeletal muscle biopsy showed a myopathic pattern with nuclear centralizations and connective tissue increase. Histological and histochemical staining suggested subsarcolemmal localization and dimensional increase of mitochondria. Ultrastructural analysis confirmed the presence of enlarged (“megaconial”) mitochondria. Direct sequencing of CHKB identified two novel defects: the c.1060G > C (p.Gly354Arg) substitution and the c.448-56_29del intronic deletion, segregating from father and mother, respectively. Subcloning of RT-PCR amplicons from patient’s muscle RNA showed that c.448-56_29del results in the partial retention (14 nucleotides) of intron 3, altering physiological splicing and transcript stability. Biochemical studies showed reduced levels of the mitochondrial fission factor DRP1 and the severe impairment of mitochondrial respiratory chain activity in patient’s muscle compared to controls. Conclusions This report expands the molecular findings associated with MCMD and confirms the importance of considering CHKB variants in the differential diagnosis of patients presenting with muscular dystrophy and mental retardation. The clinical outcome of MCMD patients seems to be influenced by CHKB molecular defects. Histological and ultrastructural examination of muscle biopsy directed molecular studies and allowed the identification and characterization of an intronic mutation, usually escaping standard molecular testing.
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13395-022-00306-8.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Magri
- IRCCS Fondazione Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Neurology Unit, Milan, Italy
| | - Sara Antognozzi
- Dino Ferrari Center, Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Michela Ripolone
- IRCCS Fondazione Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Neuromuscular and Rare Disease Unit, Milan, Italy
| | - Simona Zanotti
- IRCCS Fondazione Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Neuromuscular and Rare Disease Unit, Milan, Italy
| | - Laura Napoli
- IRCCS Fondazione Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Neuromuscular and Rare Disease Unit, Milan, Italy
| | - Patrizia Ciscato
- IRCCS Fondazione Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Neuromuscular and Rare Disease Unit, Milan, Italy
| | - Daniele Velardo
- IRCCS Fondazione Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Neuromuscular and Rare Disease Unit, Milan, Italy
| | - Giulietta Scuvera
- IRCCS Fondazione Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Medical Genetics Unit, Woman-Child-Newborn Department, Milan, Italy
| | - Valeria Nicotra
- IRCCS Fondazione Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Medical Genetics Unit, Woman-Child-Newborn Department, Milan, Italy
| | - Antonella Giacobbe
- IRCCS Fondazione Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Milan, Italy
| | - Donatella Milani
- IRCCS Fondazione Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesco Fortunato
- Dino Ferrari Center, Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Manuela Garbellini
- IRCCS Fondazione Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Neurology Unit, Milan, Italy
| | - Monica Sciacco
- IRCCS Fondazione Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Neuromuscular and Rare Disease Unit, Milan, Italy
| | - Stefania Corti
- IRCCS Fondazione Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Neurology Unit, Milan, Italy.,Dino Ferrari Center, Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Giacomo Pietro Comi
- IRCCS Fondazione Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Neurology Unit, Milan, Italy.,IRCCS Fondazione Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Neuromuscular and Rare Disease Unit, Milan, Italy
| | - Dario Ronchi
- IRCCS Fondazione Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Neurology Unit, Milan, Italy. .,Dino Ferrari Center, Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Milan, Italy.
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Tavasoli M, Chipurupalli S, McMaster CR. Choline kinase inhibition promotes ER-phagy. J Lipid Res 2022; 63:100213. [PMID: 35447137 PMCID: PMC9364018 DOI: 10.1016/j.jlr.2022.100213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 04/10/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Mahtab Tavasoli
- Departments of Pharmacology and Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Atlantic Research Centre, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada B3H 4H7
| | - Sandhya Chipurupalli
- Departments of Pharmacology and Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Atlantic Research Centre, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada B3H 4H7
| | - Christopher R McMaster
- Departments of Pharmacology and Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Atlantic Research Centre, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada B3H 4H7.
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