A recombinant conjugated pneumococcal vaccine that protects against murine infections with a similar efficacy to Prevnar-13

Bacterial glycoengineering: Cell-based and cell-free routes for producing biopharmaceuticals with customized glycosylation

Glycosylation plays a pivotal role in tuning the folding and function of proteins. Because most human therapeutic proteins are glycosylated, understanding and controlling glycosylation is important for the design, optimization, and manufacture of biopharmaceuticals. Unfortunately, natural eukaryotic glycosylation pathways are complex and often produce heterogeneous glycan patterns, making the production of glycoproteins with chemically precise and homogeneous glycan structures difficult. To overcome these limitations, bacterial glycoengineering has emerged as a simple, cost-effective, and scalable approach to produce designer glycoprotein therapeutics and vaccines in which the glycan structures are engineered to reduce heterogeneity and improve biological and biophysical attributes of the protein. Here, we discuss recent advances in bacterial cell-based and cell-free glycoengineering that have enabled the production of biopharmaceutical glycoproteins with customized glycan structures.

Current trends in development and manufacturing of higher-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide conjugate vaccine and its challenges

Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs) have been developed to protect against pneumococcal diseases caused by the more than 100 serotypes of the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae. PCVs primarily prevent pneumococcal infections such as sepsis, bacteraemia, meningitis, otitis media, pneumonia, septicaemia, and sinusitis among infants, adults, elderly, and immunocompromised individuals. The current available PCVs only cover a limited number of serotypes, and there is an immense need for developing higher-valent PCVs that can protect against non-vaccine serotypes to overcome challenges like serotype replacement and antibiotic resistance. The main challenges for developing higher valent PCVs are the complexity of the manufacturing process comprising polysaccharide fermentation, purification, modification or sizing of multiple polysaccharides and conjugation between polysaccharides and carrier proteins, the stability of the conjugates, and the immunogenicity of the vaccine. Different manufacturing processes have been explored to produce higher valent PCVs using different serotypes of S. pneumoniae and conjugation with different carrier proteins. The global coverage of higher valent PCVs are still low, mainly due to the high cost and limited supply of the vaccine. This review focuses on the existing and emerging manufacturing processes and challenges associated with higher-valent pneumococcal PCV development.

Recurrent community-acquired pneumococcal meningitis in adults with and without identified predisposing factors

Bacterial meningitis is still a significant public health concern, with high morbidity and mortality rates. Despite this, it is still a rare event that requires the bacterial invasion of the meninges. However, some predisposing factors can trigger recurrent episodes of meningitis. This study is aimed at determining the clinical characteristics and the molecular epidemiology of episodes of recurrent community-acquired meningitis with and without predisposing factors. For this purpose, we performed a retrospective study of our laboratory database during the period of 2010 to 2020. Additionally, using molecular tools developed in our previous works, the epidemiology of the pathogens causing these episodes was analyzed using cerebrospinal fluid samples, especially in the absence of isolated strains. We observed a total of 1,779 meningitis cases and 230 were caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae. Of those, 16 were recurrent meningitis episodes (16/1,779; 0.9%) from seven patients. Pneumococcus was the main agent responsible in these recurrent episodes and only two episodes were caused by Haemophilus influenzae. The mean age of these patients was 20 years old and three had predisposing factors which could have led to contracting meningitis. The samples presented different pneumococcal serotypes. Most of them were non-vaccine-covered serotypes and antibiotic susceptible strains. Therefore, it was demonstrated how the practical employment of molecular tools, developed for research, when applied in the routine of diagnosis, can provide important information for epidemiological surveillance. Furthermore, it was shown how pneumococcus was the leading cause of recurrent community-acquired meningitis without predisposing factors, suggesting that pneumococcal vaccination may be necessary, even in those groups of individuals considered to be less susceptible.

Bacterial surface lipoproteins mediate epithelial microinvasion by Streptococcus pneumoniae

Streptococcus pneumoniae, a common colonizer of the upper respiratory tract, invades nasopharyngeal epithelial cells without causing disease in healthy participants of controlled human infection studies. We hypothesized that surface expression of pneumococcal lipoproteins, recognized by the innate immune receptor TLR2, mediates epithelial microinvasion. Mutation of lgt in serotype 4 (TIGR4) and serotype 6B (BHN418) pneumococcal strains abolishes the ability of the mutants to activate TLR2 signaling. Loss of lgt also led to the concomitant decrease in interferon signaling triggered by the bacterium. However, only BHN418 lgt::cm but not TIGR4 lgt::cm was significantly attenuated in epithelial adherence and microinvasion compared to their respective wild-type strains. To test the hypothesis that differential lipoprotein repertoires in TIGR4 and BHN418 lead to the intraspecies variation in epithelial microinvasion, we employed a motif-based genome analysis and identified an additional 525 a.a. lipoprotein (pneumococcal accessory lipoprotein A; palA) encoded by BHN418 that is absent in TIGR4. The gene encoding palA sits within a putative genetic island present in ~10% of global pneumococcal isolates. While palA was enriched in the carriage and otitis media pneumococcal strains, neither mutation nor overexpression of the gene encoding this lipoprotein significantly changed microinvasion patterns. In conclusion, mutation of lgt attenuates epithelial inflammatory responses during pneumococcal-epithelial interactions, with intraspecies variation in the effect on microinvasion. Differential lipoprotein repertoires encoded by the different strains do not explain these differences in microinvasion. Rather, we postulate that post-translational modifications of lipoproteins may account for the differences in microinvasion.IMPORTANCEStreptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) is an important mucosal pathogen, estimated to cause over 500,000 deaths annually. Nasopharyngeal colonization is considered a necessary prerequisite for disease, yet many people are transiently and asymptomatically colonized by pneumococci without becoming unwell. It is therefore important to better understand how the colonization process is controlled at the epithelial surface. Controlled human infection studies revealed the presence of pneumococci within the epithelium of healthy volunteers (microinvasion). In this study, we focused on the regulation of epithelial microinvasion by pneumococcal lipoproteins. We found that pneumococcal lipoproteins induce epithelial inflammation but that differing lipoprotein repertoires do not significantly impact the magnitude of microinvasion. Targeting mucosal innate immunity and epithelial microinvasion alongside the induction of an adaptive immune response may be effective in preventing pneumococcal colonization and disease.

Efficient Production of Self-Assembled Bioconjugate Nanovaccines against Klebsiella pneumoniae O2 Serotype in Engineered Escherichia coli

Nanoparticles (NPs) have been surfacing as a pivotal platform for vaccine development. In our previous work, we developed a cholera toxin B subunit (CTB)-based self-assembled nanoparticle (CNP) and produced highly promising bioconjugate nanovaccines by loading bacterial polysaccharide (OPS) in vivo. In particular, the Klebsiella pneumoniae O2 serotype vaccine showcased a potent immune response and protection against infection. However, extremely low yields limited its further application. In this study, we prepared an efficient Klebsiella pneumoniae bioconjugate nanovaccine in Escherichia coli with a very high yield. By modifying the 33rd glycine (G) in the CNP to aspartate (D), we were able to observe a dramatically increased expression of glycoprotein. Subsequently, through a series of mutations, we determined that G33D was essential to increasing production. In addition, this increase only occurred in engineered E. coli but not in the natural host K. pneumoniae strain 355 (Kp355) expressing OPSKpO2. Next, T-cell epitopes were fused at the end of the CNP(G33D), and animal experiments showed that fusion of the M51 peptide induced high antibody titers, consistent with the levels of the original nanovaccine, CNP-OPSKpO2. Hence, we provide an effective approach for the high-yield production of K. pneumoniae bioconjugate nanovaccines and guidance for uncovering glycosylation mechanisms and refining glycosylation systems.

Engineering Escherichia coli for increased Und-P availability leads to material improvements in glycan expression technology

BACKGROUND

Bacterial surface glycans are assembled by glycosyltransferases (GTs) that transfer sugar monomers to long-chained lipid carriers. Most bacteria employ the 55-carbon chain undecaprenyl phosphate (Und-P) to scaffold glycan assembly. The amount of Und-P available for glycan synthesis is thought to be limited by the rate of Und-P synthesis and by competition for Und-P between phosphoglycosyl transferases (PGTs) and GTs that prime glycan assembly (which we collectively refer to as PGT/GTs). While decreasing Und-P availability disrupts glycan synthesis and promotes cell death, less is known about the effects of increased Und-P availability.

RESULTS

To determine if cells can maintain higher Und-P levels, we first reduced intracellular competition for Und-P by deleting all known non-essential PGT/GTs in the Gram-negative bacterium Escherichia coli (hereafter called ΔPGT/GT cells). We then increased the rate of Und-P synthesis in ΔPGT/GT cells by overexpressing the Und-P(P) synthase uppS from a plasmid (puppS). Und-P quantitation revealed that ΔPGT/GT/puppS cells can be induced to maintain 3-fold more Und-P than wild type cells. Next, we determined how increasing Und-P availability affects glycan expression. Interestingly, increasing Und-P availability increased endogenous and recombinant glycan expression. In particular, ΔPGT/GT/puppS cells could be induced to express 7-fold more capsule from Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype 4 than traditional E. coli cells used to express recombinant glycans.

CONCLUSIONS

We demonstrate that the biotechnology standard bacterium E. coli can be engineered to maintain higher levels of Und-P. The results also strongly suggest that Und-P pathways can be engineered to increase the expression of potentially any Und-P-dependent polymer. Given that many bacterial glycans are central to the production of vaccines, diagnostics, and therapeutics, increasing Und-P availability should be a foremost consideration when designing bacterial glycan expression systems.

Semisynthetic Pneumococcal Glycoconjugate Nanovaccine

Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines offer an excellent safety profile and high protection against the serotypes comprised in the vaccine. However, inclusion of protein antigens fromStreptococcus pneumoniaecombined with potent adjuvants and a suitable delivery system are expected to both extend protection to serotype strains not represented in the formulation and stimulate a broader immune response, thus more effective in young children, elderly, and immunocompromised populations. Along this line, nanoparticle (NP) delivery systems can enhance the immunogenicity of antigens by protecting them from degradation and increasing their uptake by antigen-presenting cells, as well as offering co-delivery with adjuvants. We report herein the encapsulation of a semisynthetic glycoconjugate (GC) composed of a synthetic tetrasaccharide mimicking theS. pneumoniae serotype 14 capsular polysaccharide (CP14) linked to the Pneumococcal surface protein A (PsaA) using chitosan NPs (CNPs). These GC-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (GC-CNPs) were not toxic to human monocyte-derived dendritic cells (MoDCs), showed enhanced uptake, and displayed better immunostimulatory properties in comparison to the naked GC. A comparative study was carried out in mice to evaluate the immune response elicited by the glycoconjugate-administered subcutaneously (SC), where the GC-CNPs displayed 100-fold higher IgG response as compared with the group treated with nonencapsulated GC. Overall, the study demonstrates the potential of this chitosan-based nanovaccine for efficient delivery of glycoconjugate antigens.

Molecular engineering tools for the development of vaccines against infectious diseases: current status and future directions

INTRODUCTION

The escalating global changes have fostered conditions for the expansion and transmission of diverse biological factors, leading to the rise of emerging and reemerging infectious diseases. Complex viral infections, such as COVID-19, influenza, HIV, and Ebola, continue to surface, necessitating the development of effective vaccine technologies.

AREAS COVERED

This review article highlights recent advancements in molecular biology, virology, and genomics that have propelled the design and development of innovative molecular tools. These tools have promoted new vaccine research platforms and directly improved vaccine efficacy. The review summarizes the cutting-edge molecular engineering tools used in creating novel vaccines and explores the rapidly expanding molecular tools landscape and potential directions for future vaccine development.

EXPERT OPINION

The strategic application of advanced molecular engineering tools can address conventional vaccine limitations, enhance the overall efficacy of vaccine products, promote diversification in vaccine platforms, and form the foundation for future vaccine development. Prioritizing safety considerations of these novel molecular tools during vaccine development is crucial.

Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype 19A from carriers and invasive disease: virulence gene profile and pathogenicity in a Galleria mellonella model

PURPOSE

This study aimed to evaluate and compare the presence of genes related to surface proteins between isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae from healthy carriers (HC) and invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) with a particular focus on serotype 19A.

METHODS

The presence of these genes was identified by real-time PCR. Subsequently, we employed the Galleria mellonella larval infection model to study their effect on pathogenicity in vivo.

RESULTS

The percentage of selected virulence genes was similar between the HC and IPD groups (p > 0.05), and the genes lytA, nanB, pavA, pcpA, phtA, phtB, phtE, rrgA, and sipA were all present in both groups. However, the virulence profile of the isolates differed individually between HC and IPD groups. The highest lethality in G. mellonella was for IPD isolates (p < 0.01), even when the virulence profile was the same as compared to the HC isolates or when the nanA, pspA, pspA-fam1, and pspC genes were not present.

CONCLUSIONS

The occurrence of the investigated virulence genes was similar between HC and IPD S. pneumoniae serotype 19A groups. However, the IPD isolates showed a higher lethality in the alternative G. mellonella model than the HC isolates, regardless of the virulence gene composition, indicating that other virulence factors may play a decisive role in virulence. Currently, this is the first report using the in vivo G. mellonella model to study the virulence of clinical isolates of S. pneumoniae.

Pneumococcal Vaccination in Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Cost-Effectiveness Studies

OBJECTIVES

Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs) have significantly reduced disease burden caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae, a leading cause of childhood morbidity and mortality globally. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to assess the incremental net benefit (INB) of the 13-valent PCV (PCV13) and 10-valent PCV (PCV10) in children.

METHODS

We performed a comprehensive search in several databases published before May 2022. Studies were included if they were cost-effectiveness or cost-utility analyses of PCV13 or PCV10 compared with no vaccination or with each other in children. Various monetary units were converted to purchasing power parity, adjusted to 2021 US dollars. The INBs were calculated and then pooled across studies stratified by country income level, perspective, and consideration of herd effects, using a random-effect model.

RESULTS

Seventy studies were included. When herd effects were considered, PCV13 was cost-effective compared with PCV10 from the payer perspective in both high-income countries (HICs) (INB, $103.94; 95% confidence interval, $75.28-$132.60) and low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) (INB, $53.49; 95% confidence interval, $30.42-$76.55) with statistical significance. These findings were robust across a series of sensitivity analyses. PCV13 was cost-effective compared with no vaccination across perspectives and consideration of herd effects in both HICs and LMICs, whereas findings were less consistent for PCV10.

CONCLUSION

PCVs were generally cost-effective compared with no vaccination in HICs and LMICs. Our study found that PCV13 was cost-effective compared with PCV10 when herd effects were considered from the payer perspective in both HICs and LMICs. The results are sensitive to the consideration of herd effects.

Progress towards a glycoconjugate vaccine against Group A Streptococcus

The Group A Carbohydrate (GAC) is a defining feature of Group A Streptococcus (Strep A) or Streptococcus pyogenes. It is a conserved and simple polysaccharide, comprising a rhamnose backbone and GlcNAc side chains, further decorated with glycerol phosphate on approximately 40% GlcNAc residues. Its conservation, surface exposure and antigenicity have made it an interesting focus on Strep A vaccine design. Glycoconjugates containing this conserved carbohydrate should be a key approach towards the successful mission to build a universal Strep A vaccine candidate. In this review, a brief introduction to GAC, the main carbohydrate component of Strep A bacteria, and a variety of published carrier proteins and conjugation technologies are discussed. Components and technologies should be chosen carefully for building affordable Strep A vaccine candidates, particularly for low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Towards this, novel technologies are discussed, such as the prospective use of bioconjugation with PglB for rhamnose polymer conjugation and generalised modules for membrane antigens (GMMA), particularly as low-cost solutions to vaccine production. Rational design of "double-hit" conjugates encompassing species specific glycan and protein components would be beneficial and production of a conserved vaccine to target Strep A colonisation without invoking an autoimmune response would be ideal.

A combinatorial DNA assembly approach to biosynthesis of N-linked glycans in E. coli

Glycoengineering of recombinant glycans and glycoconjugates is a rapidly evolving field. However, the production and exploitation of glycans has lagged behind that of proteins and nucleic acids. Biosynthetic glycoconjugate production requires the coordinated cooperation of three key components within a bacterial cell: a substrate protein, a coupling oligosaccharyltransferase, and a glycan biosynthesis locus. While the acceptor protein and oligosaccharyltransferase are the products of single genes, the glycan is a product of a multigene metabolic pathway. Typically, the glycan biosynthesis locus is cloned and transferred en bloc from the native organism to a suitable Escherichia coli strain. However, gene expression within these pathways has been optimized by natural selection in the native host and is unlikely to be optimal for heterologous production in an unrelated organism. In recent years, synthetic biology has addressed the challenges in heterologous expression of multigene systems by deconstructing these pathways and rebuilding them from the bottom up. The use of DNA assembly methods allows the convenient assembly of such pathways by combining defined parts with the requisite coding sequences in a single step. In this study, we apply combinatorial assembly to the heterologous biosynthesis of the Campylobacter jejuni  N-glycosylation (pgl) pathway in E. coli. We engineered reconstructed biosynthesis clusters that faithfully reproduced the C. jejuni heptasaccharide glycan. Furthermore, following a single round of combinatorial assembly and screening, we identified pathway clones that outperform glycan and glycoconjugate production of the native unmodified pgl cluster. This platform offers a flexible method for optimal engineering of glycan structures in E. coli.

Carriers and Antigens: New Developments in Glycoconjugate Vaccines

Glycoconjugate vaccines have proven their worth in the protection and prevention of infectious diseases. The introduction of the Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccine is the prime example, followed by other glycoconjugate vaccines. Glycoconjugate vaccines consist of two components: the carrier protein and the carbohydrate antigen. Current carrier proteins are tetanus toxoid, diphtheria toxoid, CRM197, Haemophilus protein D and the outer membrane protein complex of serogroup B meningococcus. Carbohydrate antigens have been produced mainly by extraction and purification from the original host. However, current efforts show great advances in the development of synthetically produced oligosaccharides and bioconjugation. This review evaluates the advances of glycoconjugate vaccines in the last five years. We focus on developments regarding both new carriers and antigens. Innovative developments regarding carriers are outer membrane vesicles, glycoengineered proteins, new carrier proteins, virus-like particles, protein nanocages and peptides. With regard to conjugated antigens, we describe recent developments in the field of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and ESKAPE pathogens.

Conjugation Mechanism for Pneumococcal Glycoconjugate Vaccines: Classic and Emerging Methods

Licensed glycoconjugate vaccines are generally prepared using native or sized polysaccharides coupled to a carrier protein through random linkages along the polysaccharide chain. These polysaccharides must be chemically modified before covalent linking to a carrier protein in order to obtain a more defined polysaccharide structure that leads to a more rational design and safer vaccines. There are classic and new methods for site-selective glycopolysaccharide conjugation, either chemical or enzymatic modification of the polysaccharide length or of specific amino acid residues of the protein carrier. Here, we discuss the state of the art and the advancement of conjugation of S. pneumoniae glycoconjugate vaccines based on pneumococcal capsular polysaccharides to improve existing vaccines.

Classical- and bioconjugate vaccines: comparison of the structural properties and immunological response

Glycoconjugate vaccines have been effectively used in humans for about 40 years. The glycoconjugates have substituted plain polysaccharide vaccines that have many limitations, especially in infants. The covalent linking of protein to carbohydrates has allowed to overcome T-cell-dependent type-2 response of sugars. Glycoconjugates can show improved responses (over plain saccharides) also in elderly and immunocompromised (and depending on the endpoint also in immunocompetent adults), but infants represent the main target of these vaccines because of their unique immune system. Differently from the plain polysaccharide vaccines, the glycoconjugates are also able to induce Immunoglobulin G (IgG) response in infants. Recently, vaccines containing conjugates directly expressed in Escherichia coli (bioconjugates) have been tested in the clinic against Shigella dysenteriae type 1, uropathogenic E. coli, and Streptococcus pneumoniae. Here, we report an overall comparison of classical- and bioconjugate vaccines in terms of the structural properties and the immunological response elicited.

The remarkable history of pneumococcal vaccination: an ongoing challenge

Although it varies with age and geographical distribution, the global burden of infection with Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) remains considerable. The elderly, and younger adults with comorbid conditions, are at particularly high risk of pneumococcal infection, and this risk will increase as the population ages. Vaccination should be the backbone of our current strategies to deal with this infection.

Main body: This manuscript reviews the history of the development of pneumococcal vaccines, and the impact of different vaccines and vaccination strategies over the past 111 years. It documents the early years of vaccine development in the gold mines of South Africa, when vaccination with killed pneumococci was shown to be effective, even before the recognition that different pneumococci were antigenically distinct. The development of type-specific vaccines, still with whole killed pneumococci, showed a high degree of efficacy. The identification of the importance of the pneumococcal capsule heralded the era of vaccination with capsular polysaccharides, although with the advent of penicillin, interest in pneumococcal vaccine development waned. The efforts of Austrian and his colleagues, who documented that despite penicillin therapy, patients still died from pneumococcal infection in the first 96 h, ultimately led to the licensing first of a 14-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide in 1977 followed by the 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide in 1983. The principal problem with these, as with other polysaccharide vaccines, was that that they failed to immunize infants and toddlers, who were at highest risk for pneumococcal disease. This was overcome by chemical linking or conjugation of the polysaccharide molecules to an immunogenic carrier protein. Thus began the era of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV), starting with PCV7, progressing to PCV10 and PCV13, and, most recently, PCV15 and PCV20. However, these vaccines remain serotype specific, posing the challenge of new serotypes replacing vaccine types. Current research addresses serotype-independent vaccines which, so far, has been a challenging and elusive endeavor.

Conclusion: While there has been enormous progress in the development of pneumococcal vaccines during the past century, attempts to develop a vaccine that will retain its efficacy for most pneumococcal serotypes are ongoing.

Engineering a suite of E. coli strains for enhanced expression of bacterial polysaccharides and glycoconjugate vaccines

BACKGROUND

Glycoengineering, in the biotechnology workhorse bacterium, Escherichia coli, is a rapidly evolving field, particularly for the production of glycoconjugate vaccine candidates (bioconjugation). Efficient production of glycoconjugates requires the coordinated expression within the bacterial cell of three components: a carrier protein, a glycan antigen and a coupling enzyme, in a timely fashion. Thus, the choice of a suitable E. coli host cell is of paramount importance. Microbial chassis engineering has long been used to improve yields of chemicals and biopolymers, but its application to vaccine production is sparse.

RESULTS

In this study we have engineered a family of 11 E. coli strains by the removal and/or addition of components rationally selected for enhanced expression of Streptococcus pneumoniae capsular polysaccharides with the scope of increasing yield of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines. Importantly, all strains express a detoxified version of endotoxin, a concerning contaminant of therapeutics produced in bacterial cells. The genomic background of each strain was altered using CRISPR in an iterative fashion to generate strains without antibiotic markers or scar sequences.

CONCLUSIONS

Amongst the 11 modified strains generated in this study, E. coli Falcon, Peregrine and Sparrowhawk all showed increased production of S. pneumoniae serotype 4 capsule. Eagle (a strain without enterobacterial common antigen, containing a GalNAc epimerase and PglB expressed from the chromosome) and Sparrowhawk (a strain without enterobacterial common antigen, O-antigen ligase and chain length determinant, containing a GalNAc epimerase and chain length regulators from Streptococcus pneumoniae) respectively produced an AcrA-SP4 conjugate with 4 × and 14 × more glycan than that produced in the base strain, W3110. Beyond their application to the production of pneumococcal vaccine candidates, the bank of 11 new strains will be an invaluable resource for the glycoengineering community.

Safety and immunogenicity of a new glycoengineered vaccine against Acinetobacter baumannii in mice

Acinetobacter baumannii poses a serious threat to human health, mainly because of its widespread distribution and severe drug resistance. However, no licensed vaccines exist for this pathogen. In this study, we created a conjugate vaccine against A. baumannii by introducing an O-linked glycosylation system into the host strain. After demonstrating the ability of the vaccine to elicit Th1 and Th2 immune responses and observing its good safety in mouse a model, the strong in vitro bactericidal activity and prophylactic effects of the conjugate vaccine against infection were further demonstrated by evaluating post-infection tissue bacterial loads, observing suppressed serum pro-inflammatory cytokine levels. Additionally, the broad protection from the vaccine was further proved via lethal challenge with A. baumannii. Overall, these results indicated that the conjugate vaccine could elicit an efficient immune response and provide good protection against A. baumannii infection in murine sepsis models. Thus, the conjugate vaccine can be considered as a promising candidate vaccine for preventing A. baumannii infection.

Immunobiology of Carbohydrates: Implications for Novel Vaccine and Adjuvant Design Against Infectious Diseases

Carbohydrates are ubiquitous molecules expressed on the surface of nearly all living cells, and their interaction with carbohydrate-binding proteins is critical to many immunobiological processes. Carbohydrates are utilized as antigens in many licensed vaccines against bacterial pathogens. More recently, they have also been considered as adjuvants. Interestingly, unlike other types of vaccines, adjuvants have improved immune response to carbohydrate-based vaccine in humans only in a few cases. Furthermore, despite the discovery of many new adjuvants in the last years, aluminum salts, when needed, remain the only authorized adjuvant for carbohydrate-based vaccines. In this review, we highlight historical and recent advances on the use of glycans either as vaccine antigens or adjuvants, and we review the use of currently available adjuvants to improve the efficacy of carbohydrate-based vaccines. A better understanding of the mechanism of carbohydrate interaction with innate and adaptive immune cells will benefit the design of a new generation of glycan-based vaccines and of immunomodulators to fight both longstanding and emerging diseases.

PglB function and glycosylation efficiency is temperature dependent when the pgl locus is integrated in the Escherichia coli chromosome

Background

Campylobacter is an animal and zoonotic pathogen of global importance, and a pressing need exists for effective vaccines, including those that make use of conserved polysaccharide antigens. To this end, we adapted Protein Glycan Coupling Technology (PGCT) to develop a versatile Escherichia coli strain capable of generating multiple glycoconjugate vaccine candidates against Campylobacter jejuni.

Results

We generated a glycoengineering E. coli strain containing the conserved C. jejuni heptasaccharide coding region integrated in its chromosome as a model glycan. This methodology confers three advantages: (i) reduction of plasmids and antibiotic markers used for PGCT, (ii) swift generation of many glycan-protein combinations and consequent rapid identification of the most antigenic proteins or peptides, and (iii) increased genetic stability of the polysaccharide coding-region. In this study, by using the model glycan expressing strain, we were able to test proteins from C. jejuni, Pseudomonas aeruginosa (both Gram-negative), and Clostridium perfringens (Gram-positive) as acceptors. Using this pgl integrant E. coli strain, four glycoconjugates were readily generated. Two glycoconjugates, where both protein and glycan are from C. jejuni (double-hit vaccines), and two glycoconjugates, where the glycan antigen is conjugated to a detoxified toxin from a different pathogen (single-hit vaccines). Because the downstream application of Live Attenuated Vaccine Strains (LAVS) against C. jejuni is to be used in poultry, which have a higher body temperature of 42 °C, we investigated the effect of temperature on protein expression and glycosylation in the E. coli pgl integrant strain.

Conclusions

We determined that glycosylation is temperature dependent and that for the combination of heptasaccharide and carriers used in this study, the level of PglB available for glycosylation is a step limiting factor in the glycosylation reaction. We also demonstrated that temperature affects the ability of PglB to glycosylate its substrates in an in vitro glycosylation assay independent of its transcriptional level.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12934-021-01728-7.

Maintained partial protection against Streptococcus pneumoniae despite B-cell depletion in mice vaccinated with a pneumococcal glycoconjugate vaccine

OBJECTIVES

Anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody therapy rapidly depletes > 95% of CD20⁺ B cells from the circulation. B-cell depletion is an effective treatment for autoimmune disease and B-cell malignancies but also increases the risk of respiratory tract infections. This effect on adaptive immunity could be countered by vaccination. We have used mouse models to investigate the effects of B-cell depletion on pneumococcal vaccination, including protection against infection and timing of vaccination in relation to B-cell depletion.

METHODS

C57BL/6 female mice were B-cell depleted using anti-CD20 antibody and immunized with two doses of Prevnar-13 vaccine either before or after anti-CD20 treatment. B-cell repertoire and Streptococcus pneumoniae-specific IgG levels were measured using whole-cell ELISA and flow cytometry antibody-binding assay. Protection induced by vaccination was assessed by challenging the mice using a S. pneumoniae pneumonia model.

RESULTS

Antibody responses to S. pneumoniae were largely preserved in mice B-cell depleted after vaccination resulting in full protection against pneumococcal infections. In contrast, mice vaccinated with Prevnar-13 while B cells were depleted (with > 90% reduction in B-cell numbers) had decreased circulating anti-S. pneumoniae IgG and IgM levels (measured using ELISA and flow cytometry antibody binding assays). However, some antibody responses were maintained, and, although vaccine-induced protection against S. pneumoniae infection was impaired, septicaemia was still prevented in 50% of challenged mice.

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed that although vaccine efficacy during periods of profound B-cell depletion was impaired some protective efficacy was preserved, suggesting that vaccination remains beneficial.

Combined effects of glycan chain length and linkage type on the immunogenicity of glycoconjugate vaccines

The development and use of antibacterial glycoconjugate vaccines have significantly reduced the occurrence of potentially fatal childhood and adult diseases such as bacteremia, bacterial meningitis, and pneumonia. In these vaccines, the covalent linkage of bacterial glycans to carrier proteins augments the immunogenicity of saccharide antigens by triggering T cell-dependent B cell responses, leading to high-affinity antibodies and durable protection. Licensed glycoconjugate vaccines either contain long-chain bacterial polysaccharides, medium-sized oligosaccharides, or short synthetic glycans. Here, we discuss factors that affect the glycan chain length in vaccines and review the available literature discussing the impact of glycan chain length on vaccine efficacy. Furthermore, we evaluate the available clinical data on licensed glycoconjugate vaccine preparations with varying chain lengths against two bacterial pathogens, Haemophilus influenzae type b and Neisseria meningitidis group C, regarding a possible correlation of glycan chain length with their efficacy. We find that long-chain glycans cross-linked to carrier proteins and medium-sized oligosaccharides end-linked to carriers both achieve high immunogenicity and efficacy. However, end-linked glycoconjugates that contain long untethered stretches of native glycan chains may induce hyporesponsiveness by T cell-independent activation of B cells, while cross-linked medium-sized oligosaccharides may suffer from suboptimal saccharide epitope accessibility.

Intranasal vaccination with protein bodies elicit strong protection against Streptococcus pneumoniae colonization

Protein bodies (PBs) are particles consisting of insoluble, aggregated proteins with potential as a vaccine formulation. PBs can contain high concentrations of antigen, are stable and relatively resistant to proteases, release antigen slowly and are cost-effective to manufacture. Yet, the capacity of PBs to provoke immune responses and protection in the upper respiratory tract, a major entry route of respiratory pathogens, is largely unknown. In this study, we vaccinated mice intranasally with PBs comprising antigens from Streptococcus pneumoniae and evaluated the level of protection against nasopharyngeal colonization. PBs composed of the α-helical domain of pneumococcal surface protein A (PspAα) provided superior protection against colonization with S. pneumoniae compared to soluble PspAα. Immunization with soluble protein or PBs induced differences in antibody binding to pneumococci as well as a highly distinct antigen-specific nasal cytokine profile upon in vivo stimulation with inactivated S. pneumoniae. Moreover, immunization with PBs composed of conserved putative pneumococcal antigens reduced colonization by S. pneumoniae in mice, both as a single- and as a multi-antigen formulation. In conclusion, PBs represent a vaccine formulation that elicits strong mucosal immune responses and protection. The versatility of this platform offers opportunities for development of next-generation vaccine formulations.

Development of an automated platform for the optimal production of glycoconjugate vaccines expressed in Escherichia coli

Protein Glycan Coupling Technology (PGCT) uses purposely modified bacterial cells to produce recombinant glycoconjugate vaccines. This vaccine platform holds great potential in this context, namely due to its modular nature, the simplified production process in comparison to traditional chemical conjugation methods, and its amenability to scaled-up operations. As a result, a considerable reduction in production time and cost is expected, making PGCT-made vaccines a suitable vaccine technology for low-middle income countries, where vaccine coverage remains predominantly low and inconsistent. This work aims to develop an integrated whole-process automated platform for the screening of PGCT-made glycoconjugate vaccine candidates. The successful translation of a bench scale process for glycoconjugate production to a microscale automated setting was achieved. This was integrated with a numerical computational software that allowed hands-free operation and a platform adaptable to biological variation over the course of a production process. Platform robustness was proven with both technical and biological replicates and subsequently the platform was used to screen for the most favourable conditions for production of a pneumococcal serotype 4 vaccine candidate. This work establishes an effective automated platform that enabled the identification of the most suitable E. coli strain and genetic constructs to be used in ongoing early phase research and be further brought into preclinical trials.

A minimal sequon sufficient for O-linked glycosylation by the versatile oligosaccharyltransferase PglS

Bioconjugate vaccines, consisting of polysaccharides attached to carrier proteins, are enzymatically generated using prokaryotic glycosylation systems in a process termed bioconjugation. Key to bioconjugation are a group of enzymes known as oligosaccharyltransferases (OTases) that transfer polysaccharides to engineered carrier proteins containing conserved amino acid sequences known as sequons. The most recently discovered OTase, PglS, has been shown to have the broadest substrate scope, transferring many different types of bacterial glycans including those with glucose at the reducing end. However, PglS is currently the least understood in terms of the sequon it recognizes. PglS is a pilin-specific O-linking OTase that naturally glycosylates a single protein, ComP. In addition to ComP, we previously demonstrated that an engineered carrier protein containing a large fragment of ComP is also glycosylated by PglS. Here we sought to identify the minimal ComP sequon sufficient for PglS glycosylation. We tested >100 different ComP fragments individually fused to Pseudomonas aeruginosa exotoxin A (EPA), leading to the identification of an 11-amino acid sequence sufficient for robust glycosylation by PglS. We also demonstrate that the placement of the ComP sequon on the carrier protein is critical for stability and subsequent glycosylation. Moreover, we identify novel sites on the surface of EPA that are amenable to ComP sequon insertion and find that Cross-Reactive Material 197 fused to a ComP fragment is also glycosylated. These results represent a significant expansion of the glycoengineering toolbox as well as our understanding of bacterial O-linking sequons.

Protective Effect of Nasal Colonisation with ∆cps/piaA and ∆cps/proABCStreptococcus pneumoniae Strains against Recolonisation and Invasive Infection

RATIONALE

Nasopharyngeal administration of live virulence-attenuated Streptococcus pneumoniae strains is a potential novel preventative strategy. One target for creating reduced virulence S. pneumoniae strains is the capsule, but loss of the capsule reduces the duration of S. pneumoniae colonisation in mice which could impair protective efficacy against subsequent infection.

OBJECTIVES

To assess protective efficacy of nasopharyngeal administration of unencapsulated S. pneumoniae strains in murine infection models.

METHODS

Strains containing cps locus deletions combined with the S. pneumoniae virulence factors psaA (reduces colonisation) or proABC (no effect on colonisation) were constructed and their virulence phenotypes and ability to prevent recolonisation or invasive infection assessed using mouse infection models. Serological responses to colonisation were compared between strains using ELISAs, immunoblots and 254 S. pneumoniae protein antigen array.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

The ∆cps/piaA and ∆cps/proABC strains were strongly attenuated in virulence in both invasive infection models and had a reduced ability to colonise the nasopharynx. ELISAs, immunoblots and protein arrays showed colonisation with either strain stimulated weaker serological responses than the wild type strain. Mice previously colonised with these strains were protected against septicaemic pneumonia but, unlike mice colonised with the wild type strain, not against S. pneumoniae recolonisation.

CONCLUSIONS

Colonisation with the ∆cps/piaA and ∆cps/proABC strains prevented subsequent septicaemia, but in contrast, to published data for encapsulated double mutant strains they did not prevent recolonisation with S. pneumoniae. These data suggest targeting the cps locus is a less effective option for creating live attenuated strains that prevent S. pneumoniae infections.

Post-Streptococcus mitis infection polyserositis

We report a case of a 42-year-old man who presented with acute epigastric and retrosternal chest pain and exertional dyspnoea, and was subsequently diagnosed with polyserositis secondary to post-Streptococcal mitis infection. A CT scan showed a large pericardial effusion requiring pericardiocentesis, small bilateral pleural effusions and small amount of ascites. Several serological tests were done, which were all found to be normal. Pericardial and pleural fluid aspirates revealed an exudate. Culture of the pleural fluid yielded growth of S.  mitis and this was deemed the cause of the polyserositis, which is rare. The patient made a spontaneous recovery. He was started on colchicine by the cardiologists to help prevent pericardial fluid recurrence and this was continued for 3 months. A dental review confirmed the presence of dental caries, the possible source of infection. On follow-up, the patient remained well with no further relapses.

Evaluation of Glycosylated FlpA and SodB as Subunit Vaccines Against Campylobacter jejuni Colonisation in Chickens

Campylobacter jejuni is the leading bacterial cause of human gastroenteritis worldwide and the handling or consumption of contaminated poultry meat is the key source of infection. C. jejuni proteins FlpA and SodB and glycoconjugates containing the C. jejuni N-glycan have been separately reported to be partially protective vaccines in chickens. In this study, two novel glycoproteins generated by protein glycan coupling technology-G-FlpA and G-SodB (with two and three N-glycosylation sites, respectively)-were evaluated for efficacy against intestinal colonisation of chickens by C. jejuni strain M1 relative to their unglycosylated variants. Two independent trials of the same design were performed with either a high challenge dose of 10⁷ colony-forming units (CFU) or a minimum challenge dose of 10² CFU of C. jejuni M1. While antigen-specific serum IgY was detected in both trials, no reduction in caecal colonisation by C. jejuni M1 was observed and glycosylation of vaccine antigens had no effect on the outcome. Our data highlight inconsistencies in the outcome of C. jejuni vaccination trials that may reflect antigen-, challenge strain-, vaccine administration-, adjuvant- and chicken line-specific differences from previously published studies. Refinement of glycoconjugate vaccines by increasing glycosylation levels or using highly immunogenic protein carriers could improve their efficacy.

Synthetic Glycobiology: Parts, Systems, and Applications

Protein glycosylation, the attachment of sugars to amino acid side chains, can endow proteins with a wide variety of properties of great interest to the engineering biology community. However, natural glycosylation systems are limited in the diversity of glycoproteins they can synthesize, the scale at which they can be harnessed for biotechnology, and the homogeneity of glycoprotein structures they can produce. Here we provide an overview of the emerging field of synthetic glycobiology, the application of synthetic biology tools and design principles to better understand and engineer glycosylation. Specifically, we focus on how the biosynthetic and analytical tools of synthetic biology have been used to redesign glycosylation systems to obtain defined glycosylation structures on proteins for diverse applications in medicine, materials, and diagnostics. We review the key biological parts available to synthetic biologists interested in engineering glycoproteins to solve compelling problems in glycoscience, describe recent efforts to construct synthetic glycoprotein synthesis systems, and outline exemplary applications as well as new opportunities in this emerging space.

Application of an O-Linked Glycosylation System in Yersinia enterocolitica Serotype O:9 to Generate a New Candidate Vaccine against Brucella abortus

Brucellosis is a major zoonotic public health threat worldwide, causing veterinary morbidity and major economic losses in endemic regions. However, no efficacious brucellosis vaccine is yet available, and live attenuated vaccines commonly used in animals can cause human infection. N- and O-linked glycosylation systems have been successfully developed and exploited for the production of successful bioconjugate vaccines. Here, we applied an O-linked glycosylation system to a low-pathogenicity bacterium, Yersinia enterocolitica serotype O:9 (Y. enterocolitica O:9), which has repeating units of O-antigen polysaccharide (OPS) identical to that of Brucella abortus (B. abortus), to develop a bioconjugate vaccine against Brucella. The glycoprotein we produced was recognized by both anti-B. abortus and anti-Y. enterocolitica O:9 monoclonal antibodies. Three doses of bioconjugate vaccine-elicited B. abortus OPS-specific serum IgG in mice, significantly reducing bacterial loads in the spleen following infection with the B. abortus hypovirulent smooth strain A19. This candidate vaccine mitigated B. abortus infection and prevented severe tissue damage, thereby protecting against lethal challenge with A19. Overall, the results indicated that the bioconjugate vaccine elicited a strong immune response and provided significant protection against brucellosis. The described vaccine preparation strategy is safe and avoids large-scale culture of the highly pathogenic B. abortus.

Glycoengineering bioconjugate vaccines, therapeutics, and diagnostics in E. coli

The first, general glycosylation pathway in bacteria, the N-linked glycosylation system of Campylobacter jejuni, was discovered two decades ago. Since then, many diverse prokaryotic glycosylation systems have been characterized, including O-linked glycosylation systems that have no homologous counterparts in eukaryotic organisms. Shortly after these discoveries, glycosylation pathways were recombinantly introduced into E. coli creating the field of bacterial glycoengineering. Bacterial glycoengineering is an emerging biotechnological tool that harnesses prokaryotic glycosylation systems for the generation of recombinantly glycosylated proteins using E. coli as a host. Over the last decade, as our understanding of prokaryotic glycosylation systems has advanced, so too has the glycoengineering toolbox. Currently, glycoengineering utilizes two broad approaches to recombinantly glycosylate proteins, both of which can generate N- or O-linkages: oligosaccharyltransferase (OTase)-dependent and OTase-independent. This review discusses the applications of these bacterial glycoengineering techniques as they relate to the development of glycoconjugate vaccines, therapeutic proteins, and diagnostics.

The long search for a serotype independent pneumococcal vaccine

Introduction: Serotype replacement - a consequence of polysaccharide vaccine use - will continue to drive the inclusion of new serotypes on conjugate vaccines, increasing production complexity and costs, and making an already expensive vaccine less accessible to developing countries, where prevalence is higher and resources available for health systems, scarcer. Serotype-independent formulations are a promising option, but so far they have not been successful in reducing colonization/transmission.Areas covered: Protein-based and whole-cell vaccine candidates studied in the past 30 years. Challenges for serotype-independent vaccine development and alternative approaches.Expert opinion: Clinical trials performed so far demonstrated the importance to establish more reliable animal models and better correlates of protection. Defining appropriate endpoints for clinical trials of serotype-independent vaccine candidates has been a challenge. Inhibition of colonization has been evaluated, but concern on the extent of bacterial elimination is still a matter of debate. Challenges on establishing representative sites for clinical trials, sample sizes and appropriate age groups are discussed. On a whole, although many challenges will have to be overcome, establishing protein-based antigens as serotype-independent vaccines is still the best alternative against the huge burden of pneumococcal diseases in the world.

Convenient synthesis of the pentasaccharide repeating unit corresponding to the cell wall O-antigen of Escherichia albertii O4

A straightforward sequential synthetic strategy has been developed for the synthesis of a pentasaccharide repeating unit corresponding to the cell wall O-antigen of the Escherichia albertii O4 strain in very good yield with the desired configuration at the glycosidic linkages using thioglycosides and trichloroacetimidate derivatives as glycosyl donors and perchloric acid supported over silica (HClO4/SiO2) as a solid supported protic acid glycosyl activator. The expected configuration at the glycosidic linkages was achieved using a reasonable selection of protecting groups in the manosaccharide intermediates.

Glycoconjugate vaccines: current approaches towards faster vaccine design

Introduction: Over the last decades, glycoconjugate vaccines have been proven to be a successful strategy to prevent infectious diseases. Many diseases remain to be controlled, especially in developing countries, and emerging antibiotic-resistant bacteria present an alarming public-health threat. The increasing complexity of future vaccines, and the need to accelerate development processes have triggered the development of faster approaches to glycoconjugate vaccines design. Areas covered: This review provides an overview of recent progress in glycoconjugation technologies toward faster vaccine design. Expert opinion: Among the different emerging approaches, glycoengineering has the potential to combine glycan assembly and conjugation to carrier systems (such as proteins or outer membrane vesicles) in one step, resulting in a simplified manufacturing process and fewer analytical controls. Chemical and enzymatic strategies, and their automation can facilitate glycoepitope identification for vaccine design. Other approaches, such as the liposomal encapsulation of polysaccharides, potentially enable fast and easy combination of numerous antigens in the same formulation. Additional progress is envisaged in the near future, and some of these systems still need to be further validated in humans. In parallel, new strategies are needed to accelerate the vaccine development process, including the associated clinical trials, up to vaccine release onto the market.

Recent advances in the production of recombinant glycoconjugate vaccines

Glycoconjugate vaccines against bacteria are one of the success stories of modern medicine and have led to a significant reduction in the global occurrence of bacterial meningitis and pneumonia. Glycoconjugate vaccines are produced by covalently linking a bacterial polysaccharide (usually capsule, or more recently O-antigen), to a carrier protein. Given the success of glycoconjugate vaccines, it is surprising that to date only vaccines against Haemophilus influenzae type b, Neisseria meningitis and Streptococcus pneumoniae have been fully licenced. This is set to change through the glycoengineering of recombinant vaccines in bacteria, such as Escherichia coli, that act as mini factories for the production of an inexhaustible and renewable supply of pure vaccine product. The recombinant process, termed Protein Glycan Coupling Technology (PGCT) or bioconjugation, offers a low-cost option for the production of pure glycoconjugate vaccines, with the in-built flexibility of adding different glycan/protein combinations for custom made vaccines. Numerous vaccine candidates have now been made using PGCT, which include those improving existing licenced vaccines (e.g., pneumococcal), entirely new vaccines for both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, and (because of the low production costs) veterinary pathogens. Given the continued threat of antimicrobial resistance and the potential peril of bioterrorist agents, the production of new glycoconjugate vaccines against old and new bacterial foes is particularly timely. In this review, we will outline the component parts of bacterial PGCT, including recent advances, the advantages and limitations of the technology, and future applications and perspectives.