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Johnston C, Scheele S, Bachmann L, Boily MC, Chaiyakunapruk N, Deal C, Delany-Moretlwe S, Lee S, Looker K, Marshall C, Mello MB, Ndowa F, Gottlieb S. Vaccine value profile for herpes simplex virus. Vaccine 2024; 42:S82-S100. [PMID: 39003018 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2024.01.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Revised: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 07/15/2024]
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and type 2 (HSV-2) are chronic, highly prevalent viral infections that cause significant morbidity around the world. HSV-2 is sexually transmitted and is the leading cause of genital ulcer disease (GUD). It also increases the risk of HIV acquisition, fueling the HIV epidemic. HSV-1 is typically acquired in childhood through nonsexual contact and contributes to oral and ocular disease, but it can also be sexually transmitted to cause GUD. Both HSV-1 and HSV-2 cause neonatal herpes and neurologic disease. Given the ubiquitous nature of HSV-1 and HSV-2 infections and the limited existing prevention and control measures, vaccination would be the most efficient strategy to reduce the global burden of morbidity related to HSV infection. Vaccine strategies include prophylactic vaccination, which would prevent infection among susceptible persons and would likely be given to adolescents, and therapeutic vaccinations, which would be given to people with symptomatic genital HSV-2 infection. This document discusses the vaccine value profile of both types of vaccines. This 'Vaccine Value Profile' (VVP) for HSV is intended to provide a high-level, holistic assessment of the information and data that are currently available to inform the potential public health, economic and societal value of pipeline vaccines and vaccine-like products. This VVP was developed by subject matter experts from academia, non-profit organizations, government agencies and multi-lateral organizations. All contributors have extensive expertise on various elements of the HSV VVP and collectively aimed to identify current research and knowledge gaps. The VVP was developed using only existing and publicly available information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Johnston
- Division of Allergy & Infectious Diseases, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
| | - Suzanne Scheele
- Center for Vaccine Introduction and Access, PATH, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Laura Bachmann
- Division of STD Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Marie-Claude Boily
- MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, UK
| | - Nathorn Chaiyakunapruk
- Department of Pharmacotherapy, University of Utah College of Pharmacy, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Carolyn Deal
- Enteric and Sexually Transmitted Diseases Branch, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | | | - Shaun Lee
- Monash University Malaysia, Subang, Malaysia
| | - Katharine Looker
- Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, UK
| | - Caroline Marshall
- Department of Immunizations, Vaccines and Biologicals, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Maeve B Mello
- Global HIV, Hepatitis and STI Programmes, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | - Sami Gottlieb
- Department of Sexual and Reproductive Health and Research, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
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Hussain MT, Stanfield BA, Bernstein DI. Small Animal Models to Study Herpes Simplex Virus Infections. Viruses 2024; 16:1037. [PMID: 39066200 PMCID: PMC11281376 DOI: 10.3390/v16071037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2024] [Revised: 06/14/2024] [Accepted: 06/22/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) are two of the most prevalent human viruses worldwide. They are known to cause a variety of diseases including genital herpes, meningitis, encephalitis, cold sores and herpes stromal keratitis. The seropositive rate for HSV-1 is around 90%, whereas for HSV-2 it remains around 20-25% for the general adult population. The infections caused by these viruses remain difficult to study because a large proportion of infected individuals are asymptomatic. Furthermore, given the neurotropic characteristics of the virus, studies aimed at understanding the complex pathogenesis in humans is difficult. As a result, animal models have been developed to understand several characteristics of HSV biology, pathogenesis, disease and host responses to infection. These models are also commonly used as the first evaluation of new drugs and vaccines. There are several well-established animal models to study infection with HSV, including mice, guinea pigs and rabbits. Variables within the animal models depend on the species of animal, route of infection, viral strain, dosage, etc. This review aims at summarizing the most commonly used animal models to study HSV pathogenesis and therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed Tanveer Hussain
- Division of Biotechnology and Molecular Medicine and Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
| | - Brent A. Stanfield
- Division of Biotechnology and Molecular Medicine and Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
| | - David I. Bernstein
- Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
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3
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Quadiri A, Prakash S, Dhanushkodi NR, Singer M, Zayou L, Shaik AM, Sun M, Suzer B, Lau LSL, Chilukurri A, Vahed H, Schaefer H, BenMohamed L. Therapeutic prime/pull vaccination of HSV-2-infected guinea pigs with the ribonucleotide reductase 2 (RR2) protein and CXCL11 chemokine boosts antiviral local tissue-resident and effector memory CD4 + and CD8 + T cells and protects against recurrent genital herpes. J Virol 2024; 98:e0159623. [PMID: 38587378 PMCID: PMC11092353 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01596-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Following acute herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) infection, the virus undergoes an asymptomatic latent infection of sensory neurons of dorsal root ganglia (DRG). Chemical and physical stress cause intermittent virus reactivation from latently infected DRG and recurrent virus shedding in the genital mucosal epithelium causing genital herpes in symptomatic patients. While T cells appear to play a role in controlling virus reactivation from DRG and reducing the severity of recurrent genital herpes, the mechanisms for recruiting these T cells into DRG and the vaginal mucosa (VM) remain to be fully elucidated. The present study investigates the effect of CXCL9, CXCL10, and CXCL11 T-cell-attracting chemokines on the frequency and function of DRG- and VM-resident CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and its effect on the frequency and severity of recurrent genital herpes in the recurrent herpes guinea pig model. HSV-2 latent-infected guinea pigs were immunized intramuscularly with the HSV-2 ribonucleotide reductase 2 (RR2) protein (Prime) and subsequently treated intravaginally with the neurotropic adeno-associated virus type 8 expressing CXCL9, CXCL10, or CXCL11 chemokines to recruit CD4+ and CD8+ T cells into the infected DRG and VM (Pull). Compared to the RR2 therapeutic vaccine alone, the RR2/CXCL11 prime/pull therapeutic vaccine significantly increased the frequencies of functional tissue-resident and effector memory CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in both DRG and VM tissues. This was associated with less virus in the healed genital mucosal epithelium and reduced frequency and severity of recurrent genital herpes. These findings confirm the role of local DRG- and VM-resident CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in reducing virus shedding at the vaginal site of infection and the severity of recurrent genital herpes and propose the novel prime-pull vaccine strategy to protect against recurrent genital herpes.IMPORTANCEThe present study investigates the novel prime/pull therapeutic vaccine strategy to protect against recurrent genital herpes using the latently infected guinea pig model. In this study, we used the strategy that involves immunization of herpes simplex virus type 2-infected guinea pigs using a recombinantly expressed herpes tegument protein-ribonucleotide reductase 2 (RR2; prime), followed by intravaginal treatment with the neurotropic adeno-associated virus type 8 expressing CXCL9, CXCL10, or CXCL11 T-cell-attracting chemokines to recruit T cells into the infected dorsal root ganglia (DRG) and vaginal mucosa (VM) (pull). We show that the RR2/CXCL11 prime-pull therapeutic vaccine strategy elicited a significant reduction in virus shedding in the vaginal mucosa and decreased the severity and frequency of recurrent genital herpes. This protection was associated with increased frequencies of functional tissue-resident (TRM cells) and effector (TEM cells) memory CD4+ and CD8+ T cells infiltrating latently infected DRG tissues and the healed regions of the vaginal mucosa. These findings shed light on the role of tissue-resident and effector memory CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in DRG tissues and the VM in protection against recurrent genital herpes and propose the prime-pull therapeutic vaccine strategy in combating genital herpes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Afshana Quadiri
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Swayam Prakash
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Nisha Rajeswari Dhanushkodi
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Mahmoud Singer
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Latifa Zayou
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Amin Mohammed Shaik
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Miyo Sun
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Berfin Suzer
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Lauren Su Lin Lau
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Amruth Chilukurri
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Hawa Vahed
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, California, USA
- Department of Vaccines and Immunotherapies, TechImmune, LLC, University Lab Partners, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Hubert Schaefer
- Intracellular Pathogens, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Lbachir BenMohamed
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, California, USA
- Department of Vaccines and Immunotherapies, TechImmune, LLC, University Lab Partners, Irvine, California, USA
- Institute for Immunology, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, California, USA
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4
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Cohen JI. Therapeutic vaccines for herpesviruses. J Clin Invest 2024; 134:e179483. [PMID: 38690731 PMCID: PMC11060731 DOI: 10.1172/jci179483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Herpesviruses establish latent infections, and most reactivate frequently, resulting in symptoms and virus shedding in healthy individuals. In immunocompromised patients, reactivating virus can cause severe disease. Persistent EBV has been associated with several malignancies in both immunocompromised and nonimmunocompromised persons. Reactivation and shedding occur with most herpesviruses, despite potent virus-specific antibodies and T cell immunity as measured in the blood. The licensure of therapeutic vaccines to reduce zoster indicates that effective therapeutic vaccines for other herpesviruses should be feasible. However, varicella-zoster virus is different from other human herpesviruses in that it is generally only shed during varicella and zoster. Unlike prophylactic vaccines, in which the correlate of immunity is antibody function, T cell immunity is the correlate of immunity for the only effective therapeutic herpesvirus vaccine-zoster vaccine. While most studies of therapeutic vaccines have measured immunity in the blood, cellular immunity at the site of reactivation is likely critical for an effective therapeutic vaccine for certain viruses. This Review summarizes the status of therapeutic vaccines for herpes simplex virus, cytomegalovirus, and Epstein-Barr virus and proposes approaches for future development.
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Gsell PS, Giersing B, Gottlieb S, Wilder-Smith A, Wu L, Friede M. Key considerations for the development of novel mRNA candidate vaccines in LMICs: A WHO/MPP mRNA Technology Transfer Programme meeting report. Vaccine 2023; 41:7307-7312. [PMID: 37949751 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2023.10.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/13/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023]
Abstract
The WHO/MPP mRNA Technology Transfer Programme, initiated in 2021, focuses on establishing mRNA vaccine manufacturing capacity in LMICs. On 17-21 April 2023, Programme partners were convened to review technology transfer progress, discuss sustainability aspects and promote mRNA product development for diseases relevant to LMICs. To help guide product development, this report introduces key considerations for for understanding the likelihood of technical and regulatory success and of policy development and procurement for mRNA vaccines to be developed and manufactured in LMICs. The report underscores the potential for LMICs to establish sustainable mRNA R&D pipelines.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Lindsey Wu
- World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
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Adam A, Kalveram B, Chen JYC, Yeung J, Rodriguez L, Singh A, Shi PY, Xie X, Wang T. A single-dose of intranasal vaccination with a live-attenuated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine candidate promotes protective mucosal and systemic immunity. NPJ Vaccines 2023; 8:160. [PMID: 37863935 PMCID: PMC10589337 DOI: 10.1038/s41541-023-00753-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/22/2023] Open
Abstract
An attenuated SARS-CoV-2 virus with modified viral transcriptional regulatory sequences and deletion of open-reading frames 3, 6, 7 and 8 (∆3678) was previously reported to protect hamsters from SARS-CoV-2 infection and transmission. Here we report that a single-dose intranasal vaccination of ∆3678 protects K18-hACE2 mice from wild-type or variant SARS-CoV-2 challenge. Compared with wild-type virus infection, the ∆3678 vaccination induces equivalent or higher levels of lung and systemic T cell, B cell, IgA, and IgG responses. The results suggest ∆3678 as an attractive mucosal vaccine candidate to boost pulmonary immunity against SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Awadalkareem Adam
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA
- Sealy Institute for Vaccine Sciences, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA
| | - Birte Kalveram
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA
| | - John Yun-Chung Chen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA
| | - Jason Yeung
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA
| | - Leslie Rodriguez
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA
| | - Ankita Singh
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA
| | - Pei-Yong Shi
- Sealy Institute for Vaccine Sciences, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA.
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA.
- Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA.
- Sealy Institute for Drug Discovery, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA.
- Sealy Center for Structural Biology & Molecular Biophysics, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA.
| | - Xuping Xie
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA.
- Sealy Institute for Drug Discovery, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA.
| | - Tian Wang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA.
- Sealy Institute for Vaccine Sciences, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA.
- Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA.
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA.
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7
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Dotiwala F, Upadhyay AK. Next Generation Mucosal Vaccine Strategy for Respiratory Pathogens. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:1585. [PMID: 37896988 PMCID: PMC10611113 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11101585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Revised: 10/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Inducing humoral and cytotoxic mucosal immunity at the sites of pathogen entry has the potential to prevent the infection from getting established. This is different from systemic vaccination, which protects against the development of systemic symptoms. The field of mucosal vaccination has seen fewer technological advances compared to nucleic acid and subunit vaccine advances for injectable vaccine platforms. The advent of the next-generation adenoviral vectors has given a boost to mucosal vaccine research. Basic research into the mechanisms regulating innate and adaptive mucosal immunity and the discovery of effective and safe mucosal vaccine adjuvants will continue to improve mucosal vaccine design. The results from clinical trials of inhaled COVID-19 vaccines demonstrate their ability to induce the proliferation of cytotoxic T cells and the production of secreted IgA and IgG antibodies locally, unlike intramuscular vaccinations. However, these mucosal vaccines induce systemic immune responses at par with systemic vaccinations. This review summarizes the function of the respiratory mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue and the advantages that the adenoviral vectors provide as inhaled vaccine platforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farokh Dotiwala
- Ocugen Inc., 11 Great Valley Parkway, Malvern, PA 19355, USA
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8
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Bourne N, Keith CA, Miller AL, Pyles RB, Cohen G, Milligan GN. Boosting of vaginal HSV-2-specific B and T cell responses by intravaginal therapeutic immunization results in diminished recurrent HSV-2 disease. J Virol 2023; 97:e0066923. [PMID: 37655939 PMCID: PMC10537585 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00669-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Accepted: 07/02/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Boosting herpes simplex virus (HSV)-specific immunity in the genital tissues of HSV-positive individuals to increase control of HSV-2 recurrent disease and virus shedding is an important goal of therapeutic immunization and would impact HSV-2 transmission. Experimental therapeutic HSV-2 vaccines delivered by a parenteral route have resulted in decreased recurrent disease in experimental animals. We used a guinea pig model of HSV-2 infection to test if HSV-specific antibody and cell-mediated responses in the vaginal mucosa would be more effectively increased by intravaginal (Ivag) therapeutic immunization compared to parenteral immunization. Therapeutic immunization with HSV glycoproteins and CpG adjuvant increased glycoprotein-specific IgG titers in vaginal secretions and serum to comparable levels in Ivag- and intramuscular (IM)-immunized animals. However, the mean numbers of HSV glycoprotein-specific antibody secreting cells (ASCs) and IFN-γ SCs were greater in Ivag-immunized animals demonstrating superior boosting of immunity in the vaginal mucosa compared to parenteral immunization. Therapeutic Ivag immunization also resulted in a significant decrease in the cumulative mean lesion days compared to IM immunization. There was no difference in the incidence or magnitude of HSV-2 shedding in either therapeutic immunization group compared to control-treated animals. Collectively, these data demonstrated that Ivag therapeutic immunization was superior compared to parenteral immunization to boost HSV-2 antigen-specific ASC and IFN-γ SC responses in the vagina and control recurrent HSV-2 disease. These results suggest that novel antigen delivery methods providing controlled release of optimized antigen/adjuvant combinations in the vaginal mucosa would be an effective approach for therapeutic HSV vaccines. IMPORTANCE HSV-2 replicates in skin cells before it infects sensory nerve cells where it establishes a lifelong but mostly silent infection. HSV-2 occasionally reactivates, producing new virus which is released back at the skin surface and may be transmitted to new individuals. Some HSV-specific immune cells reside at the skin site of the HSV-2 infection that can quickly activate and clear new virus. Immunizing people already infected with HSV-2 to boost their skin-resident immune cells and rapidly control the new HSV-2 infection is logical, but we do not know the best way to administer the vaccine to achieve this goal. In this study, a therapeutic vaccine given intravaginally resulted in significantly better protection against HSV-2 disease than immunization with the same vaccine by a conventional route. Immunization by the intravaginal route resulted in greater stimulation of vaginal-resident, virus-specific cells that produced antibody and produced immune molecules to rapidly clear virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nigel Bourne
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
- Sealy Institute for Vaccine Sciences, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
| | - Celeste A. Keith
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
| | - Aaron L. Miller
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
| | - Richard B. Pyles
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
- Sealy Institute for Vaccine Sciences, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
| | - Gary Cohen
- Department of Basic and Translational Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Gregg N. Milligan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
- Sealy Institute for Vaccine Sciences, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
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Mittra S, Harding SM, Kaech SM. Memory T Cells in the Immunoprevention of Cancer: A Switch from Therapeutic to Prophylactic Approaches. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2023; 211:907-916. [PMID: 37669503 PMCID: PMC10491418 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2300049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/07/2023]
Abstract
Cancer immunoprevention, the engagement of the immune system to prevent cancer, is largely overshadowed by therapeutic approaches to treating cancer after detection. Vaccines or, alternatively, the utilization of genetically engineered memory T cells could be methods of engaging and creating cancer-specific T cells with superb memory, lenient activation requirements, potent antitumor cytotoxicity, tumor surveillance, and resilience against immunosuppressive factors in the tumor microenvironment. In this review we analyze memory T cell subtypes based on their potential utility in cancer immunoprevention with regard to longevity, localization, activation requirements, and efficacy in fighting cancers. A particular focus is on how both tissue-resident memory T cells and stem memory T cells could be promising subtypes for engaging in immunoprevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siddhesh Mittra
- University of Toronto Schools, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Shane M. Harding
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Departments of Radiation Oncology and Immunology, University of Toronto; Toronto, Canada
| | - Susan M. Kaech
- NOMIS Center for Immunobiology and Microbial Pathogenesis, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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Mulik S, Berber E, Sehrawat S, Rouse BT. Controlling viral inflammatory lesions by rebalancing immune response patterns. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1257192. [PMID: 37671156 PMCID: PMC10475736 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1257192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In this review, we discuss a variety of immune modulating approaches that could be used to counteract tissue-damaging viral immunoinflammatory lesions which typify many chronic viral infections. We make the point that in several viral infections the lesions can be largely the result of one or more aspects of the host response mediating the cell and tissue damage rather than the virus itself being directly responsible. However, within the reactive inflammatory lesions along with the pro-inflammatory participants there are also other aspects of the host response that may be acting to constrain the activity of the damaging components and are contributing to resolution. This scenario should provide the prospect of rebalancing the contributions of different host responses and hence diminish or even fully control the virus-induced lesions. We identify several aspects of the host reactions that influence the pattern of immune responsiveness and describe approaches that have been used successfully, mainly in model systems, to modulate the activity of damaging participants and which has led to lesion control. We emphasize examples where such therapies are, or could be, translated for practical use in the clinic to control inflammatory lesions caused by viral infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sachin Mulik
- Center for Biomedical Research, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Tyler, Tyler, TX, United States
| | - Engin Berber
- Infection Biology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Sharvan Sehrawat
- Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Department of Biological Sciences, Mohali, Punjab, India
| | - Barry Tyrrell Rouse
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, United States
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11
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Kim H, Choi HG, Shin SJ. Bridging the gaps to overcome major hurdles in the development of next-generation tuberculosis vaccines. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1193058. [PMID: 37638056 PMCID: PMC10451085 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1193058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Although tuberculosis (TB) remains one of the leading causes of death from an infectious disease worldwide, the development of vaccines more effective than bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG), the only licensed TB vaccine, has progressed slowly even in the context of the tremendous global impact of TB. Most vaccine candidates have been developed to strongly induce interferon-γ (IFN-γ)-producing T-helper type 1 (Th1) cell responses; however, accumulating evidence has suggested that other immune factors are required for optimal protection against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection. In this review, we briefly describe the five hurdles that must be overcome to develop more effective TB vaccines, including those with various purposes and tested in recent promising clinical trials. In addition, we discuss the current knowledge gaps between preclinical experiments and clinical studies regarding peripheral versus tissue-specific immune responses, different underlying conditions of individuals, and newly emerging immune correlates of protection. Moreover, we propose how recently discovered TB risk or susceptibility factors can be better utilized as novel biomarkers for the evaluation of vaccine-induced protection to suggest more practical ways to develop advanced TB vaccines. Vaccines are the most effective tools for reducing mortality and morbidity from infectious diseases, and more advanced technologies and a greater understanding of host-pathogen interactions will provide feasibility and rationale for novel vaccine design and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongmin Kim
- Department of Microbiology, Institute for Immunology and Immunological Diseases, Graduate School of Medical Science, Brain Korea 21 Project, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Han-Gyu Choi
- Department of Microbiology and Medical Science, College of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung Jae Shin
- Department of Microbiology, Institute for Immunology and Immunological Diseases, Graduate School of Medical Science, Brain Korea 21 Project, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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12
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Quadiri A, Prakash S, Dhanushkodi NR, Singer M, Zayou L, Shaik AM, Sun M, Suzer B, Lau L, Chilukurri A, Vahed H, Schaefer H, BenMohamed L. Therapeutic Prime/Pull Vaccination of HSV-2 Infected Guinea Pigs with the Ribonucleotide Reductase 2 (RR2) Protein and CXCL11 Chemokine Boosts Antiviral Local Tissue-Resident and Effector Memory CD4 + and CD8 + T Cells and Protects Against Recurrent Genital Herpes. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.08.08.552454. [PMID: 37609157 PMCID: PMC10441333 DOI: 10.1101/2023.08.08.552454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/24/2023]
Abstract
Following acute herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) infection, the virus undergoes latency in sensory neurons of the dorsal root ganglia (DRG). Intermittent virus reactivation from latency and shedding in the vaginal mucosa (VM) causes recurrent genital herpes. While T-cells appear to play a role in controlling virus reactivation and reducing the severity of recurrent genital herpes, the mechanisms for recruiting these T-cells into DRG and VM tissues remain to be fully elucidated. The present study investigates the effect of CXCL9, CXCL10, and CXCL11 T-cell-attracting chemokines on the frequency and function of DRG- and VM-resident CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and its effect on the frequency and severity of recurrent genital herpes. HSV-2 latent-infected guinea pigs were immunized intramuscularly with the HSV-1 RR2 protein (Prime) and subsequently treated intravaginally with the neurotropic adeno-associated virus type 8 (AAV-8) expressing CXCL9, CXCL10, or CXCL11 T-cell-attracting chemokines (Pull). Compared to the RR2 therapeutic vaccine alone, the RR2/CXCL11 prime/pull therapeutic vaccine significantly increased the frequencies of functional tissue-resident (TRM cells) and effector (TEM cells) memory CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in both DRG and VM tissues. This was associated with less virus shedding in the healed genital mucosal epithelium and reduced frequency and severity of recurrent genital herpes. These findings confirm the role of local DRG- and VM-resident CD4+ and CD8+ TRM and TEM cells in reducing virus reactivation shedding and the severity of recurrent genital herpes and propose the novel prime/pull vaccine strategy to protect against recurrent genital herpes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Afshana Quadiri
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, CA, 92697
| | - Swayam Prakash
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, CA, 92697
| | - Nisha Rajeswari Dhanushkodi
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, CA, 92697
| | - Mahmoud Singer
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, CA, 92697
| | - Latifa Zayou
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, CA, 92697
| | - Amin Mohammed Shaik
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, CA, 92697
| | - Miyo Sun
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, CA, 92697
| | - Berfin Suzer
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, CA, 92697
| | - Lauren Lau
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, CA, 92697
| | - Amruth Chilukurri
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, CA, 92697
| | - Hawa Vahed
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, CA, 92697
- Department of Vaccines and Immunotherapies, TechImmune, LLC, University Lab Partners, Irvine, CA 92660; USA
| | - Hubert Schaefer
- Intracellular Pathogens, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin 13353, Germany
| | - Lbachir BenMohamed
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, CA, 92697
- Institute for Immunology, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, CaA 92697
- Department of Vaccines and Immunotherapies, TechImmune, LLC, University Lab Partners, Irvine, CA 92660; USA
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13
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Egan KP, Awasthi S, Tebaldi G, Hook LM, Naughton AM, Fowler BT, Beattie M, Alameh MG, Weissman D, Cohen GH, Friedman HM. A Trivalent HSV-2 gC2, gD2, gE2 Nucleoside-Modified mRNA-LNP Vaccine Provides Outstanding Protection in Mice against Genital and Non-Genital HSV-1 Infection, Comparable to the Same Antigens Derived from HSV-1. Viruses 2023; 15:1483. [PMID: 37515169 PMCID: PMC10384700 DOI: 10.3390/v15071483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2023] [Revised: 06/24/2023] [Accepted: 06/29/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
HSV-1 disease is a significant public health burden causing orofacial, genital, cornea, and brain infection. We previously reported that a trivalent HSV-2 gC2, gD2, gE2 nucleoside-modified mRNA-lipid nanoparticle (LNP) vaccine provides excellent protection against vaginal HSV-1 infection in mice. Here, we evaluated whether this HSV-2 gC2, gD2, gE2 vaccine is as effective as a similar HSV-1 mRNA LNP vaccine containing gC1, gD1, and gE1 in the murine lip and genital infection models. Mice were immunized twice with a total mRNA dose of 1 or 10 µg. The two vaccines produced comparable HSV-1 neutralizing antibody titers, and surprisingly, the HSV-2 vaccine stimulated more potent CD8+ T-cell responses to gE1 peptides than the HSV-1 vaccine. Both vaccines provided complete protection from clinical disease in the lip model, while in the genital model, both vaccines prevented death and genital disease, but the HSV-1 vaccine reduced day two vaginal titers slightly better at the 1 µg dose. Both vaccines prevented HSV-1 DNA from reaching the trigeminal or dorsal root ganglia to a similar extent. We conclude that the trivalent HSV-2 mRNA vaccine provides outstanding protection against HSV-1 challenge at two sites and may serve as a universal prophylactic vaccine for HSV-1 and HSV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin P. Egan
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (K.P.E.); (S.A.); (G.T.); (L.M.H.); (A.M.N.); (B.T.F.); (M.-G.A.); (D.W.)
| | - Sita Awasthi
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (K.P.E.); (S.A.); (G.T.); (L.M.H.); (A.M.N.); (B.T.F.); (M.-G.A.); (D.W.)
| | - Giulia Tebaldi
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (K.P.E.); (S.A.); (G.T.); (L.M.H.); (A.M.N.); (B.T.F.); (M.-G.A.); (D.W.)
| | - Lauren M. Hook
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (K.P.E.); (S.A.); (G.T.); (L.M.H.); (A.M.N.); (B.T.F.); (M.-G.A.); (D.W.)
| | - Alexis M. Naughton
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (K.P.E.); (S.A.); (G.T.); (L.M.H.); (A.M.N.); (B.T.F.); (M.-G.A.); (D.W.)
| | - Bernard T. Fowler
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (K.P.E.); (S.A.); (G.T.); (L.M.H.); (A.M.N.); (B.T.F.); (M.-G.A.); (D.W.)
| | | | - Mohamad-Gabriel Alameh
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (K.P.E.); (S.A.); (G.T.); (L.M.H.); (A.M.N.); (B.T.F.); (M.-G.A.); (D.W.)
| | - Drew Weissman
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (K.P.E.); (S.A.); (G.T.); (L.M.H.); (A.M.N.); (B.T.F.); (M.-G.A.); (D.W.)
| | - Gary H. Cohen
- Department of Basic and Translational Sciences, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA;
| | - Harvey M. Friedman
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (K.P.E.); (S.A.); (G.T.); (L.M.H.); (A.M.N.); (B.T.F.); (M.-G.A.); (D.W.)
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14
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Lykins WR, Fox CB. Practical Considerations for Next-Generation Adjuvant Development and Translation. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:1850. [PMID: 37514037 PMCID: PMC10385070 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15071850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2023] [Revised: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 06/27/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Over the last several years, there has been increased interest from academia and the pharmaceutical/biotech industry in the development of vaccine adjuvants for new and emerging vaccine modalities. Despite this, vaccine adjuvant development still has some of the longest timelines in the pharmaceutical space, from discovery to clinical approval. The reasons for this are manyfold and range from complexities in translation from animal to human models, concerns about safety or reactogenicity, to challenges in sourcing the necessary raw materials at scale. In this review, we will describe the current state of the art for many adjuvant technologies and how they should be approached or applied in the development of new vaccine products. We postulate that there are many factors to be considered and tools to be applied earlier on in the vaccine development pipeline to improve the likelihood of clinical success. These recommendations may require a modified approach to some of the common practices in new product development but would result in more accessible and practical adjuvant-containing products.
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15
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Prior JT, Limbert VM, Horowitz RM, D'Souza SJ, Bachnak L, Godwin MS, Bauer DL, Harrell JE, Morici LA, Taylor JJ, McLachlan JB. Establishment of isotype-switched, antigen-specific B cells in multiple mucosal tissues using non-mucosal immunization. NPJ Vaccines 2023; 8:80. [PMID: 37258506 PMCID: PMC10231862 DOI: 10.1038/s41541-023-00677-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Although most pathogens infect the human body via mucosal surfaces, very few injectable vaccines can specifically target immune cells to these tissues where their effector functions would be most desirable. We have previously shown that certain adjuvants can program vaccine-specific helper T cells to migrate to the gut, even when the vaccine is delivered non-mucosally. It is not known whether this is true for antigen-specific B cell responses. Here we show that a single intradermal vaccination with the adjuvant double mutant heat-labile toxin (dmLT) induces a robust endogenous, vaccine-specific, isotype-switched B cell response. When the vaccine was intradermally boosted, we detected non-circulating vaccine-specific B cell responses in the lamina propria of the large intestines, Peyer's patches, and lungs. When compared to the TLR9 ligand adjuvant CpG, only dmLT was able to drive the establishment of isotype-switched resident B cells in these mucosal tissues, even when the dmLT-adjuvanted vaccine was administered non-mucosally. Further, we found that the transcription factor Batf3 was important for the full germinal center reaction, isotype switching, and Peyer's patch migration of these B cells. Collectively, these data indicate that specific adjuvants can promote mucosal homing and the establishment of activated, antigen-specific B cells in mucosal tissues, even when these adjuvants are delivered by a non-mucosal route. These findings could fundamentally change the way future vaccines are formulated and delivered.
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Affiliation(s)
- John T Prior
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Vanessa M Limbert
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Rebecca M Horowitz
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Shaina J D'Souza
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Louay Bachnak
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Matthew S Godwin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - David L Bauer
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Jaikin E Harrell
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Lisa A Morici
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Justin J Taylor
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, USA
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - James B McLachlan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA.
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16
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Awasthi S, Onishi M, Lubinski JM, Fowler BT, Naughton AM, Hook LM, Egan KP, Hagiwara M, Shirai S, Sakai A, Nakagawa T, Goto K, Yoshida O, Stephens AJ, Choi G, Cohen GH, Katayama K, Friedman HM. Novel Adjuvant S-540956 Targets Lymph Nodes and Reduces Genital Recurrences and Vaginal Shedding of HSV-2 DNA When Administered with HSV-2 Glycoprotein D as a Therapeutic Vaccine in Guinea Pigs. Viruses 2023; 15:1148. [PMID: 37243234 PMCID: PMC10220834 DOI: 10.3390/v15051148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2023] [Revised: 04/30/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) is a leading cause of genital ulcer disease and a major risk factor for acquisition and transmission of HIV. Frequent recurrent genital lesions and concerns about transmitting infection to intimate partners affect the quality of life of infected individuals. Therapeutic vaccines are urgently needed to reduce the frequency of genital lesions and transmission. S-540956 is a novel vaccine adjuvant that contains CpG oligonucleotide ODN2006 annealed to its complementary sequence and conjugated to a lipid that targets the adjuvant to lymph nodes. Our primary goal was to compare S-540956 administered with HSV-2 glycoprotein D (gD2) with no treatment in a guinea pig model of recurrent genital herpes (studies 1 and 2). Our secondary goals were to compare S-540956 with oligonucleotide ODN2006 (study1) or glucopyranosyl lipid A in a stable oil-in-water nano-emulsion (GLA-SE) (study 2). gD2/S-540956 reduced the number of days with recurrent genital lesions by 56%, vaginal shedding of HSV-2 DNA by 49%, and both combined by 54% compared to PBS, and was more efficacious than the two other adjuvants. Our results indicate that S-540956 has great potential as an adjuvant for a therapeutic vaccine for genital herpes, and merits further evaluation with the addition of potent T cell immunogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sita Awasthi
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6073, USA (J.M.L.); (B.T.F.); (A.M.N.); (L.M.H.); (K.P.E.)
| | - Motoyasu Onishi
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Shionogi & Co., Ltd., Osaka 561-0825, Japan; (M.H.); (S.S.); (A.S.); (T.N.); (K.G.); (O.Y.); (K.K.)
| | - John M. Lubinski
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6073, USA (J.M.L.); (B.T.F.); (A.M.N.); (L.M.H.); (K.P.E.)
| | - Bernard T. Fowler
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6073, USA (J.M.L.); (B.T.F.); (A.M.N.); (L.M.H.); (K.P.E.)
| | - Alexis M. Naughton
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6073, USA (J.M.L.); (B.T.F.); (A.M.N.); (L.M.H.); (K.P.E.)
| | - Lauren M. Hook
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6073, USA (J.M.L.); (B.T.F.); (A.M.N.); (L.M.H.); (K.P.E.)
| | - Kevin P. Egan
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6073, USA (J.M.L.); (B.T.F.); (A.M.N.); (L.M.H.); (K.P.E.)
| | - Masaki Hagiwara
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Shionogi & Co., Ltd., Osaka 561-0825, Japan; (M.H.); (S.S.); (A.S.); (T.N.); (K.G.); (O.Y.); (K.K.)
| | - Seiki Shirai
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Shionogi & Co., Ltd., Osaka 561-0825, Japan; (M.H.); (S.S.); (A.S.); (T.N.); (K.G.); (O.Y.); (K.K.)
| | - Akiho Sakai
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Shionogi & Co., Ltd., Osaka 561-0825, Japan; (M.H.); (S.S.); (A.S.); (T.N.); (K.G.); (O.Y.); (K.K.)
| | - Takayuki Nakagawa
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Shionogi & Co., Ltd., Osaka 561-0825, Japan; (M.H.); (S.S.); (A.S.); (T.N.); (K.G.); (O.Y.); (K.K.)
| | - Kumiko Goto
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Shionogi & Co., Ltd., Osaka 561-0825, Japan; (M.H.); (S.S.); (A.S.); (T.N.); (K.G.); (O.Y.); (K.K.)
| | - Osamu Yoshida
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Shionogi & Co., Ltd., Osaka 561-0825, Japan; (M.H.); (S.S.); (A.S.); (T.N.); (K.G.); (O.Y.); (K.K.)
| | - Alisa J. Stephens
- Department of Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Informatics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6073, USA; (A.J.S.); (G.C.)
| | - Grace Choi
- Department of Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Informatics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6073, USA; (A.J.S.); (G.C.)
| | - Gary H. Cohen
- Department of Basic and Translational Sciences, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6073, USA;
| | - Kazufumi Katayama
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Shionogi & Co., Ltd., Osaka 561-0825, Japan; (M.H.); (S.S.); (A.S.); (T.N.); (K.G.); (O.Y.); (K.K.)
| | - Harvey M. Friedman
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6073, USA (J.M.L.); (B.T.F.); (A.M.N.); (L.M.H.); (K.P.E.)
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17
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Adam A, Kalveram B, Chen JYC, Yeung J, Rodriguez L, Singh A, Shi PY, Xie X, Wang T. A single-dose of intranasal vaccination with a live-attenuated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine candidate promotes protective mucosal and systemic immunity. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.04.17.537235. [PMID: 37131704 PMCID: PMC10153214 DOI: 10.1101/2023.04.17.537235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
An attenuated SARS-CoV-2 virus with modified viral transcriptional regulatory sequences and deletion of open-reading frames 3, 6, 7 and 8 (∆3678) was previously reported to protect hamsters from SARS-CoV-2 infection and transmission. Here we report that a single-dose intranasal vaccination of ∆3678 protects K18-hACE2 mice from wild-type or variant SARS-CoV-2 challenge. Compared with wild-type virus infection, the ∆3678 vaccination induces equivalent or higher levels of lung and systemic T cell, B cell, IgA, and IgG responses. The results suggest ∆3678 as an attractive mucosal vaccine candidate to boost pulmonary immunity against SARS-CoV-2.
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18
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Sunagar R, Singh A, Kumar S. SARS-CoV-2: Immunity, Challenges with Current Vaccines, and a Novel Perspective on Mucosal Vaccines. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:vaccines11040849. [PMID: 37112761 PMCID: PMC10143972 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11040849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Revised: 04/06/2023] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The global rollout of COVID-19 vaccines has played a critical role in reducing pandemic spread, disease severity, hospitalizations, and deaths. However, the first-generation vaccines failed to block severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and transmission, partially due to the limited induction of mucosal immunity, leading to the continuous emergence of variants of concern (VOC) and breakthrough infections. To meet the challenges from VOC, limited durability, and lack of mucosal immune response of first-generation vaccines, novel approaches are being investigated. Herein, we have discussed the current knowledge pertaining to natural and vaccine-induced immunity, and the role of the mucosal immune response in controlling SARS-CoV2 infection. We have also presented the current status of the novel approaches aimed at eliciting both mucosal and systemic immunity. Finally, we have presented a novel adjuvant-free approach to elicit effective mucosal immunity against SARS-CoV-2, which lacks the safety concerns associated with live-attenuated vaccine platforms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Amit Singh
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Disease, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY 12208, USA
| | - Sudeep Kumar
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Disease, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY 12208, USA
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19
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Morens DM, Taubenberger JK, Fauci AS. Rethinking next-generation vaccines for coronaviruses, influenzaviruses, and other respiratory viruses. Cell Host Microbe 2023; 31:146-157. [PMID: 36634620 PMCID: PMC9832587 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2022.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 72.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2022] [Revised: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Viruses that replicate in the human respiratory mucosa without infecting systemically, including influenza A, SARS-CoV-2, endemic coronaviruses, RSV, and many other "common cold" viruses, cause significant mortality and morbidity and are important public health concerns. Because these viruses generally do not elicit complete and durable protective immunity by themselves, they have not to date been effectively controlled by licensed or experimental vaccines. In this review, we examine challenges that have impeded development of effective mucosal respiratory vaccines, emphasizing that all of these viruses replicate extremely rapidly in the surface epithelium and are quickly transmitted to other hosts, within a narrow window of time before adaptive immune responses are fully marshaled. We discuss possible approaches to developing next-generation vaccines against these viruses, in consideration of several variables such as vaccine antigen configuration, dose and adjuventation, route and timing of vaccination, vaccine boosting, adjunctive therapies, and options for public health vaccination polices.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M. Morens
- Office of the Director, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Jeffery K. Taubenberger
- Viral Pathogenesis and Evolution Section, Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA,Corresponding author
| | - Anthony S. Fauci
- Office of the Director, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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20
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Oral vaccination using microdevices to deliver α-GalCer adjuvanted vaccine afford a mucosal immune response. J Control Release 2023; 353:134-146. [PMID: 36372387 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2022.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Revised: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Oral vaccination has in the recent years gained a lot of attraction, mainly due to optimized patient compliance and logistics. However, the development of oral vaccines, especially oral subunit vaccines is challenging. Micro technology can be utilized to overcome some of these challenges, by facilitating protection and effective delivery of the vaccine components in the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract). One such technology is Microcontainers (MCs), which can be realized to be mucoadhesive and to target specific regions of the GI tract via oral delivery. Here, we test MCs, for oral delivery of the C. trachomatis vaccine candidate CTH522, in combination with effective mucosal adjuvants. The adjuvants alpha- galactosylceramide (α-GalCer), C-di-GMP and cholera toxin B were compared in vivo, to identify the most prominent adjuvant for formulation with CTH522. Formulations were administered both purely oral and as boosters following a subcutaneous (s.c.) prime with CTH522 in combination with the CAF®01 adjuvant. CTH522 formulated with α-GalCer showed to be the most efficient combination for the oral vaccine, based on the immunological analysis. Lyophilized formulation of CTH522 and α-GalCer was loaded into MCs and these were subsequently coated with Eudragit L100-55 and evaluated in vivo in mice for the ability of MCs to mediate intestinal vaccine delivery and increase immunogenicity of the vaccine. Mice receiving oral prime and boosters did show a significantly enhanced mucosal immune responses compared to naive mice. This indicates the MCs are indeed capable of delivering the vaccine formulation intact and able to stimulate the immune cells. Mice orally boosted with MCs following a s.c. prime with CAF01, demonstrated improved systemic and local Th17 responses, along with increased local IFN-γ and IgA levels compared to both the s.c. prime alone and the homologous oral prime-boost immunization. However, due to the relatively weak observed effect of the MC delivery on the immune responses, it was hypothesized that the MCs are proportionally too large for the GI tract of mice, and thus cleared before an effective immune response can be induced. To investigate this, MCs were loaded with BaSO4, and orally administered to mice. Analysis with X-ray and CT showed a transit time of approximately 1-1.5 h from the stomach to the cecum, corresponding to the standard transit time in mice, and an extremely narrow absorption window. This indicates that mice is not a suitable animal model for evaluation of MCs. These data should be taken into consideration in future in vivo trials with this and similar technologies, where larger animals might be a necessity for proof-of-concept studies.
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Sunagar R, Prasad SD, Ella R, Vadrevu KM. Preclinical evaluation of safety and immunogenicity of a primary series intranasal COVID-19 vaccine candidate (BBV154) and humoral immunogenicity evaluation of a heterologous prime-boost strategy with COVAXIN (BBV152). Front Immunol 2022; 13:1063679. [PMID: 36569867 PMCID: PMC9773076 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1063679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Most if not all vaccine candidates developed to combat COVID-19 due to SARS-CoV-2 infection are administered parenterally. As SARS-CoV-2 is transmitted through infectious respiratory fluids, vaccine-induced mucosal immunity could provide an important contribution to control this pandemic. ChAd-SARS-CoV-2-S (BBV154), a replication-defective chimpanzee adenovirus (ChAd)-vectored intranasal (IN) COVID-19 vaccine candidate, encodes a prefusion-stabilized version of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein containing two proline substitutions in the S2 subunit. We performed preclinical evaluations of BBV154 in mice, rats, hamsters and rabbits. Repeated dose toxicity studies presented excellent safety profiles in terms of pathology and biochemical analysis. IN administration of BBV154 elicited robust mucosal and systemic humoral immune responses coupled with Th1 cell-mediated immune responses. BBV154 IN vaccination also elicited potent variant (omicron) cross neutralization antibodies. Assessment of anti-vector (ChAd36) neutralizing antibodies following repeated doses of BBV154 IN administration showed insignificant titers of ChAd36 neutralizing antibodies. However, the immune sera derived from the same animals displayed significantly higher levels of SARS-CoV-2 virus neutralization (p<0.003). We also evaluated the safety and immunogenicity of heterologous prime-boost vaccination with intramuscular (IM) COVAXIN-prime followed by BBV154 IN administration. COVAXIN priming followed by BBV154 IN-booster showed an acceptable reactogenicity profile comparable to the homologous COVAXIN/COVAXIN or BBV154/BBV154 vaccination model. Heterologous vaccination of COVAXIN-prime and BBV154 booster also elicited superior (p<0.005) and cross variant (omicron) protective immune responses (p<0.013) compared with the homologous COVAXIN/COVAXIN schedule. BBV154 has successfully completed both homologous and heterologous combination schedules of human phase 3 clinical trials and received the restricted emergency use approval (in those aged above 18 years) from the Drugs Controller General of India (DCGI).
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Yenyuwadee S, Sanchez-Trincado Lopez JL, Shah R, Rosato PC, Boussiotis VA. The evolving role of tissue-resident memory T cells in infections and cancer. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2022; 8:eabo5871. [PMID: 35977028 PMCID: PMC9385156 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abo5871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Resident memory T cells (TRM) form a distinct type of T memory cells that stably resides in tissues. TRM form an integral part of the immune sensing network and have the ability to control local immune homeostasis and participate in immune responses mediated by pathogens, cancer, and possibly autoantigens during autoimmunity. TRM express residence gene signatures, functional properties of both memory and effector cells, and remarkable plasticity. TRM have a well-established role in pathogen immunity, whereas their role in antitumor immune responses and immunotherapy is currently evolving. As TRM form the most abundant T memory cell population in nonlymphoid tissues, they are attractive targets for therapeutic exploitation. Here, we provide a concise review of the development and physiological role of CD8+ TRM, their involvement in diseases, and their potential therapeutic exploitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sasitorn Yenyuwadee
- Division of Hematology-Oncology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Department of Dermatology, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Jose Luis Sanchez-Trincado Lopez
- Division of Hematology-Oncology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Laboratory of Immunomedicine, School of Medicine, Complutense University of Madrid, Ave Complutense S/N, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Rushil Shah
- Division of Hematology-Oncology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850 , USA
| | - Pamela C Rosato
- The Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH 03755, USA
| | - Vassiliki A Boussiotis
- Division of Hematology-Oncology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Cancer Center, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
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23
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Gary EN, Tursi NJ, Warner B, Parzych EM, Ali AR, Frase D, Moffat E, Embury-Hyatt C, Smith TRF, Broderick KE, Humeau L, Kobasa D, Patel A, Kulp DW, Weiner DB. Mucosal chemokine adjuvant enhances synDNA vaccine-mediated responses to SARS-CoV-2 and provides heterologous protection in vivo. Cell Rep Med 2022; 3:100693. [PMID: 35839767 PMCID: PMC9237025 DOI: 10.1016/j.xcrm.2022.100693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Revised: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The global coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has claimed more than 5 million lives. Emerging variants of concern (VOCs) continually challenge viral control. Directing vaccine-induced humoral and cell-mediated responses to mucosal surfaces may enhance vaccine efficacy. Here we investigate the immunogenicity and protective efficacy of optimized synthetic DNA plasmids encoding wild-type severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spike protein (pS) co-formulated with the plasmid-encoded mucosal chemokine cutaneous T cell-attracting chemokine (pCTACK; CCL27). pCTACK-co-immunized animals exhibit increased spike-specific antibodies at the mucosal surface and increased frequencies of interferon gamma (IFNγ)+ CD8+ T cells in the respiratory mucosa. pCTACK co-immunization confers 100% protection from heterologous Delta VOC challenge. This study shows that mucosal chemokine adjuvants can direct vaccine-induced responses to specific immunological sites and have significant effects on heterologous challenge. Further study of this unique chemokine-adjuvanted vaccine approach in the context of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines is likely important.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ebony N Gary
- The Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Nicholas J Tursi
- The Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Bryce Warner
- Special Pathogens Program, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Elizabeth M Parzych
- The Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Ali R Ali
- The Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Drew Frase
- The Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Estella Moffat
- National Center for Foreign Animal Disease (NCFAD), Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Carissa Embury-Hyatt
- National Center for Foreign Animal Disease (NCFAD), Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | | | | | | | - Darwyn Kobasa
- Special Pathogens Program, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Ami Patel
- The Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Daniel W Kulp
- The Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - David B Weiner
- The Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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Tian X, Zhang Y, He Z, Li S, Yan D, Zhu Z, Wan Y, Wang W. Successive Site Translocating Inoculation Improved T Cell Responses Elicited by a DNA Vaccine Encoding SARS-CoV-2 S Protein. Front Immunol 2022; 13:875236. [PMID: 35514964 PMCID: PMC9062103 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.875236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A variety of methods have been explored to increase delivery efficiencies for DNA vaccine. However, the immunogenicity of DNA vaccines has not been satisfactorily improved. Unlike most of the previous attempts, we provided evidence suggesting that changing the injection site successively (successively site-translocated inoculation, SSTI) could significantly enhance the immunogenicity of DNA vaccines in a previous study. To simplify the strategy and to evaluate its impact on candidate SARS-CoV-2 vaccines, we immunized mice with either a SARS-CoV-2 spike-based DNA vaccine or a spike protein subunit vaccine via three different inoculation strategies. Our data demonstrated that S protein specific antibody responses elicited by the DNA vaccine or the protein subunit vaccine showed no significant difference among different inoculation strategies. Of interest, compared with the conventional site fixed inoculation (SFI), both successive site-translocating inoculation (SSTI) and the simplified translocating inoculation (STI) strategy improved specific T cell responses elicited by the DNA vaccine. More specifically, the SSTI strategy significantly improved both the monofunctional (IFN-γ+IL-2-TNF-α-CD8+) and the multifunctional (IFN-γ+IL-2-TNF-α+CD8+, IFN-γ+IL-2-TNF-α+CD4+, IFN-γ+IL-2+TNF-α+CD4+) T cell responses, while the simplified translocating inoculation (STI) strategy significantly improved the multifunctional CD8+ (IFN-γ+IL-2-TNF-α+CD8+, IFN-γ+IL-2+TNF-α+CD8+) and CD4+ (IFN-γ+IL-2-TNF-α+CD4+, IFN-γ+IL-2+TNF-α+CD4+) T cell responses. The current study confirmed that changing the site of intra muscular injection can significantly improve the immunogenicity of DNA vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangxiang Tian
- Department of Medical Laboratory, First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Department of Infectious Disease, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Biosafety Emergency Response, National Medical Center for Infectious Diseases, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Yifan Zhang
- Department of Medical Laboratory, First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Department of Infectious Disease, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Biosafety Emergency Response, National Medical Center for Infectious Diseases, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhangyufan He
- Department of Infectious Disease, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Biosafety Emergency Response, National Medical Center for Infectious Diseases, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Shaoshuai Li
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Shanghai, China
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical, Jiamusi University, Jiamusi, China
| | - Dongmei Yan
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical, Jiamusi University, Jiamusi, China
| | - Zhaoqin Zhu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Yanmin Wan
- Department of Infectious Disease, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Biosafety Emergency Response, National Medical Center for Infectious Diseases, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Department of Radiology, Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Wanhai Wang
- Department of Medical Laboratory, First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
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25
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Webster E, Seiger KW, Core SB, Collar AL, Knapp-Broas H, Graham J, Shrestha M, Afzaal S, Geisler WM, Wheeler CM, Chackerian B, Frietze KM, Lijek RS. Immunogenicity and Protective Capacity of a Virus-like Particle Vaccine against Chlamydia trachomatis Type 3 Secretion System Tip Protein, CT584. Vaccines (Basel) 2022; 10:vaccines10010111. [PMID: 35062772 PMCID: PMC8779370 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines10010111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Revised: 01/05/2022] [Accepted: 01/07/2022] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
Abstract
An effective vaccine against Chlamydia trachomatis is urgently needed as infection rates continue to rise and C. trachomatis causes reproductive morbidity. An obligate intracellular pathogen, C. trachomatis employs a type 3 secretion system (T3SS) for host cell entry. The tip of the injectosome is composed of the protein CT584, which represents a potential target for neutralization with vaccine-induced antibody. Here, we investigate the immunogenicity and efficacy of a vaccine made of CT584 epitopes coupled to a bacteriophage virus-like particle (VLP), a novel platform for Chlamydia vaccines modeled on the success of HPV vaccines. Female mice were immunized intramuscularly, challenged transcervically with C. trachomatis, and assessed for systemic and local antibody responses and bacterial burden in the upper genital tract. Immunization resulted in a 3-log increase in epitope-specific IgG in serum and uterine homogenates and in the detection of epitope-specific IgG in uterine lavage at low levels. By contrast, sera from women infected with C. trachomatis and virgin controls had similarly low titers to CT584 epitopes, suggesting these epitopes are not systemically immunogenic during natural infection but can be rendered immunogenic by the VLP platform. C. trachomatis burden in the upper genital tract of mice varied after active immunization, yet passive protection was achieved when immune sera were pre-incubated with C. trachomatis prior to inoculation into the genital tract. These data demonstrate the potential for antibody against the T3SS to contribute to protection against C. trachomatis and the value of VLPs as a novel platform for C. trachomatis vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Everett Webster
- Department of Biological Sciences, Mount Holyoke College, 50 College St., South Hadley, MA 01075, USA; (E.W.); (K.W.S.); (H.K.-B.); (J.G.); (M.S.); (S.A.)
| | - Kyra W. Seiger
- Department of Biological Sciences, Mount Holyoke College, 50 College St., South Hadley, MA 01075, USA; (E.W.); (K.W.S.); (H.K.-B.); (J.G.); (M.S.); (S.A.)
| | - Susan B. Core
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of New Mexico, MSC 08-4660, 1 University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; (S.B.C.); (A.L.C.); (B.C.); (K.M.F.)
| | - Amanda L. Collar
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of New Mexico, MSC 08-4660, 1 University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; (S.B.C.); (A.L.C.); (B.C.); (K.M.F.)
| | - Hannah Knapp-Broas
- Department of Biological Sciences, Mount Holyoke College, 50 College St., South Hadley, MA 01075, USA; (E.W.); (K.W.S.); (H.K.-B.); (J.G.); (M.S.); (S.A.)
| | - June Graham
- Department of Biological Sciences, Mount Holyoke College, 50 College St., South Hadley, MA 01075, USA; (E.W.); (K.W.S.); (H.K.-B.); (J.G.); (M.S.); (S.A.)
| | - Muskan Shrestha
- Department of Biological Sciences, Mount Holyoke College, 50 College St., South Hadley, MA 01075, USA; (E.W.); (K.W.S.); (H.K.-B.); (J.G.); (M.S.); (S.A.)
| | - Sarah Afzaal
- Department of Biological Sciences, Mount Holyoke College, 50 College St., South Hadley, MA 01075, USA; (E.W.); (K.W.S.); (H.K.-B.); (J.G.); (M.S.); (S.A.)
| | - William M. Geisler
- Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 703 19th St. S, ZRB 242, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA;
| | - Cosette M. Wheeler
- Center for HPV Prevention, University of New Mexico Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, MSC 08-4640, 1 University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA;
| | - Bryce Chackerian
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of New Mexico, MSC 08-4660, 1 University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; (S.B.C.); (A.L.C.); (B.C.); (K.M.F.)
| | - Kathryn M. Frietze
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of New Mexico, MSC 08-4660, 1 University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; (S.B.C.); (A.L.C.); (B.C.); (K.M.F.)
- Clinical and Translational Science Center, University of New Mexico Health Sciences, MSC 08-4635, 1 University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
| | - Rebeccah S. Lijek
- Department of Biological Sciences, Mount Holyoke College, 50 College St., South Hadley, MA 01075, USA; (E.W.); (K.W.S.); (H.K.-B.); (J.G.); (M.S.); (S.A.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-(413)-538-2487
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26
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Abstract
This article describes procedures for two preclinical animal models for genital herpes infection. The guinea pig model shares many features of genital herpes in humans, including a natural route of inoculation, self-limiting primary vulvovaginitis, spontaneous recurrences, symptomatic and subclinical shedding of HSV-2, and latent infection of the associated sensory ganglia (lumbosacral dorsal root ganglia, DRG). Many humoral and cytokine responses to HSV-2 infection in the guinea pig have been characterized; however, due to the limited availability of immunological reagents, assessments of cellular immune responses are lacking. In contrast, the mouse model has been important in assessing cellular immune responses to herpes infection. Both the mouse and guinea pig models have been extremely useful for evaluating preventative and immunotherapeutic approaches for controlling HSV infection and recurrent disease. In this article, we describe procedures for infecting guinea pigs and mice with HSV-2, scoring subsequent genital disease, and measuring replicating virus to confirm infection. We also provide detailed protocols for dissecting and isolating DRG (the site of HSV-2 latency), quantifying HSV-2 genomic copies in DRG, and assessing symptomatic and subclinical shedding of HSV-2 in the vagina. © 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Primary and recurrent genital herpes infection in the guinea pig model Support Protocol 1: Blood collection via lateral saphenous vein or by cardiac puncture after euthanasia Support Protocol 2: Dissection and isolation of dorsal root ganglia from guinea pigs Support Protocol 3: PCR amplification and quantification of HSV-2 genomic DNA from samples Basic Protocol 2: Primary genital herpes infection in the mouse model Alternate Protocol: Flank infection with HSV-2 in the mouse model Support Protocol 4: Dissection and isolation of mouse dorsal root ganglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren M Hook
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Harvey M Friedman
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Sita Awasthi
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
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27
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Stanfield BA, Kousoulas KG, Fernandez A, Gershburg E. Rational Design of Live-Attenuated Vaccines against Herpes Simplex Viruses. Viruses 2021; 13:1637. [PMID: 34452501 PMCID: PMC8402837 DOI: 10.3390/v13081637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2021] [Revised: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Diseases caused by human herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2) affect millions of people worldwide and range from fatal encephalitis in neonates and herpes keratitis to orofacial and genital herpes, among other manifestations. The viruses can be shed efficiently by asymptomatic carriers, causing increased rates of infection. Viral transmission occurs through direct contact of mucosal surfaces followed by initial replication of the incoming virus in skin tissues. Subsequently, the viruses infect sensory neurons in the trigeminal and lumbosacral dorsal root ganglia, where they are primarily maintained in a transcriptionally repressed state termed "latency", which persists for the lifetime of the host. HSV DNA has also been detected in other sympathetic ganglia. Periodically, latent viruses can reactivate, causing ulcerative and often painful lesions primarily at the site of primary infection and proximal sites. In the United States, recurrent genital herpes alone accounts for more than a billion dollars in direct medical costs per year, while there are much higher costs associated with the socio-economic aspects of diseased patients, such as loss of productivity due to mental anguish. Currently, there are no effective FDA-approved vaccines for either prophylactic or therapeutic treatment of human herpes simplex infections, while several recent clinical trials have failed to achieve their endpoint goals. Historically, live-attenuated vaccines have successfully combated viral diseases, including polio, influenza, measles, and smallpox. Vaccines aimed to protect against the devastation of smallpox led to the most significant achievement in medical history: the eradication of human disease by vaccination. Recently, novel approaches toward developing safe and effective live-attenuated vaccines have demonstrated high efficacy in various preclinical models of herpetic disease. This next generation of live-attenuated vaccines has been tailored to minimize vaccine-associated side effects and promote effective and long-lasting immune responses. The ultimate goal is to prevent or reduce primary infections (prophylactic vaccines) or reduce the frequency and severity of disease associated with reactivation events (therapeutic vaccines). These vaccines' "rational" design is based on our current understanding of the immunopathogenesis of herpesviral infections that guide the development of vaccines that generate robust and protective immune responses. This review covers recent advances in the development of herpes simplex vaccines and the current state of ongoing clinical trials in pursuit of an effective vaccine against herpes simplex virus infections and associated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brent A. Stanfield
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA;
| | - Konstantin G. Kousoulas
- Division of Biotechnology and Molecular Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
- Rational Vaccines Inc., Woburn, MA 01801, USA;
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28
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Wijesinghe VN, Farouk IA, Zabidi NZ, Puniyamurti A, Choo WS, Lal SK. Current vaccine approaches and emerging strategies against herpes simplex virus (HSV). Expert Rev Vaccines 2021; 20:1077-1096. [PMID: 34296960 DOI: 10.1080/14760584.2021.1960162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: Vaccine development for the disease caused by the herpes simplex virus (HSV) has been challenging over the years and is always in dire need of novel approaches for prevention and cure. To date, the HSV disease remains incurable and challenging to prevent. The disease is extremely widespread due to its high infection rate, resulting in millions of infection cases worldwide.Areas covered: This review first explains the diverse forms of HSV-related disease presentations and reports past vaccine history for the disease. Next, this review examines current and novel HSV vaccine approaches being studied and tested for efficacy and safety as well as vaccines in clinical trial phases I to III. Modern approaches to vaccine design using bioinformatics are described. Finally, we discuss measures to enhance new vaccine development pipelines for HSV.Expert opinion: Modernized approaches using in silico analysis and bioinformatics are emerging methods that exhibit potential for producing vaccines with enhanced targets and formulations. Although not yet fully established for HSV disease, we describe current studies using these approaches for HSV vaccine design to shed light on these methods. In addition, we provide up-to-date requirements of immunogenicity, adjuvant selection, and routes of administration.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Isra Ahmad Farouk
- School of Science, Monash University, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia
| | | | | | - Wee Sim Choo
- School of Science, Monash University, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Sunil Kumar Lal
- School of Science, Monash University, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia.,Tropical Medicine & Biology Platform, Monash University, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia
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29
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Dijkgraaf FE, Kok L, Schumacher TNM. Formation of Tissue-Resident CD8 + T-Cell Memory. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2021; 13:cshperspect.a038117. [PMID: 33685935 PMCID: PMC8327830 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a038117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Resident memory CD8+ T (Trm) cells permanently reside in nonlymphoid tissues where they act as a first line of defense against recurrent pathogens. How and when antigen-inexperienced CD8+ T cells differentiate into Trm has been a topic of major interest, as knowledge on how to steer this process may be exploited in the development of vaccines and anticancer therapies. Here, we first review the current understanding of the early signals that CD8+ T cells receive before they have entered the tissue and that govern their capacity to develop into tissue-resident memory T cells. Subsequently, we discuss the tissue-derived factors that promote Trm maturation in situ. Combined, these data sketch a model in which a subset of responding T cells develops a heightened capacity to respond to local cues present in the tissue microenvironment, which thereby imprints their ability to contribute to the tissue-resident memory CD8+ T-cell pool that provide local control against pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feline E Dijkgraaf
- Division of Molecular Oncology and Immunology, Oncode Institute, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066 Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Lianne Kok
- Division of Molecular Oncology and Immunology, Oncode Institute, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066 Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Ton N M Schumacher
- Division of Molecular Oncology and Immunology, Oncode Institute, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066 Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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30
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LeibundGut-Landmann S. Tissue-Resident Memory T Cells in Antifungal Immunity. Front Immunol 2021; 12:693055. [PMID: 34113356 PMCID: PMC8185520 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.693055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Fungi are an integral part of the mammalian microbiota colonizing most if not all mucosal surfaces and the skin. Maintaining stable colonization on these surfaces is critical for preventing fungal dysbiosis and infection, which in some cases can lead to life threatening consequences. The epithelial barriers are protected by T cells and additional controlling immune mechanisms. Noncirculating memory T cells that reside stably in barrier tissues play an important role for host protection from commensals and recurrent pathogens due to their fast response and local activity, which provides them a strategic advantage. So far, only a few specific examples of tissue resident memory T cells (TRMs) that act against fungi have been reported. This review provides an overview of the characteristics and functional attributes of TRMs that have been established based on human and mouse studies with various microbes. It highlights what is currently known about fungi specific TRMs mediating immunosurveillance, how they have been targeted in preclinical vaccination approaches and how they can promote immunopathology, if not controlled. A better appreciation of the host protective and damaging roles of TRMs might accelerate the development of novel tissue specific preventive strategies against fungal infections and fungi-driven immunopathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salomé LeibundGut-Landmann
- Section of Immunology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
- Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
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31
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Singh T, Otero CE, Li K, Valencia SM, Nelson AN, Permar SR. Vaccines for Perinatal and Congenital Infections-How Close Are We? Front Pediatr 2020; 8:569. [PMID: 33384972 PMCID: PMC7769834 DOI: 10.3389/fped.2020.00569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Congenital and perinatal infections are transmitted from mother to infant during pregnancy across the placenta or during delivery. These infections not only cause pregnancy complications and still birth, but also result in an array of pediatric morbidities caused by physical deformities, neurodevelopmental delays, and impaired vision, mobility and hearing. Due to the burden of these conditions, congenital and perinatal infections may result in lifelong disability and profoundly impact an individual's ability to live to their fullest capacity. While there are vaccines to prevent congenital and perinatal rubella, varicella, and hepatitis B infections, many more are currently in development at various stages of progress. The spectrum of our efforts to understand and address these infections includes observational studies of natural history of disease, epidemiological evaluation of risk factors, immunogen design, preclinical research of protective immunity in animal models, and evaluation of promising candidates in vaccine trials. In this review we summarize this progress in vaccine development research for Cytomegalovirus, Group B Streptococcus, Herpes simplex virus, Human Immunodeficiency Virus, Toxoplasma, Syphilis, and Zika virus congenital and perinatal infections. We then synthesize this evidence to examine how close we are to developing a vaccine for these infections, and highlight areas where research is still needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tulika Singh
- Duke University Medical Center, Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Durham, NC, United States
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Claire E. Otero
- Duke University Medical Center, Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Katherine Li
- Duke University Medical Center, Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Sarah M. Valencia
- Duke University Medical Center, Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Ashley N. Nelson
- Duke University Medical Center, Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Sallie R. Permar
- Duke University Medical Center, Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Durham, NC, United States
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States
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32
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Clegg J, Soldaini E, Bagnoli F, McLoughlin RM. Targeting Skin-Resident Memory T Cells via Vaccination to Combat Staphylococcus aureus Infections. Trends Immunol 2020; 42:6-17. [PMID: 33309137 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2020.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Revised: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Tissue-resident memory T cells are important in adaptive immunity against many infections, rendering these cells attractive potential targets in vaccine development. Genetic and experimental evidence highlights the importance of cellular immunity in protection from Staphylococcus aureus skin infections, yet skin-resident memory T cells are, thus far, an untested component of immunity during such infections. Novel methods of generating and sampling vaccine-induced skin memory T cells are paralleled by discoveries of global, skin-wide immunosurveillance. We propose skin-resident memory CD4+ T cells as a potential missing link in the search for correlates of protection during S. aureus infections. A better appreciation of their phenotypes and functions could accelerate the development of preventive vaccines against this highly virulent and antibiotic-resistant pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonah Clegg
- Host Pathogen Interactions Group, School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland; GlaxoSmithKline, Siena, Italy
| | | | | | - Rachel M McLoughlin
- Host Pathogen Interactions Group, School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland.
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33
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Bernstein DI, Cardin RD, Smith GA, Pickard GE, Sollars PJ, Dixon DA, Pasula R, Bravo FJ. The R2 non-neuroinvasive HSV-1 vaccine affords protection from genital HSV-2 infections in a guinea pig model. NPJ Vaccines 2020; 5:104. [PMID: 33298966 PMCID: PMC7648054 DOI: 10.1038/s41541-020-00254-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus (HSV) infections are common and can cause severe illness but no vaccine is currently available. The recent failure of subunit HSV vaccines has highlighted the need for vaccines that present a diverse array of antigens, including the development of next-generation live-attenuated vaccines. However, most attenuated HSV strains propagate poorly, limiting their ability to elicit protective immune responses. A live-attenuated vaccine that replicates in non-neural tissue but is ablated for transmission into the nervous system may elicit protective immune responses without evoking neurologic complications or establishing life-long infections. Initial studies of R2, a live-attenuated vaccine that is engineered to be unable to invade the nervous system, used the guinea pig genital HSV model to evaluate the ability of R2 to replicate at the site of inoculation, cause disease and infect neural tissues. R2 was then evaluated as a vaccine using three routes of inoculation: intramuscular (IM), intradermal (ID) and intravaginal (IVag) and compared to IM administered gD2+MPL/Alum vaccine in the same model. R2 replicated in the genital tract but did not produce acute or recurrent disease and did not infect the neural tissue. The R2 vaccine-induced neutralizing antibody and decreased the severity of acute and recurrent HSV-2 disease as well as recurrent shedding. The ID route was the most effective. ID administered R2 was more effective than gD2+MPL/Alum at inducing neutralizing antibody, suppressing acute disease, and acute vaginal virus replication. R2 was especially more effective at reducing recurrent virus shedding, the most common source of HSV transmission. The live-attenuated prophylactic HSV vaccine, R2, was effective in the guinea pig model of genital HSV-2 especially when administered by the ID route. The use of live-attenuated HSV vaccines that robustly replicate in mucosal tissues but are ablated for neuroinvasion offers a promising approach for HSV vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- David I Bernstein
- Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA.
| | - Rhonda D Cardin
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Gregory A Smith
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Gary E Pickard
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA
| | - Patricia J Sollars
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA
| | - David A Dixon
- Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Rajamouli Pasula
- Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Fernando J Bravo
- Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
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34
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Kardani K, Basimi P, Fekri M, Bolhassani A. Antiviral therapy for the sexually transmitted viruses: recent updates on vaccine development. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol 2020; 13:1001-1046. [PMID: 32838584 DOI: 10.1080/17512433.2020.1814743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The sexually transmitted infections (STIs) caused by viruses including human T cell leukemia virus type-1 (HTLV-1), human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1), human simplex virus-2 (HSV-2), hepatitis C virus (HCV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and human papillomavirus (HPV) are major public health issues. These infections can cause cancer or result in long-term health problems. Due to high prevalence of STIs, a safe and effective vaccine is required to overcome these fatal viruses. AREAS COVERED This review includes a comprehensive overview of the literatures relevant to vaccine development against the sexually transmitted viruses (STVs) using PubMed and Sciencedirect electronic search engines. Herein, we discuss the efforts directed toward development of effective vaccines using different laboratory animal models including mice, guinea pig or non-human primates in preclinical trials, and human in clinical trials with different phases. EXPERT OPINION There is no effective FDA approved vaccine against the sexually transmitted viruses (STVs) except for HBV and HPV as prophylactic vaccines. Many attempts are underway to develop vaccines against these viruses. There are several approaches for improving prophylactic or therapeutic vaccines such as heterologous prime/boost immunization, delivery system, administration route, adjuvants, etc. In this line, further studies can be helpful for understanding the immunobiology of STVs in human. Moreover, development of more relevant animal models is a worthy goal to induce effective immune responses in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimia Kardani
- Department of Hepatitis and AIDS, Pasteur Institute of Iran , Tehran, Iran
| | - Parya Basimi
- Department of Hepatitis and AIDS, Pasteur Institute of Iran , Tehran, Iran
| | - Mehrshad Fekri
- Department of Hepatitis and AIDS, Pasteur Institute of Iran , Tehran, Iran
| | - Azam Bolhassani
- Department of Hepatitis and AIDS, Pasteur Institute of Iran , Tehran, Iran
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35
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Zottnick S, Voß AL, Riemer AB. Inducing Immunity Where It Matters: Orthotopic HPV Tumor Models and Therapeutic Vaccinations. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1750. [PMID: 32922389 PMCID: PMC7457000 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Accepted: 06/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Anogenital and oropharyngeal cancers caused by human papillomavirus (HPV) infections account for 4.5% of all cancer cases worldwide. So far, only the initial infection with selected high-risk types can be prevented by prophylactic vaccination. Already existing persistent HPV infections, however, can currently only be treated by surgical removal of resulting lesions. Therapeutic HPV vaccination, promoting cell-based anti-HPV immunity, would be ideal to eliminate and protect against HPV-induced lesions and tumors. A multitude of vaccination approaches has been tested to date, many of which led to high amounts of HPV-specific T cells in vivo. However, growing evidence suggests that not the induction of systemic but of local immunity is paramount for tackling mucosal infections and tumors. Therefore, recent therapeutic vaccination studies have focused on how to induce tissue-resident T cells in the anogenital and oropharyngeal mucosa. These approaches include direct mucosal vaccinations and influencing the migration of systemic T cells toward the mucosa. The efficacy of these new vaccination approaches is best tested in vivo by utilizing orthotopic tumor models, i.e. HPV-positive tumors being located in the animal's mucosa. In line with this, we here review existing HPV tumor models and describe two novel tumorigenic cell lines for the MHC-humanized mouse model A2.DR1. These were used for the establishment of an HPV16 E6/E7-positive vaginal tumor model, suitable for testing therapeutic vaccines containing HLA-A2-restricted HPV16-derived epitopes. The newly developed MHC-humanized orthotopic HPV16-positive tumor model is likely to improve the translatability of in vivo findings to the clinical setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha Zottnick
- Immunotherapy and Immunoprevention, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.,Molecular Vaccine Design, German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.,Faculty of Biosciences, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Alessa L Voß
- Immunotherapy and Immunoprevention, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.,Molecular Vaccine Design, German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Angelika B Riemer
- Immunotherapy and Immunoprevention, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.,Molecular Vaccine Design, German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
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36
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Bernstein DI. Use of the Guinea pig model of genital herpes to evaluate vaccines and antivirals: Review. Antiviral Res 2020; 180:104821. [PMID: 32544409 PMCID: PMC10713199 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2020.104821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2020] [Revised: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus (HSV) infections type 1 (HSV-1) and type 2 (HSV-2) are common throughout the world. Infections are lifelong and may produce both acute and recurrent vesiculoulcerative disease as well as more severe diseases. Despite disappointing results from recent HSV vaccine trials new vaccines and more potent antiviral therapies continue to be developed. These newer approaches require initial evaluations in animal models. In this review I have briefly described some of the models available and then more thoroughly describe the guinea pig model of acute and recurrent genital herpes infections. As discussed, the guinea pig model most closely mimics human disease and provides several important endpoints for evaluating vaccines and antivirals.
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Affiliation(s)
- David I Bernstein
- University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA.
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37
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Kim HC, Lee HK. Vaccines against Genital Herpes: Where Are We? Vaccines (Basel) 2020; 8:vaccines8030420. [PMID: 32727077 PMCID: PMC7566015 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines8030420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Genital herpes is a venereal disease caused by herpes simplex virus (HSV). Although HSV symptoms can be reduced with antiviral drugs, there is no cure. Moreover, because HSV infected individuals are often unaware of their infection, it is highly likely that they will transmit HSV to their sexual partner. Once infected, an individual has to live with HSV for their entire life, and HSV infection can lead to meningitis, encephalitis, and neonatal herpes as a result of vertical transmission. In addition, HSV infection increases the rates of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and transmission. Because of the high burden of genital herpes, HSV vaccines have been developed, but none have been very successful. In this review, we discuss the current status of genital herpes vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyeon Cheol Kim
- Graduate School of Medical Science and Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, Korea;
| | - Heung Kyu Lee
- Graduate School of Medical Science and Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, Korea;
- The Center for Epidemic Preparedness, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, Korea
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-42-350-4241
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38
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McIntosh EDG. Development of vaccines against the sexually transmitted infections gonorrhoea, syphilis, Chlamydia, herpes simplex virus, human immunodeficiency virus and Zika virus. Ther Adv Vaccines Immunother 2020; 8:2515135520923887. [PMID: 32647779 PMCID: PMC7325543 DOI: 10.1177/2515135520923887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2019] [Accepted: 04/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The success in preventing hepatitis B virus and human papillomavirus infections by means of vaccination paves the way for the development of other vaccines to prevent sexually transmitted infections (STIs) such as gonorrhoea, syphilis, chlamydia, herpes simplex virus, human immunodeficiency virus and Zika virus. The current status of vaccine development for these infections will be explored in this review. The general principles for success include the need for prevention of latency, persistence and repeat infections. A reduction in transmission of STIs would reduce the global burden of disease. Therapeutic activity of vaccines against STIs would be advantageous over preventative activity alone, and prevention of congenital and neonatal infections would be an added benefit. There would be an added value in the prevention of long-term consequences of STIs. It may be possible to re-purpose ‘old’ vaccines for new indications. One of the major challenges is the determination of the target populations for STI vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edwin David G McIntosh
- FEO - Faculty Education Office (Medicine), Imperial College London, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, South Kensington Campus, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
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39
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Egan K, Hook LM, LaTourette P, Desmond A, Awasthi S, Friedman HM. Vaccines to prevent genital herpes. Transl Res 2020; 220:138-152. [PMID: 32272093 PMCID: PMC7293938 DOI: 10.1016/j.trsl.2020.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Revised: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Genital herpes increases the risk of acquiring and transmitting Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), is a source of anxiety for many about transmitting infection to intimate partners, and is life-threatening to newborns. A vaccine that prevents genital herpes infection is a high public health priority. An ideal vaccine will prevent both genital lesions and asymptomatic subclinical infection to reduce the risk of inadvertent transmission to partners, will be effective against genital herpes caused by herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2 (HSV-1, HSV-2), and will protect against neonatal herpes. Three phase 3 human trials were performed over the past 20 years that used HSV-2 glycoproteins essential for virus entry as immunogens. None achieved its primary endpoint, although each was partially successful in either delaying onset of infection or protecting a subset of female subjects that were HSV-1 and HSV-2 uninfected against HSV-1 genital infection. The success of future vaccine candidates may depend on improving the predictive value of animal models by requiring vaccines to achieve near-perfect protection in these models and by using the models to better define immune correlates of protection. Many vaccine candidates are under development, including DNA, modified mRNA, protein subunit, killed virus, and attenuated live virus vaccines. Lessons learned from prior vaccine studies and select candidate vaccines are discussed, including a trivalent nucleoside-modified mRNA vaccine that our laboratory is pursuing. We are optimistic that an effective vaccine for prevention of genital herpes will emerge in this decade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Egan
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Lauren M Hook
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Philip LaTourette
- University Laboratory Animal Resources, Philadelphia, PA; Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Angela Desmond
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Pediatrics, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia; University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Sita Awasthi
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Harvey M Friedman
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA.
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40
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Ma T, Luo X, George AF, Mukherjee G, Sen N, Spitzer TL, Giudice LC, Greene WC, Roan NR. HIV efficiently infects T cells from the endometrium and remodels them to promote systemic viral spread. eLife 2020; 9:55487. [PMID: 32452381 PMCID: PMC7250576 DOI: 10.7554/elife.55487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2020] [Accepted: 04/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The female reproductive tract (FRT) is the most common site of infection during HIV transmission to women, but viral remodeling complicates characterization of cells targeted for infection. Here, we report extensive phenotypic analyses of HIV-infected endometrial cells by CyTOF, and use a 'nearest neighbor' bioinformatics approach to trace cells to their original pre-infection phenotypes. Like in blood, HIV preferentially targets memory CD4+ T cells in the endometrium, but these cells exhibit unique phenotypes and sustain much higher levels of infection. Genital cell remodeling by HIV includes downregulating TCR complex components and modulating chemokine receptor expression to promote dissemination of infected cells to lymphoid follicles. HIV also upregulates the anti-apoptotic protein BIRC5, which when blocked promotes death of infected endometrial cells. These results suggest that HIV remodels genital T cells to prolong viability and promote viral dissemination and that interfering with these processes might reduce the likelihood of systemic viral spread.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tongcui Ma
- Gladstone Institute of Virology and Immunology, San Francisco, United States.,Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Xiaoyu Luo
- Gladstone Institute of Virology and Immunology, San Francisco, United States
| | - Ashley F George
- Gladstone Institute of Virology and Immunology, San Francisco, United States.,Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Gourab Mukherjee
- Department of Data Sciences and Operations, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Nandini Sen
- Departments of Pediatrics and Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford, United States
| | - Trimble L Spitzer
- Lt Col, United States AF; Women's Health Clinic, Naval Medical Center, Portsmouth, United States
| | - Linda C Giudice
- Center for Reproductive Sciences, Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Warner C Greene
- Gladstone Institute of Virology and Immunology, San Francisco, United States.,Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Nadia R Roan
- Gladstone Institute of Virology and Immunology, San Francisco, United States.,Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
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41
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Lee AG, Scott JM, Fabbrizi MR, Jiang X, Sojka DK, Miller MJ, Baldridge MT, Yokoyama WM, Shin H. T cell response kinetics determines neuroinfection outcomes during murine HSV infection. JCI Insight 2020; 5:134258. [PMID: 32161194 PMCID: PMC7141405 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.134258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2019] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus-2 (HSV-2) and HSV-1 both can cause genital herpes, a chronic infection that establishes a latent reservoir in the nervous system. Clinically, the recurrence frequency of HSV-1 genital herpes is considerably less than HSV-2 genital herpes, which correlates with reduced neuronal infection. The factors dictating the disparate outcomes of HSV-1 and HSV-2 genital herpes are unclear. In this study, we show that vaginal infection of mice with HSV-1 leads to the rapid appearance of mature DCs in the draining lymph node, which is dependent on an early burst of NK cell-mediated IFN-γ production in the vagina that occurs after HSV-1 infection but not HSV-2 infection. Rapid DC maturation after HSV-1 infection, but not HSV-2 infection, correlates with the accelerated generation of a neuroprotective T cell response and early accumulation of IFN-γ-producing T cells at the site of infection. Depletion of T cells or loss of IFN-γ receptor (IFN-γR) expression in sensory neurons both lead to a marked loss of neuroprotection only during HSV-1, recapitulating a prominent feature of HSV-2 infection. Our experiments reveal key differences in host control of neuronal HSV-1 and HSV-2 infection after genital exposure of mice, and they define parameters of a successful immune response against genital herpes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Dorothy K. Sojka
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | | | | | - Wayne M. Yokoyama
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
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42
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Gopinath S, Lu P, Iwasaki A. Cutting Edge: The Use of Topical Aminoglycosides as an Effective Pull in "Prime and Pull" Vaccine Strategy. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 204:1703-1707. [PMID: 32122994 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1900462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2019] [Accepted: 02/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The presence of tissue-resident memory T cells at barrier tissues is critical for long-lasting protective immune responses. Previous work has shown that tissue-resident memory T cells can be established by "pulling" virus-specific effector T cells from circulation to the genital mucosa via topical vaginal application of chemokines in mice. Once established, these cells protect hosts against genital herpes infection. We recently showed that vaginal application of aminoglycoside antibiotics induces robust activation of the IFN signaling pathway, including upregulation of chemokine expression within the tissue in mice. In this study, we show that a single topical application of neomycin, an inexpensive and vaginally nontoxic antibiotic, is sufficient to pull CD8 T cells to the vaginal mucosa and provide protection against genital herpes infection in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Smita Gopinath
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD 20815.,Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519; and
| | - Peiwen Lu
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519; and
| | - Akiko Iwasaki
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD 20815; .,Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519; and.,Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06519
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43
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Mei C, Yang W, Wei X, Wu K, Huang D. The Unique Microbiome and Innate Immunity During Pregnancy. Front Immunol 2019; 10:2886. [PMID: 31921149 PMCID: PMC6929482 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.02886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2019] [Accepted: 11/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
A successful pregnancy depends on not only the tolerance of the fetal immune system by the mother but also resistance against the threat of hazardous microorganisms. Infection with pathogenic microorganisms during pregnancy may lead to premature delivery, miscarriage, growth restriction, neonatal morbidity, and other adverse outcomes. Moreover, the host also has an intact immune system to avoid these adverse outcomes. It is important to note the presence of normal bacteria in the maternal reproductive tract and the principal role of the maternal-placental-fetal interaction in antimicrobial immunity. Previous studies mainly focused on maternal infection during pregnancy. However, this review summarizes the new views on the study of the maternal microbiome and expounds the innate immune defense mechanism of the maternal vagina and decidua as well as how cytotrophoblasts and syncytiotrophoblasts recognize and kill bacteria in the placenta. Fetal immune systems, thought to be weak, also exhibit an immune defense function that is indispensable for maintaining the safety of the fetus. The skin, lungs, and intestines of the fetus during pregnancy constitute the main immune barriers. These findings will provide a new understanding of the effects of normal microbial flora and how the host resists harmful microbes during pregnancy. We believe that it may also contribute to the reference on the clinical prevention and treatment of gestational infection to avoid adverse pregnancy outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunlei Mei
- Institute of Reproductive Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Weina Yang
- Institute of Reproductive Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Xin Wei
- Second Affiliated Hospital of Jinlin University, Changchun, China
| | - Kejia Wu
- Zhongnan Hospital, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Donghui Huang
- Institute of Reproductive Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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44
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A vaccine containing highly purified virus particles in adjuvant provides high level protection against genital infection and disease in guinea pigs challenged intravaginally with homologous and heterologous strains of herpes simplex virus type 2. Vaccine 2019; 38:79-89. [PMID: 31611098 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.09.090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2019] [Revised: 09/26/2019] [Accepted: 09/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Infection with Herpes Simplex Viruses (HSVs) represents a significant health burden worldwide with HSV-1 and HSV-2 causing genital disease and HSV-2 contributing to human immunodeficiency virus acquisition. Despite great need, there is currently no licensed vaccine against HSV. In this report, we evaluated the protective efficacy of a vaccine containing highly purified, inactivated HSV-2 particles (with and without additional recombinant glycoprotein D) formulated with a monophosphoryl lipid A/Alhydrogel adjuvant in a guinea pig HSV genital model. The key results from 3 independent studies were: (1) vaccination consistently provided significant 3-3.5 Log10 reductions in vaginal HSV-2 titers on day 2 postchallenge; (2) following homologous or heterologous challenge with two U.S. isolates, all vaccine groups showed complete protection against lesion formation, significant 3 Log10 reductions in day 2 virus shedding, enhanced virus clearance, significant reductions in HSV-2 DNA within ganglia, and no detectable shedding (<2 PFU) or latent viral DNA in some immunized animals; (3) following challenge with a third heterologous strain, vaccination provided complete protection against primary and recurrent lesions, significant reductions in primary virus shedding, a 50% reduction in recurrent shedding days, and undetectable latent virus in the ganglia and spinal cords of most animals; and (4) adding glycoprotein D provided no enhanced protection relative to that elicited by the inactivated HSV-2 particles alone. Together, these data provide strong support for further development of this exceedingly protective and highly feasible vaccine candidate for human trials.
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