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Chen J, Xu J, Wu Z, Meng X, Yu Y, Ginoux P, DeMott PJ, Xu R, Zhai L, Yan Y, Zhao C, Li SM, Zhu T, Hu M. Decreased dust particles amplify the cloud cooling effect by regulating cloud ice formation over the Tibetan Plateau. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2024; 10:eado0885. [PMID: 39270018 PMCID: PMC11397500 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.ado0885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 08/09/2024] [Indexed: 09/15/2024]
Abstract
Ice-nucleating particles (INPs) can initiate cloud ice formation, influencing cloud radiative effects (CRE) and climate. However, the knowledge of INP sources, concentrations, and their impact on CRE over the Tibetan Plateau (TP)-a highly climate-sensitive region-remains largely hypothetical. Here, we integrated data from multisource satellite observations and snowpack samples collected from five glaciers to demonstrate that dust particles constitute primary INP sources over the TP. The springtime dust influxes lead to seasonally elevated ice concentrations in mixed-phase clouds. Furthermore, the decadal reduction in dustiness from 2007 to 2019 results in decreased springtime dust INPs, thereby amplifying the cooling effect of clouds over the TP, with a 1.98 ± 0.39-watt per square meter reduction in surface net CRE corresponding to a 0.01 decrease in dust optical depth. Our findings elucidate previously unidentified pathways of climate feedback from an atmospheric INP perspective, especially highlighting the crucial role of dust in aerosol-cloud interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingchuan Chen
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Jianzhong Xu
- School of Oceanography, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China
- State Key Laboratory of Cryospheric Sciences, Northwest Institute of Eco-Environment and Resources, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Zhijun Wu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China
| | - Xiangxinyue Meng
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Yan Yu
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, School of Physics, Institute of Carbon Neutrality, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Paul Ginoux
- Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, NOAA/OAR, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Paul J DeMott
- Department of Atmospheric Science, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Rui Xu
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, School of Physics, Institute of Carbon Neutrality, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Lixiang Zhai
- State Key Laboratory of Cryospheric Sciences, Northwest Institute of Eco-Environment and Resources, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Yafei Yan
- School of Environmental and Geographical Sciences, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200234, China
| | - Chuanfeng Zhao
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, School of Physics, Institute of Carbon Neutrality, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Shao-Meng Li
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Tong Zhu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Min Hu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
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2
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Teska CJ, Dieser M, Foreman CM. Clothing Textiles as Carriers of Biological Ice Nucleation Active Particles. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:6305-6312. [PMID: 38530277 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c09600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/27/2024]
Abstract
Microplastics have littered the globe, with synthetic fibers being the largest source of atmospheric microplastics. Many atmospheric particles can act as ice nucleators, thereby affecting the microphysical and radiative properties of clouds and, hence, the radiative balance of the Earth. The present study focused on the ice-nucleating ability of fibers from clothing textiles (CTs), which are commonly shed from the normal wear of apparel items. Results from immersion ice nucleation experiments showed that CTs were effective ice nucleators active from -6 to -12 °C, similar to common biological ice nucleators. However, subsequent lysozyme and hydrogen peroxide digestion stripped the ice nucleation properties of CTs, indicating that ice nucleation was biological in origin. Microscopy confirmed the presence of biofilms (i.e., microbial cells attached to a surface and enclosed in an extracellular polysaccharide matrix) on CTs. If present in sufficient quantities in the atmosphere, biological particles (biofilms) attached to fibrous materials could contribute significantly to atmospheric ice nucleation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christy J Teska
- Center for Biofilm Engineering, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana 59717, United States
- Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana 59717, United States
| | - Markus Dieser
- Center for Biofilm Engineering, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana 59717, United States
- Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana 59717, United States
| | - Christine M Foreman
- Center for Biofilm Engineering, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana 59717, United States
- Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana 59717, United States
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3
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Lin Y, Takano Y, Gu Y, Wang Y, Zhou S, Zhang T, Zhu K, Wang J, Zhao B, Chen G, Zhang D, Fu R, Seinfeld J. Characterization of the aerosol vertical distributions and their impacts on warm clouds based on multi-year ARM observations. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 904:166582. [PMID: 37634734 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2023] [Revised: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/29/2023]
Abstract
Aerosol vertical distribution plays a crucial role in cloud development and thus precipitation since both aerosol indirect and semi-direct effects significantly depend on the relative position of aerosol layer in reference to cloud, but its precise influence on cloud remains unclear. In this study, we integrated multi-year Raman Lidar measurements of aerosol vertical profiles from the U.S. Department of Energy Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) facility with available Value-Added Products of cloud features to characterize aerosol vertical distributions and their impacts on warm clouds over the continental and marine ARM atmospheric observatories, i.e., Southern Great Plains (SGP) and Eastern North Atlantic (ENA). A unimodal seasonal distribution of aerosol optical depths (AODs) with a peak in summer is found at upper boundary layer over SGP, while a bimodal distribution is observed at ENA for the AODs at lower levels with a major winter-spring maximum. The diurnal mean of upper-level AOD at SGP shows a maximum in the early evening. According to the relative positions of aerosol layers to clouds we further identify three primary types of aerosol vertical distribution, including Random, Decreasing, and Bottom. It is found that the impacts of aerosols on cloud may or may not vary with aerosol vertical distribution depending on environmental conditions, as reflected by the wide variations of the relations between AOD and cloud properties. For example, as AOD increases, the liquid water paths (LWPs) tend to be reduced at SGP but enhanced at ENA. The relations of cloud droplet effective radius with AOD largely depend on aerosol vertical distributions, particularly showing positive values in the Random type under low-LWP condition (<50 g m-2). The distinct features of aerosol-cloud interactions in relation to aerosol vertical distribution are likely attributed to the continental-marine contrast in thermodynamic environments and aerosol conditions between SGP and ENA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun Lin
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, Joint Institute for Regional Earth System Science and Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States.
| | - Yoshihide Takano
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, Joint Institute for Regional Earth System Science and Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States
| | - Yu Gu
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, Joint Institute for Regional Earth System Science and Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States
| | - Yuan Wang
- Department of Earth System Science, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Shujun Zhou
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, Joint Institute for Regional Earth System Science and Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States
| | - Tianhao Zhang
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, Joint Institute for Regional Earth System Science and Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States
| | - Kuilin Zhu
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, Joint Institute for Regional Earth System Science and Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States
| | - Jingyu Wang
- National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Bin Zhao
- Atmospheric Sciences and Global Change Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99352, United States
| | - Gang Chen
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, Joint Institute for Regional Earth System Science and Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States
| | - Damao Zhang
- Atmospheric Sciences and Global Change Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99352, United States
| | - Rong Fu
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, Joint Institute for Regional Earth System Science and Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States
| | - John Seinfeld
- California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, United States
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Chen J, Wu Z, Meng X, Zhang C, Chen J, Qiu Y, Chen L, Fang X, Wang Y, Zhang Y, Chen S, Gao J, Li W, Hu M. Observational evidence for the non-suppression effect of atmospheric chemical modification on the ice nucleation activity of East Asian dust. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 861:160708. [PMID: 36481160 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.160708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Revised: 11/17/2022] [Accepted: 12/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Airborne mineral dust triggers ice formation in clouds and alters cloud microphysical properties by acting as ice-nucleating particles (INPs), potentially influencing weather and climate at regional and global scales. Anthropogenic pollution would modify natural mineral dust during the atmospheric transport process. However, the effects of anthropogenic pollution aging on the ice nucleation activity (INA) of mineral dust remain not well-understood. In this study, we investigated the immersion mode ice nucleation properties and particle chemical characterizations of collected size-resolved Asian dust samples (eight particle size classes ranging from 0.18 to 10.0 μm), and testified the chemical modification of aged dust particles via particle chemistry and morphology analyses including the mass concentrations of particulate matter, the water-soluble ion concentrations, the mental element concentrations, and single-particle morphology. The mass fraction of Ca2+ in element Ca and the mean relative mass proportions of supermicron Ca2+ increased by 67.0 % and 3.5-11.2 % in aged Asian dust particles, respectively, suggesting the occurrence of heterogeneous reactions. On the other hand, the total INP concentrations (total NINP) and total ice nucleation active site densities (total ns(T)) were consistent between aged and normal dust particles (0.62-1.18 times) without a statistically significant difference. And the NINP and ns(T) of chemically aged supermicron dust (1.0-10.0 μm) in each particle size class were nearly equal to or slightly higher than those of normal Asian dust, which were 0.70-2.45 times and 0.64-4.34 times at -18 °C, respectively. These results reveal that anthropogenic air pollution does not notably change the INP concentrations and does not impair the INA of Asian dust. Our work provides direct observational evidence and clarifies the non-suppression effect of anthropogenic air pollution on the INA of East Asian dust, advancing the understanding of the ice nucleation of airborne aged mineral dust.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingchuan Chen
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Zhijun Wu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; Collaborative Innovation Center of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China.
| | - Xiangxinyue Meng
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Cuiqi Zhang
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Chemistry, China Meteorological Administration, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Jie Chen
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Yanting Qiu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Li Chen
- Electron Microscopy Laboratory, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Xin Fang
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Yuanyuan Wang
- Department of Atmospheric Sciences, School of Earth Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Yinxiao Zhang
- Department of Atmospheric Sciences, School of Earth Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Shiyi Chen
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Jian Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China
| | - Weijun Li
- Department of Atmospheric Sciences, School of Earth Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Min Hu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
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5
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Anthropogenic Aerosols Effects on Ice Clouds: A Review. ATMOSPHERE 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/atmos13060910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Since the ability of anthropogenic aerosols to act as ice nucleation particles has been recognized, the effect of anthropogenic aerosols on ice clouds has attracted increasing attentions. In recent years, some progress has been made in investigating the effects of anthropogenic aerosols on ice clouds. In this paper, we briefly review the study on the impact of anthropogenic aerosols on ice nuclei, properties and radiative forcing of ice clouds. Anthropogenic aerosols can form ice nuclei through homogeneous nucleation and heterogeneous nucleation. Convective strength can modulate the response of ice clouds to anthropogenic aerosols by affecting the nucleation activities. There have been large uncertainties in calculating the radiative forcing of anthropogenic aerosols on ice clouds in climate models. Further studies on the impact of anthropogenic aerosols on ice clouds are imperative to provide better parameterization schemes and reduce the uncertainties of aerosol indirect effects.
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Huang S, Hu W, Chen J, Wu Z, Zhang D, Fu P. Overview of biological ice nucleating particles in the atmosphere. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2021; 146:106197. [PMID: 33271442 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.106197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2020] [Revised: 10/01/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Biological particles in the Earth's atmosphere are a distinctive category of ice nucleating particles (INPs) due to their capability of facilitating ice crystal formation in clouds at relatively warm temperatures. Field observations and model simulations have shown that biological INPs affect cloud and precipitation formation and regulate regional or even global climate, although there are considerable uncertainties in modeling and large gaps between observed and model simulated contribution of biological particles to atmospheric INPs. This paper overviews the latest researches about biological INPs in the atmosphere. Firstly, we describe the primary ice nucleation mechanisms, and measurements and model simulations of atmospheric biological INPs. Secondly, we summarize the ice nucleating properties of biological INPs from diverse sources such as soils or dust, vegetation (e.g., leaves and pollen grains), sea spray, and fresh waters, and controlling factors of biological INPs in the atmosphere. Then we review the abundance and distribution of atmospheric biological INPs in diverse ecosystems. Finally, we discuss the open questions in further studies on atmospheric biological INPs, including the requirements for developing novel detection techniques and simulation models, as well as the comprehensive investigation of characteristics and influencing factors of atmospheric biological INPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu Huang
- Institute of Surface-Earth System Science, School of Earth System Science, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Wei Hu
- Institute of Surface-Earth System Science, School of Earth System Science, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China.
| | - Jie Chen
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Zhijun Wu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Daizhou Zhang
- Faculty of Environmental and Symbiotic Sciences, Prefectural University of Kumamoto, Kumamoto 862-8502, Japan
| | - Pingqing Fu
- Institute of Surface-Earth System Science, School of Earth System Science, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China.
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McGraw Z, Storelvmo T, Samset BH, Stjern CW. Global Radiative Impacts of Black Carbon Acting as Ice Nucleating Particles. GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS 2020; 47:e2020GL089056. [PMID: 33380757 PMCID: PMC7757207 DOI: 10.1029/2020gl089056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2020] [Revised: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 09/29/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Black carbon (BC) aerosols from incomplete combustion generally warm the climate, but the magnitudes of their various interactions with climate are still uncertain. A key knowledge gap is their role as ice nucleating particles (INPs), enabling ice formation in clouds. Here we assess the global radiative impacts of BC acting as INPs, using simulations with the Community Earth System Model 2 climate model updated to include new laboratory-based ice nucleation parameterizations. Overall, we find a moderate cooling through changes to stratiform cirrus clouds, counteracting the well-known net warming from BC's direct scattering and absorption of radiation. Our best estimates indicate that BC INPs generally thin cirrus by indirectly inhibiting the freezing of solution aerosol, with a global net radiative impact of -0.13 ± 0.07 W/m2. Sensitivity tests of BC amounts and ice nucleating efficiencies, and uncertainties in the environment where ice crystals form, show a potential range of impacts from -0.30 to +0.02 W/m2.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Camilla Weum Stjern
- Center for International Climate and Environmental Research‐Oslo (CICERO)OsloNorway
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Spatiotemporal Distribution of Major Aerosol Types over China Based on MODIS Products between 2008 and 2017. ATMOSPHERE 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/atmos11070703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Knowledge of aerosol-type distribution is critical to the evaluation of aerosol–climate effects. However, research on aerosol-type distribution covering all is limited. This study characterized the spatiotemporal distribution of major aerosol types over China by using MODerate resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) products from 2008 to 2017. Two aerosol-type classification methods were combined to achieve this goal. One was for relatively high aerosol load (AOD ≥ 0.2) using aerosol optical depth (AOD) and aerosol relative optical depth (AROD) and the other was for low aerosol load (AOD < 0.2) using land use and population density information, which assumed that aerosols are closely related to local emissions. Results showed that the dominant aerosol-type distribution has a distinct spatial and temporal pattern. In western China, background aerosols (mainly dust/desert dust and continent aerosol) dominate with a combined occurrence ratio over 70% and they have slight variations on seasonal scale. While in eastern China, the dominant aerosols show strong seasonal variations. Spatially, mixed aerosols dominate most parts of eastern China in spring due to the influence of long-range transported dust from Taklamakan and Gobi desert and urban/industry aerosols take place in summer due to strong photochemical reactions. Temporally, mixed and urban/industry aerosols co-dominate eastern China.
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Jeong JH, Fan J, Homeyer CR, Hou Z. Understanding Hailstone Temporal Variability and Contributing Factors over the U.S. Southern Great Plains. JOURNAL OF CLIMATE 2020; 33:3947-3966. [PMID: 33967388 PMCID: PMC8097998 DOI: 10.1175/jcli-d-19-0606.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Hailstones are a natural hazard that pose a significant threat to property and are responsible for significant economic losses each year in the United States. Detailed understanding of their characteristics is essential to mitigate their impact. Identifying the dynamic and physical factors contributing to hail formation and hailstone sizes is of great importance to weather and climate prediction and policymakers. In this study, we have analyzed the temporal and spatial variabilities of severe hail occurrences over the U.S. southern Great Plains (SGP) states from 2004 to 2016 using two hail datasets: hail reports from the Storm Prediction Center and the newly developed radar-retrieved maximum expected size of hail (MESH). It is found that severe and significant severe hail occurrences have a considerable year-to-year temporal variability in the SGP region. The interannual variabilities have a strong correspondence with sea surface temperature anomalies over the northern Gulf of Mexico and there is no outlier. The year 2016 is identified as an outlier for the correlations with both El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and aerosol loading. The correlations with ENSO and aerosol loading are not statistically robust to inclusion of the outlier 2016. Statistical analysis without the outlier 2016 shows that 1) aerosols that may be mainly from northern Mexico have the largest correlation with hail interannual variability among the three factors and 2) meteorological covariation does not significantly contribute to the high correlation. These analyses warrant further investigations of aerosol impacts on hail occurrence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jong-Hoon Jeong
- Atmospheric Science and Global Change Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington
| | - Jiwen Fan
- Atmospheric Science and Global Change Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington
| | | | - Zhangshuan Hou
- Earth Systems Science Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington
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