Nanomaterials for T-cell cancer immunotherapy

Magnesium peroxide-based biomimetic nanoigniter degrades extracellular matrix to awake T cell-mediated cancer immunotherapy

As the elite force of our immune system, T cells play a determining role in the effectiveness of cancer immunotherapy. However, the clever tumor cells construct a strong immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) fortress to resist the attack of T cells. Herein, a magnesium peroxide (MP)-based biomimetic nanoigniter loaded with doxorubicin (DOX) and metformin (MET) is rationally designed (D/M-MP@LM) to awake T cell-mediated cancer immunotherapy via comprehensively destroying the strong TME fortress. The nanoigniter not only effectively initiate CD8+ T cell-mediated immune response by promoting the presentation of tumor antigens, but also greatly facilitate the infiltration of T cells by degrading rigid extracellular matrix (ECM). More importantly, the nanoigniter significantly augment the effector functions of infiltrated CD8+ T cells by Mg2+-mediated metalloimmunotherapy and avoid the exhaustion of CD8+ T cells by improving the acidic TME. Thus, the nanoigniter comprehensively awakes T cells and achieves remarkable tumor inhibition efficacy.

Self-assembled nanoparticles of rapamycin prodrugs for the treatment of multiple sclerosis

Optimizing the design of nanoparticulate co-delivery systems of antigens and immunomodulators to induce antigen-specific immune tolerance effectively remains a challenge, constrained by low drug loading capacity and premature leakage of active ingredients. Here, we report a prodrug self-assembled nanoparticles (NPs) strategy to synergistically deliver antigen and rapamycin (RAPA) into antigen-presenting cells (APCs) by simply conjugating rapamycin with an aliphatic chain. These prodrug NPs can be efficiently taken up by APCs and then release rapamycin through cleavage of the linker by intracellular esterase. Compared to other nanocarriers, rapamycin prodrug NPs exhibit high drug loading capacity and high stability, providing more rational intracellular synchronous delivery of drugs. The prodrug NPs also demonstrate improved therapeutic efficacy in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model mice compared with free antigen and rapamycin. Our findings provide new insights into the design of tolerogenic NPs for treating multiple sclerosis (MS). This delivery platform is also applicable for the alleviation of other autoimmune diseases.

A smart responsive NIR-operated chitosan-based nanoswitch to induce cascade immunogenic tumor ferroptosis via cytokine storm

In this work we present a near-infrared (NIR)-operated nanoswitch based on chitosan nanoparticles (EpCAM-CS-co-PNVCL@IR780/IMQ NPs) that induces cascade immunogenic tumor ferroptosis via cytokine storm. The formulation was prepared by loading a photosensitiser (IR780) and an immunotherapeutic drug (imiquimod; IMQ) into temperature- and pH-responsive chitosan-based NPs functionalized with tumor-targeting aptamers. The EpCAM aptamer can chaperone the NPs selectively into cancer cells, and allow them to enter the cell nucleus. In vitro and in vivo assays revelaed that the NPs were able to effectively induce the immunogenic ferroptosis of cancer cells. Under NIR irradiation, EpCAM-CS-co-PNVCL@IR780/IMQ cause cell death in tumors via photothermal therapy. Moreover, IMQ promotes the maturation of dendritic cells (DCs), which then activate cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs); these T-cells go on to provide immunotherapy of metastatic tumor cells. The metastatic tumor cells can be induced to undergo ferroptosis by the addition of arachidonic acid (AA), which interacts with interferon cytokines (IFN-γ) released from CTLs.

Functional Nanosheet Immunoswitches Reprogramming Innate Macrophages for Immunotherapy of Colorectal Cancer and Sepsis

Macrophages are involved in the immunopathogenesis of cancer and inflammatory diseases and are a primary target for immunotherapy to reprogram the M1 and M2 phenotypes in tumor and inflammatory microenvironments. Herein, functional nanosheet immunoswitches that can bidirectionally polarize macrophages in tumor and inflammatory microenvironments are designed for effective immunotherapy of colorectal cancer and sepsis. WSe2 nanosheets are functionalized with palmitic acid to obtain an M1 immunoswitch (PA-WSe2) that promotes the polarization of macrophages toward the M1 phenotype in the tumor microenvironment by activating the STAT1 signaling pathway. WS2 nanosheets bearing linoleic acid are synthesized as an M2 immunoswitch (LA-WS2) that effectively polarizes macrophages to the M2 phenotype in the septic microenvironment by activating the STAT3 signaling pathway. The PA-WSe2 M1 immunoswitch upregulates the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines and reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS and RNS) via M1 polarization, leading to the effective immunotherapy for colorectal cancer in vivo. In contrast, the LA-WS2 M2 immunoswitch induces the elevated production of anti-inflammatory cytokines and scavenging of ROS and RNS through M2 polarization, resulting in superior immunotherapy for severe sepsis in mice. These nanosheet immunoswitches can provide a route to immunotherapy for various cancers and inflammatory diseases.

An antigen-capturing and lymph node-targeting nanoparticle for cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy leverages the immune system to combat cancer and has shown promise for many patients. However, its effectiveness is often hampered by an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment and the low immunogenicity of tumor cells. In this study, we developed an in situ cancer vaccine that integrates chemotherapy and immunotherapy in a single platform. We synthesized two amphiphilic polymers with poly-albumin-binding domains (PABD) that can target the lymph nodes, PABD-PGEA and PABD-PGED. Compared with previous albumin-hijacking strategies utilizing the same albumin-binding domains, PABD-PGEA exhibited approximately six times greater lymph node-targeting ability, demonstrating enhanced antigen-capturing capability. We loaded PABD-PGEA with doxorubicin (DOX), a drug known to induce immunogenic cell death (ICD) in tumor cells, to form DOX@PABD-PGEA nanomicelles. DOX@PABD-PGEA inhibited tumor growth and extended the survival of mice with B16F10 melanoma through chemotherapy and immunotherapy. Notably, DOX@PABD-PGEA prevented tumor recurrence post-surgery by promoting efficient antigen presentation and reversing immunosuppression in the tumor microenvironment. Our findings suggest that DOX@PABD-PGEA, as an antigen-capturing nanoparticle, provides a safe and effective platform for in situ cancer vaccines and improves cancer immunotherapy.

Dual-targeted and esterase-responsive cyclodextrin-based host-guest nanocomposites for enhanced antitumor therapy

Conventional chemotherapy drugs are difficult to effectively target tumor tissue, leading to poor treatment outcomes and side effects. Actively targeted and stimuli-responsive nanomedicine greatly improves this situation, allowing for more precise drug accumulation at tumor sites. Herein, carboxymethyl-β-cyclodextrin (CMCD) - based host-guest nanocomposites (NPs) encapsulating hydroxycamptothecin (HCPT) were fabricated, which responded to esterase and had the function of targeting CD 44 receptors and the nucleus. PS-CMCD was firstly synthesized through an amide reaction of protamine (PS) and CMCD to enhance the function of penetrating membrane and nuclear localization. PS-CMCD/HCPT/HA NPs were then prepared by the host-guest complexation of PS-CMCD and HCPT and followed by surface modification of hyaluronic acid (HA) with CD44 receptor-targeting properties. The successful inclusion was also validated through computer simulation. The obtained nanocomposites displayed the esterase-responsive release behaviors of HCPT. Moreover, the synthesized PS-CMCD/HCPT/HA NPs enhanced the intracellular drug uptake due to the tumor cell- and nuclear-mediated targeting. In addition, in vivo application exhibited that PS-CMCD/HCPT/HA NPs realized good antitumor effects. These findings suggested its potential for targeted delivery and more effective tumor therapy.

Present and future of cancer nano-immunotherapy: opportunities, obstacles and challenges

Clinically, multimodal therapies are adopted worldwide for the management of cancer, which continues to be a leading cause of death. In recent years, immunotherapy has firmly established itself as a new paradigm in cancer care that activates the body's immune defense to cope with cancer. Immunotherapy has resulted in significant breakthroughs in the treatment of stubborn tumors, dramatically improving the clinical outcome of cancer patients. Multiple forms of cancer immunotherapy, including immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), adoptive cell therapy and cancer vaccines, have become widely available. However, the effectiveness of these immunotherapies is not much satisfying. Many cancer patients do not respond to immunotherapy, and disease recurrence appears to be unavoidable because of the rapidly evolving resistance. Moreover, immunotherapies can give rise to severe off-target immune-related adverse events. Strategies to remove these hindrances mainly focus on the development of combinatorial therapies or the exploitation of novel immunotherapeutic mediations. Nanomaterials carrying anticancer agents to the target site are considered as practical approaches for cancer treatment. Nanomedicine combined with immunotherapies offers the possibility to potentiate systemic antitumor immunity and to facilitate selective cytotoxicity against cancer cells in an effective and safe manner. A myriad of nano-enabled cancer immunotherapies are currently under clinical investigation. Owing to gaps between preclinical and clinical studies, nano-immunotherapy faces multiple challenges, including the biosafety of nanomaterials and clinical trial design. In this review, we provide an overview of cancer immunotherapy and summarize the evidence indicating how nanomedicine-based approaches increase the efficacy of immunotherapies. We also discuss the key challenges that have emerged in the era of nanotechnology-based cancer immunotherapy. Taken together, combination nano-immunotherapy is drawing increasing attention, and it is anticipated that the combined treatment will achieve the desired success in clinical cancer therapy.

Tuning Surface Valences of Nanoengagers to Enhance Their Structural Advantages for Efficiently Redirecting T Cells against Solid Tumors

The nanoengager strategy, which enhances receptor signaling responsiveness through a multivalent ligand binding mode, offers a promising approach for improving immune cell redirecting therapy. Increasing nanomaterial platforms have been developed for constructing more flexible and multifunctional nanoengagers, but the different mediating mechanisms from their multivalent nanostructures, compared to original monomolecule engagers, have rarely been discussed. Here, we constructed dual-specificity T cell nanoengagers (TNEs) targeting CD3 and PDL1 receptors based on a polyethylene glycol-b-polylactic acid (PEG-b-PLA)-assembled nanoparticle and specifically studied the impact of surface antibody valences on their functional mechanisms, thereby enhancing the structural advantages of TNEs against solid tumors. Major conclusions include the following: (1) Valence control of surface antibodies is crucial for ensuring the safety and efficacy of TNEs when redirecting T cells. (2) Tuning the valence ratios of the two antibodies with the respective targeting is essential for enhancing the tumor-targeting capability and overall antitumor efficacy of TNEs, while TNE with a valence ratio of anti-CD3 to anti-PDL1 of 25:50 demonstrated the best performance. (3) Compared to monovalent soluble engager molecules, TNEs with an optimized surface multivalent antibody structure can effectively promote the enrichment of peripheral T cells into solid tumor sites and improve the tumor immune microenvironment. These results demonstrate the importance of optimizing the surface antibody valences to enhance the structural advantages of the TNE and would benefit the design and application of nanoparticle-based engagers, especially for TNEs.

Nanomaterial-assisted delivery of CpG oligodeoxynucleotides for boosting cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy aims to improve immunity to not only eliminate the primary tumor but also inhibit metastasis and recurrence. It is considered an extremely promising therapeutic approach that breaks free from the traditional paradigm of oncological treatment. As the medical community learns more about the immune system's mechanisms that "turn off the brake" and "step on the throttle", there is increasingly successful research on immunomodulators. However, there are still more restrictions than countermeasures with immunotherapy related to immunomodulators, such as low responsiveness and immune-related adverse events that cause multiple adverse reactions. Therefore, medical experts and materials scientists attempted to the efficacy of immunomodulatory treatments through various methods, especially nanomaterial-assisted strategies. CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (CpG) not only act as an adjuvant to promote immune responses, but also induce autophagy. In this review, the enhancement of immunotherapy using nanomaterial-based CpG formulations is systematically elaborated, with a focus on the delivery, protection, synergistic promotion of CpG efficacy by nanomaterials, and selection of the timing of treatment. In addition, we also discuss and prospect the existing problems and future directions of research on nanomaterials in auxiliary CpG therapy.

Advances in cancer diagnosis and therapy by alginate-based multifunctional hydrogels: A review

The field of oncology has been changed by the application of hydrogels. These 3D polymeric networks have demonstrated significant promise in the treatment of cancer and can boost the efficacy of conventional therapeutics including chemotherapy and immunotherapy. Noteworthy, the development of biocompatible and effective hydrogels has been of interest. In this case, alginate as a biopolymer and carbohydrate polymer has been used to modify or synthesis multifunctional nanoparticles for the treatment of human diseases, especially cancer. Therefore, highlighting the function of alginate in the development of hydrogels in cancer therapy can provide new insights for improving outcome and survival rate of patients. Alginate hydrogels improve the specific and selective delivery of cargo and therefore, they reduce the systemic toxicity of drugs, while they enhance anti-cancer activity. Alginate hydrogels protect the genes against degradation by enzymes and increase blood circulation time. The alginate hydrogels can respond to the specific stimuli in the tumor microenvironment including pH, redox and light to improve the site-specific release of cargo. The nanoparticles can be incorporated in the structure of alginate hydrogels to augment their anti-cancer activity. In addition, alginate hydrogels can accelerate immunotherapy and phototherapy through delivery of immunomodulators and photosensitizers, respectively.

Design of nanosystems for melanoma treatment

Melanoma is a prevalent and concerning form of skin cancer affecting millions of individuals worldwide. Unfortunately, traditional treatments can be invasive and painful, prompting the need for alternative therapies with improved efficacy and patient outcomes. Nanosystems offer a promising solution to these obstacles through the rational design of nanoparticles (NPs) which are structured into nanocomposite forms, offering efficient approaches to cancer treatment procedures. A range of NPs consisting of polymeric, metallic and metal oxide, carbon-based, and virus-like NPs have been studied for their potential in treating skin cancer. This review summarizes the latest developments in functional nanosystems aimed at enhancing melanoma treatment. The fundamentals of these nanosystems, including NPs and the creation of various functional nanosystem types, facilitating melanoma treatment are introduced. Then, the advances in the applications of functional nanosystems for melanoma treatment are summarized, outlining both their benefits and the challenges encountered in implementing nanosystem therapies.

An artificial metabzyme for tumour-cell-specific metabolic therapy

Metabolic dysregulation constitutes a pivotal feature of cancer progression. Enzymes with multiple metal active sites play a major role in this process. Here we report the first metabolic-enzyme-like FeMoO4 nanocatalyst, dubbed 'artificial metabzyme'. It showcases dual active centres, namely, Fe2+ and tetrahedral Mo4+, that mirror the characteristic architecture of the archetypal metabolic enzyme xanthine oxidoreductase. Employing spatially dynamic metabolomics in conjunction with the assessments of tumour-associated metabolites, we demonstrate that FeMoO4 metabzyme catalyses the metabolic conversion of tumour-abundant xanthine into uric acid. Subsequent metabolic adjustments orchestrate crosstalk with immune cells, suggesting a potential therapeutic pathway for cancer. Our study introduces an innovative paradigm in cancer therapy, where tumour cells are metabolically reprogrammed to autonomously modulate and directly interface with immune cells through the intervention of an artificial metabzyme, for tumour-cell-specific metabolic therapy.

Bimetal-Biligand Frameworks for Spatiotemporal Nitric Oxide-Enhanced Sono-Immunotherapy

Sonodynamic therapy can trigger immunogenic cell death to augment immunotherapy, benefiting from its superior spatiotemporal selectivity and non-invasiveness. However, the practical applications of sonosensitizers are hindered by their low efficacy in killing cancer cells and activating immune responses. Here, two US Food and Drug Administration-approved drug ligands (ferricyanide and nitroprusside) and two types of metals (copper/iron) are selected to construct a bimetal-biligand framework (Cu[PBA-NO]). Through elaborate regulation of multiple metal/ligand coordination, the systemically administered Cu[PBA-NO] nanoagent shows sono-catalytic and NO release ability under ultrasound irradiation, which can be used for effective sono-immunotherapy. Moreover, Cu[PBA-NO] can downregulate intracellular glutathione levels that would destroy intracellular redox homeostasis and facilitate reactive oxygen species accumulation. The released tumor-associated antigens subsequently facilitate dendritic cell maturation within the tumor-draining lymph node, effectively initiating a T cell-mediated immune response and thereby bolstering the capacity to identify and combat cancer cells. This study paves a new avenue for the efficient cancer sono-immunotherapy.

Application of Carbon Nanomaterials to Enhancing Tumor Immunotherapy: Current Advances and Prospects

Recent advances in tumor immunotherapy have highlighted the pivotal role of carbon nanomaterials, such as carbon dots, graphene quantum dots, and carbon nanotubes. This review examines the unique benefits of these materials in cancer treatment, focusing on their mechanisms of action within immunotherapy. These include applications in immunoregulation, recognition, and enhancement. We explore how these nanomaterials when combined with specific biomolecules, can form immunosensors. These sensors are engineered for highly sensitive and specific detection of tumor markers, offering crucial support for early diagnosis and timely therapeutic interventions. This review also addresses significant challenges facing carbon nanomaterials in clinical settings, such as issues related to long-term biocompatibility and the hurdles of clinical translation. These challenges require extensive ongoing research and discussion. This review is of both theoretical and practical importance, aiming to promote using carbon nanomaterials in tumor immunotherapy, potentially transforming clinical outcomes and enhancing patient care.

Delivery Systems Developed for Treatment Combinations to Improve Adoptive Cell Therapy

Adoptive cell therapy (ACT) has shown great success in the clinic for treating hematologic malignancies. However, solid tumor treatment with ACT monotherapy is still challenging, owing to insufficient expansion and rapid exhaustion of adoptive cells, tumor antigen downregulation/loss, and dense tumor extracellular matrix. Delivery strategies for combination cell therapy have great potential to overcome these hurdles. The delivery of vaccines, immune checkpoint inhibitors, cytokines, chemotherapeutics, and photothermal reagents in combination with adoptive cells, have been shown to improve the expansion/activation, decrease exhaustion, and promote the penetration of adoptive cells in solid tumors. Moreover, the delivery of nucleic acids to engineer immune cells directly in vivo holds promise to overcome many of the hurdles associated with the complex ex vivo cell engineering strategies. Here, these research advance, as well as the opportunities and challenges for integrating delivery technologies into cell therapy s are discussed, and the outlook for these emerging areas are criticlly analyzed.

Extracellular vesicles for cancer therapy: potential, progress, and clinical challenges

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) play an important role in normal life activities and disease treatment. In recent years, there have been abundant relevant studies focusing on EVs for cancer therapy and showing good performance on tumor inhibition. To enhance the effectiveness of EVs, EV analogs have been developed. This review summarizes the classification, origin, production, purification, modification, drug loading and cancer treatment applications of EVs and their analogs. Also, the characteristics of technologies involved are analyzed, which provides the basis for the development and application of biogenic vesicle-based drug delivery platform for cancer therapy. Meanwhile, challenges in translating these vesicles into clinic, such as limited sources, lack of production standards, and insufficient targeting and effectiveness are discussed. With ongoing exploration and clinical studies, EV-based drugs will make great contributions to cancer therapy.

Nanotechnology in Advancing Chimeric Antigen Receptor T Cell Therapy for Cancer Treatment

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy has emerged as a groundbreaking treatment for hematological cancers, yet it faces significant hurdles, particularly regarding its efficacy in solid tumors and concerning associated adverse effects. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the advancements and ongoing challenges in CAR-T therapy. We highlight the transformative potential of nanotechnology in enhancing CAR-T therapy by improving targeting precision, modulating the immune-suppressive tumor microenvironment, and overcoming physical barriers. Nanotechnology facilitates efficient CAR gene delivery into T cells, boosting transfection efficiency and potentially reducing therapy costs. Moreover, nanotechnology offers innovative solutions to mitigate cytokine release syndrome (CRS) and immune effector cell-associated neurotoxicity syndrome (ICANS). Cutting-edge nanotechnology platforms for real-time monitoring of CAR-T cell activity and cytokine release are also discussed. By integrating these advancements, we aim to provide valuable insights and pave the way for the next generation of CAR-T cell therapies to overcome current limitations and enhance therapeutic outcomes.

Sialic acid-modified doxorubicin liposomes target tumor-related immune cells to relieve multiple inhibitions of CD8+ T cells

In different types of cancer treatments, cancer-specific T cells are required for effective anticancer immunity, which has a central role in cancer immunotherapy. However, due to the multiple inhibitions of CD8+ T cells by tumor-related immune cells, CD8+ T-cell mediated antitumor immunotherapy has not achieved breakthrough progress in the treatment of solid tumors. Receptors for sialic acid (SA) are highly expressed in tumor-associated immune cells, so SA-modified nanoparticles are a drug delivery nanoplatform using tumor-associated immune cells as vehicles. To relieve the multiple inhibitions of CD8+ T cells by tumor-associated immune cells, we prepared SA-modified doxorubicin liposomes (SL-DOX, Scheme 1A). In our study, free SA decreased the toxicity of SL-DOX to tumor-associated immune cells. Compared with common liposomes, SL-DOX could inhibit tumor growth more effectively. It is worth noting that SL-DOX could not only kill tumor-related neutrophils and monocytes to relieve the multiple inhibitions of CD8+ T cells but also induce immunogenic death of tumor cells to promote the infiltration and differentiation of CD8+ T cells (Scheme 1B). Therefore, SL-DOX has potential value for the clinical therapeutic effect of CD8+ T cells mediating anti-tumor immunotherapy.

Boost Infiltration and Activity of T Cells via Inhibiting Ecto-5'-nucleotidase (CD73) Immune Checkpoint to Enhance Glioblastoma Immunotherapy

The currently available immune checkpoint therapy shows a disappointing therapeutic efficacy for glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), and it is of great importance to discover better immune checkpoints and develop innovative targeting strategies. The discovered metabolic immune checkpoint ecto-5-nucleotidase (CD73) in a tumor contributes to its immune evasion due to the dysregulation of extracellular adenosine (ADO), which significantly inhibits the function of antitumor T cells and increases the activity of immunosuppressive cells. Herein, we drastically inhibit the expression of CD73 to reduce the production of ADO by using versatile Au@Cu2-xSe nanoparticles (ACS NPs). ACS NPs can decrease the expression of CD73 by alleviating the tumor hypoxia through their Fenton-like reaction to weaken the ADO-driven immunosuppression for enhancing antitumor T cell infiltration and activity of GBM. The copper ions (Cu2+) released from ACS NPs can chelate with disulfide, leading to the formation of cytotoxic bis(N,N-diethyldithiocarbamate)-copper complex (CuET), which can be combined with radiotherapy to recruit more antitumor T cells to infiltrate into the tumor site. Based on the inhibition of CD73 to promote the infiltration and activity of antitumor T cells, a cascade of enhancing GBM immunotherapy effects can be achieved. The significant increase in CD8+ T and CD4+ T cells within the tumor and the memory T cells in the spleen effectively reduces tumor size by 92%, which demonstrates the excellent efficacy of immunotherapy achieved by a combination of metabolic immune checkpoint CD73 inhibition with chemoradiotherapy. This work demonstrates that modulation of CD73-mediated tumor immunosuppression is an important strategy of improving the outcome of GBM immunotherapy.

In-situ-formed immunotherapeutic and hemostatic dual drug-loaded nanohydrogel for preventing postoperative recurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a prevalent malignancy characterized by an exceedingly high recurrence rate post-surgery, significantly impairing the prognosis of HCC patients. However, a standard in-care strategy for postoperative therapy is still lacking. Although encouraging results have been obtained in a newly published clinical trial for postoperative therapy by targeting the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and programmed death ligand 1 (anti-PD-L1), its efficacy remains constrained. Combining a hemostatic hydrogel with a nanoparticle-based drug delivery system presents an opportunity to optimize the antitumor effect. Herein, we developed a nanoplatform, termed HMSN@Sor/aP@Gel, comprising a hemostatic fibrin hydrogel and functionalized hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles (HMSNs) loaded with sorafenib and anti-PD-L1 for locally administered targeted-immunotherapy to prevent the postoperative recurrence and metastasis of HCC. The antitumor mechanism is grounded in dual inhibition of Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK (MAPK) and phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (AKT) pathways, synergistically complemented by PD-L1 blockade. HMSN@Sor/aP@Gel facilitates dendritic cell maturation, enhances cytotoxic T-lymphocyte infiltration, promotes the polarization of tumor-associated macrophages to M1 phenotype, induces tumor immunogenic cell death, reverses immunosuppression, and establishes immune memory to counter postoperative recurrence. Animal studies corroborate that HMSN@Sor/aP@Gel-mediated targeted immunotherapy significantly impedes primary and metastatic tumor growth and establishes immune memory to prevent recurrence post-surgery. This investigation presents a promising strategy for postoperative therapy with considerable potential for clinical translation.

Propelling Minimally Invasive Tissue Regeneration With Next-Era Injectable Pre-Formed Scaffolds

The growing aging population, with its associated chronic diseases, underscores the urgency for effective tissue regeneration strategies. Biomaterials play a pivotal role in the realm of tissue reconstruction and regeneration, with a distinct shift toward minimally invasive (MI) treatments. This transition, fueled by engineered biomaterials, steers away from invasive surgical procedures to embrace approaches offering reduced trauma, accelerated recovery, and cost-effectiveness. In the realm of MI tissue repair and cargo delivery, various techniques are explored. While in situ polymerization is prominent, it is not without its challenges. This narrative review explores diverse biomaterials, fabrication methods, and biofunctionalization for injectable pre-formed scaffolds, focusing on their unique advantages. The injectable pre-formed scaffolds, exhibiting compressibility, controlled injection, and maintained mechanical integrity, emerge as promising alternative solutions to in situ polymerization challenges. The conclusion of this review emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary design facilitated by synergizing fields of materials science, advanced 3D biomanufacturing, mechanobiological studies, and innovative approaches for effective MI tissue regeneration.

Surface functionalization of virus-like particles via bioorthogonal click reactions for enhanced cell-specific targeting

Surface functionalization of nano drug carriers allows for precise delivery of therapeutic molecules to the target site. This technique involves attaching targeting molecules to the nanoparticle surface, facilitating selective interaction. In this study, we engineered virus-like particles (VLPs) to enhance their targeting capabilities. Azide groups incorporated on the lipid membranes of VLPs enabled bioorthogonal click reactions for conjugation with cycloalkyne-bearing molecules, providing efficient conjugation with high specificity. HIV-1 Gag VLPs were chosen due to their envelope, which allows host membrane component incorporation, and the Gag protein, which serves as a recognition motif for human T cells. This combination, along with antibody-mediated targeting, addresses the limitations of intracellular delivery to T cells, which typically exhibit low uptake of exogenous materials. The selective uptake of azide VLPs by CD3-positive T cells was evaluated in a co-culture system. Even without antibody conjugation, VLP uptake was enhanced in T cells, indicating their intrinsic targeting potential. Antibody conjugation further amplified this effect, demonstrating the synergistic benefits of the combined targeting approach. Our study shows that recombinant production of azide functionalized VLPs results in engineered nanoparticles that can be easily modified using bioorthogonal click reactions, providing high specificity and versatility for conjugation with various molecules, making it applicable to a wide range of biological products.

Designable Nanoadaptor for Enhanced Recognition of Natural Killer Cell to Tumor via Bio-orthogonal Click Reaction

Highly efficient recognition of cancer cells by immune cells is important for successful therapeutic-cell-based cancer immunotherapy. Herein, we present a facile NIR-II nanoadaptor [hyaluronic acid (HA)/dibenzocyclooctyne (DBCO)-Au:Ag2Te quantum dots (QDs)] for enhancing the tumor recognition and binding ability of natural killer (NK) cells via a bio-orthogonal click reaction in vivo. The Nanoadaptor possesses superior tumor-targeting capacity, facilitating the accumulation of the chemical receptor DBCO at the tumor sites. Subsequently, the enrichment of DBCO on tumor cell surfaces provides multivalent recognition sites for capturing pretreated azide engineered NK92 cells (NK92-N3) through an efficient click reaction, thereby significantly enhancing the therapeutical efficiency. The dynamic process of nanoadaptor-mediated recognition of NK cells to tumor cells could be vividly observed using multiplexed NIR-II fluorescence imaging in a mouse model of lung cancer. Such a nanoadaptor strategy can be extended to other therapeutic cellular systems and holds promise for future clinical applications.

Nanomaterial-Based Strategies for Attenuating T-Cell-Mediated Immunodepression in Stroke Patients: Advancing Research Perspectives

This review article discusses the potential of nanomaterials in targeted therapy and immunomodulation for stroke-induced immunosuppression. Although nanomaterials have been extensively studied in various biomedical applications, their specific use in studying and addressing immunosuppression after stroke remains limited. Stroke-induced neuroinflammation is characterized by T-cell-mediated immunodepression, which leads to increased morbidity and mortality. Key observations related to immunodepression after stroke, including lymphopenia, T-cell dysfunction, regulatory T-cell imbalance, and cytokine dysregulation, are discussed. Nanomaterials, such as liposomes, micelles, polymeric nanoparticles, and dendrimers, offer advantages in the precise delivery of drugs to T cells, enabling enhanced targeting and controlled release of immunomodulatory agents. These nanomaterials have the potential to modulate T-cell function, promote neuroregeneration, and restore immune responses, providing new avenues for stroke treatment. However, challenges related to biocompatibility, stability, scalability, and clinical translation need to be addressed. Future research efforts should focus on comprehensive studies to validate the efficacy and safety of nanomaterial-based interventions targeting T cells in stroke-induced immunosuppression. Collaborative interdisciplinary approaches are necessary to advance the field and translate these innovative strategies into clinical practice, ultimately improving stroke outcomes and patient care.

NK-92 cells labeled with Fe3O4-PEG-CD56/Avastin@Ce6 nanoprobes for the targeted treatment and noninvasive therapeutic evaluation of breast cancer

Adoptive cellular immunotherapy as a promising and alternative cancer therapy platform is critical for future clinical applications. Natural killer (NK) cells have attracted attention as an important type of innate immune regulatory cells that can rapidly kill multiple adjacent cancer cells. However, these cells are significantly less effective in treating solid tumors than in treating hematological tumors. Herein, we report the synthesis of a Fe3O4-PEG-CD56/Avastin@Ce6 nanoprobe labeled with NK-92 cells that can be used for adoptive cellular immunotherapy, photodynamic therapy and dual-modality imaging-based in vivo fate tracking. The labeled NK-92 cells specifically target the tumor cells, which increases the amount of cancer cell apoptosis in vitro. Furthermore, the in vivo results indicate that the labeled NK-92 cells can be used for tumor magnetic resonance imaging and fluorescence imaging, adoptive cellular immunotherapy, and photodynamic therapy after tail vein injection. These data show that the developed multifunctional nanostructure is a promising platform for efficient innate immunotherapy, photodynamic treatment and noninvasive therapeutic evaluation of breast cancer.

Black Phosphorus Quantum Dot Loaded Bioinspired Nanoplatform Synergized with aPD-L1 for Multimode Cancer Immunotherapy

Efforts to prolong the blood circulation time and bypass immune clearance play vital roles in improving the therapeutic efficacy of nanoparticles (NPs). Herein, a multifunctional nanoplatform (BPP@RTL) that precisely targets tumor cells is fabricated by encapsulating ultrasmall phototherapeutic agent black phosphorus quantum dot (BPQD), chemotherapeutic drug paclitaxel (PTX), and immunomodulator PolyMetformin (PM) in hybrid membrane-camouflaged liposomes. Specifically, the hybrid cell membrane coating derived from the fusion of cancer cell membrane and red blood cell membrane displays excellent tumor targeting efficiency and long blood circulation property due to the innate features of both membranes. After collaboration with aPD-L1-based immune checkpoint blockade therapy, a boosted immunotherapeutic effect is obtained due to elevated dendritic cell maturation and T cell activation. Significantly, laser-irradiated BPP@RTL combined with aPD-L1 effectively eliminates primary tumors and inhibits lung metastasis in 4T1 breast tumor model, offering a promising treatment plan to develop personalized antitumor strategy.

Physiological principles underlying the kidney targeting of renal nanomedicines

Kidney disease affects more than 10% of the global population and is associated with considerable morbidity and mortality, highlighting a need for new therapeutic options. Engineered nanoparticles for the treatment of kidney diseases (renal nanomedicines) represent one such option, enabling the delivery of targeted therapeutics to specific regions of the kidney. Although they are underdeveloped compared with nanomedicines for diseases such as cancer, findings from preclinical studies suggest that renal nanomedicines may hold promise. However, the physiological principles that govern the in vivo transport and interactions of renal nanomedicines differ from those of cancer nanomedicines, and thus a comprehensive understanding of these principles is needed to design nanomedicines that effectively and specifically target the kidney while ensuring biosafety in their future clinical translation. Herein, we summarize the current understanding of factors that influence the glomerular filtration, tubular uptake, tubular secretion and extrusion of nanoparticles, including size and charge dependency, and the role of specific transporters and processes such as endocytosis. We also describe how the transport and uptake of nanoparticles is altered by kidney disease and discuss strategic approaches by which nanoparticles may be harnessed for the detection and treatment of a variety of kidney diseases.

Structural Optimization of Carboxy-Terminal Phenylalanine-Modified Dendrimers for T-Cell Association and Model Drug Loading

Dendrimers are potent nanocarriers in drug delivery systems because their structure can be precisely controlled. We previously reported that polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimers that were modified with 1,2-cyclohexanedicarboxylic acid (CHex) and phenylalanine (Phe), PAMAM-CHex-Phe, exhibited an effective association with various immune cells, including T-cells. In this study, we synthesized various carboxy-terminal Phe-modified dendrimers with different linkers using phthalic acid and linear dicarboxylic acids to determine the association of these dendrimers with Jurkat cells, a T-cell model. PAMAM-n-hexyl-Phe demonstrated the highest association with Jurkat T-cells. In addition, dendri-graft polylysine (DGL) with CHex and Phe, DGL-CHex-Phe, was synthesized, and its association with Jurkat cells was investigated. The association of DGL-CHex-Phe with T-cells was higher than that of PAMAM-CHex-Phe. However, it was insoluble in water and thus it is unsuitable as a drug carrier. Model drugs, such as protoporphyrin IX and paclitaxel, were loaded onto these dendrimers, and the most model drug molecules could be loaded into PAMAM-CHex-Phe. PTX-loaded PAMAM-CHex-Phe exhibited cytotoxicity against Jurkat cells at a similar level to free PTX. These results suggest that PAMAM-CHex-Phe exhibited both efficient T-cell association and drug loading properties.

Advances in nano-immunotherapy for hematological malignancies

Hematological malignancies (HMs) encompass a diverse group of blood neoplasms with significant morbidity and mortality. Immunotherapy has emerged as a validated and crucial treatment modality for patients with HMs. Despite notable advancements having been made in understanding and implementing immunotherapy for HMs over the past decade, several challenges persist. These challenges include immune-related adverse effects, the precise biodistribution and elimination of therapeutic antigens in vivo, immune tolerance of tumors, and immune evasion by tumor cells within the tumor microenvironment (TME). Nanotechnology, with its capacity to manipulate material properties at the nanometer scale, has the potential to tackle these obstacles and revolutionize treatment outcomes by improving various aspects such as drug targeting and stability. The convergence of nanotechnology and immunotherapy has given rise to nano-immunotherapy, a specialized branch of anti-tumor therapy. Nanotechnology has found applications in chimeric antigen receptor T cell (CAR-T) therapy, cancer vaccines, immune checkpoint inhibitors, and other immunotherapeutic strategies for HMs. In this review, we delineate recent developments and discuss current challenges in the field of nano-immunotherapy for HMs, offering novel insights into the potential of nanotechnology-based therapeutic approaches for these diseases.

Cell membrane coated nanoparticles as a biomimetic drug delivery platform for enhancing cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy, a burgeoning modality for cancer treatment, operates by activating the autoimmune system to impede the growth of malignant cells. Although numerous immunotherapy strategies have been employed in clinical cancer therapy, the resistance of cancer cells to immunotherapeutic medications and other apprehensions impede the attainment of sustained advantages for most patients. Recent advancements in nanotechnology for drug delivery hold promise in augmenting the efficacy of immunotherapy. However, the efficacy is currently constrained by the inadequate specificity of delivery, low rate of response, and the intricate immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. In this context, the investigation of cell membrane coated nanoparticles (CMNPs) has revealed their ability to perform targeted delivery, immune evasion, controlled release, and immunomodulation. By combining the advantageous features of natural cell membranes and nanoparticles, CMNPs have demonstrated their unique potential in the realm of cancer immunotherapy. This review aims to emphasize recent research progress and elucidate the underlying mechanisms of CMNPs as an innovative drug delivery platform for enhancing cancer immunotherapy. Additionally, it provides a comprehensive overview of the current immunotherapeutic strategies involving different cell membrane types of CMNPs, with the intention of further exploration and optimization.

Nanomedicine for T-Cell Mediated Immunotherapy

T-cell immunotherapy offers outstanding advantages in the treatment of various diseases, and with the selection of appropriate targets, efficient disease treatment can be achieved. T-cell immunotherapy has made great progress, but clinical results show that only a small proportion of patients can benefit from T-cell immunotherapy. The extensive mechanistic work outlines a blueprint for using T cells as a new option for immunotherapy, but also presents new challenges, including the balance between different fractions of T cells, the inherent T-cell suppression patterns in the disease microenvironment, the acquired loss of targets, and the decline of T-cell viability. The diversity, flexibility, and intelligence of nanomedicines give them great potential for enhancing T-cell immunotherapy. Here, how T-cell immunotherapy strategies can be adapted with different nanomaterials to enhance therapeutic efficacy is discussed. For two different pathological states, immunosuppression and immune activation, recent advances in nanomedicines for T-cell immunotherapy in diseases such as cancers, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, ulcerative colitis, and diabetes are summarized. With a focus on T-cell immunotherapy, this review highlights the outstanding advantages of nanomedicines in disease treatment, and helps advance one's understanding of the use of nanotechnology to enhance T-cell immunotherapy.

Conquering chemoresistance in pancreatic cancer: Exploring novel drug therapies and delivery approaches amidst desmoplasia and hypoxia

Pancreatic cancer poses a significant challenge within the field of oncology due to its aggressive behaviour, limited treatment choices, and unfavourable outlook. With a mere 10% survival rate at the 5-year mark, finding effective interventions becomes even more pressing. The intricate relationship between desmoplasia and hypoxia in the tumor microenvironment further complicates matters by promoting resistance to chemotherapy and impeding treatment efficacy. The dense extracellular matrix and cancer-associated fibroblasts characteristic of desmoplasia create a physical and biochemical barrier that impedes drug penetration and fosters an immunosuppressive milieu. Concurrently, hypoxia nurtures aggressive tumor behaviour and resistance to conventional therapies. a comprehensive exploration of emerging medications and innovative drug delivery approaches. Notably, advancements in nanoparticle-based delivery systems, local drug delivery implants, and oxygen-carrying strategies are highlighted for their potential to enhance drug accessibility and therapeutic outcomes. The integration of these strategies with traditional chemotherapies and targeted agents reveals the potential for synergistic effects that amplify treatment responses. These emerging interventions can mitigate desmoplasia and hypoxia-induced barriers, leading to improved drug delivery, treatment efficacy, and patient outcomes in pancreatic cancer. This review article delves into the dynamic landscape of emerging anticancer medications and innovative drug delivery strategies poised to overcome the challenges imposed by desmoplasia and hypoxia in the treatment of pancreatic cancer.

Lovastatin/SN38 co-loaded liposomes amplified ICB therapeutic effect via remodeling the immunologically-cold colon tumor and synergized stimulation of cGAS-STING pathway

Current immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) immunotherapeutics have revolutionized cancer treatment. However, many cancers especially the "immunologically cold" tumors, do not respond to ICB, prompting the search for additional strategies to achieve durable responses. The cGAS-STING pathway, as an essential immune response pathway, has been demonstrated for a potent target to sensitize ICB immunotherapy. However, the low efficiency of conventional STING agonists limits their clinical application. Recent studies have shown that DNA topoisomerase I (TOPI) inhibitor chemodrug SN38 can activate the cGAS-STING pathway and induce an immune response through DNA damage, while the traditional statins medication lovastatin was found to inhibit DNA damage repair, which may in turn upregulate the damaged DNA level. Herein, we have developed a liposomal carrier co-loaded with SN38 and lovastatin (SL@Lip), which can be accumulated in tumors and efficiently released SN38 and lovastatin, addressing the problem of weak solubility of these two drugs. Importantly, lovastatin can increase DNA damage and enhance the activation of cGAS-STING pathway, coordinating with SN38 chemotherapy and exhibiting the enhanced combinational immunotherapy of PD-1 antibody by remodeling the tumor microenvironment in mouse colorectal cancer of both subcutaneous and orthotopic xenograft models. Overall, this study demonstrates that lovastatin-assisted cGAS-STING stimulation mediated by liposomal delivery system significantly strengthened both chemotherapy and immunotherapy of colorectal cancer, providing a clinically translational strategy for combinational ICB therapy in the "immunologically cold" tumors.

Nanocarrier-based gene delivery for immune cell engineering

Clinical advances in genetically modified immune cell therapies, such as chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapies, have raised hope for cancer treatment. The majority of these biotechnologies are based on viral methods for ex vivo genetic modification of the immune cells, while the non-viral methods are still in the developmental phase. Nanocarriers have been emerging as materials of choice for gene delivery to immune cells. This is due to their versatile physicochemical properties such as large surface area and size that can be optimized to overcome several practical barriers to successful gene delivery. The in vivo nanocarrier-based gene delivery can revolutionize cell-based cancer immunotherapies by replacing the current expensive autologous cell manufacturing with an off-the-shelf biomaterial-based platform. The aim of this research is to review current advances and strategies to overcome the challenges in nanoparticle-based gene delivery and their impact on the efficiency, safety, and specificity of the process. The main focus is on polymeric and lipid-based nanocarriers, and their recent preclinical applications for cancer immunotherapy.

Adoptive cell therapy for solid tumors beyond CAR-T: Current challenges and emerging therapeutic advances

Adoptive cellular immunotherapy using immune cells expressing chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) is a highly specific anti-tumor immunotherapy that has shown promise in the treatment of hematological malignancies. However, there has been a slow progress toward the treatment of solid tumors owing to the complex tumor microenvironment that affects the localization and killing ability of the CAR cells. Solid tumors with a strong immunosuppressive microenvironment and complex vascular system are unaffected by CAR cell infiltration and attack. To improve their efficacy toward solid tumors, CAR cells have been modified and upgraded by "decorating" and "pruning". This review focuses on the structure and function of CARs, the immune cells that can be engineered by CARs and the transformation strategies to overcome solid tumors, with a view to broadening ideas for the better application of CAR cell therapy for the treatment of solid tumors.

Engineered Treg cells: The heir to the throne of immunotherapy

Recently, increased interest in the use of Tregs as adoptive cell therapy for the treatment of autoimmune diseases and transplant rejection had led to several advances in the field. However, Treg cell therapies, while constantly advancing, indiscriminately suppress the immune system without the permanent stabilization of certain diseases. Genetically modified Tregs hold great promise towards solving these problems, but, challenges in identifying the most potent Treg subtype, accompanied by the ambiguity involved in identifying the optimal Treg source, along with its expansion and engineering in a clinical-grade setting remain paramount. This review highlights the recent advances in methodologies for the development of genetically engineered Treg cell-based treatments for autoimmune, inflammatory diseases, and organ rejection. Additionally, it provides a systematized guide to all the recent progress in the field and informs the readers of the feasibility and safety of engineered adoptive Treg cell therapy, with the aim to provide a framework for researchers involved in the development of engineered Tregs.

In Situ Reprogramming of Immune Cells Using Synthetic Nanomaterials

In the past decade, adoptive cell therapy with chimeric antigen receptor-T (CAR-T) cells has revolutionized cancer treatment. However, the complexity and high costs involved in manufacturing current adoptive cell therapy greatly inhibit its widespread availability and access. To address this, in situ cell therapy, which directly reprograms immune cells inside the body, has recently been developed as a promising alternative. Here, an overview of the recent progress in the development of synthetic nanomaterials is provided to deliver plasmid DNA or mRNA for in situ reprogramming of T cells and macrophages, focusing especially on in situ CAR therapies. Also, the main challenges for in situ immune cell reprogramming are discussed and some approaches to overcome these barriers to fulfill the clinical applications are proposed.

Nanomedicines for reversing immunosuppressive microenvironment of hepatocellular carcinoma

Although immunotherapeutic strategies such as immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have gained promising advances, their limited efficacy and significant toxicity remain great challenges for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) immunotherapy. The tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment (TIME) with insufficient T-cell infiltration and low immunogenicity accounts for most HCC patients' poor response to ICIs. Worse still, the current immunotherapeutics without precise delivery may elicit enormous autoimmune side effects and systemic toxicity in the clinic. With a better understanding of the TIME in HCC, nanomedicines have emerged as an efficient strategy to achieve remodeling of the TIME and superadditive antitumor effects via targeted delivery of immunotherapeutics or multimodal synergistic therapy. Based on the typical characteristics of the TIME in HCC, this review summarizes the recent advancements in nanomedicine-based strategies for TIME-reversing HCC treatment. Additionally, perspectives on the awaiting challenges and opportunities of nanomedicines in modulating the TIME of HCC are presented. Acquisition of knowledge of nanomedicine-mediated TIME reversal will provide researchers with a better opportunity for clinical translation of HCC immunotherapy.

Nanocatalytic Anti-Tumor Immune Regulation

Immunotherapy has brought a new dawn for human being to defeat cancer. Although existing immunotherapy regimens (CAR-T, etc.) have made breakthroughs in the treatments of hematological cancer and few solid tumors such as melanoma, the therapeutic efficacy on most solid tumors is still far from being satisfactory. In recent years, the researches on tumor immunotherapy based on nanocatalytic materials are under rapid development, and significant progresses have been made. Nanocatalytic medicine has been demonstrated to be capable of overcoming the limitations of current clinicnal treatments by using toxic chemodrugs, and exhibits highly attractive advantages over traditional therapies, such as the enhanced and sustained therapeutic efficacy based on the durable catalytic activity, remarkably reduced harmful side-effects without using traditional toxic chemodrugs, and so on. Most recently, nanocatalytic medicine has been introduced in the immune-regulation for disease treatments, especially, in the immunoactivation for tumor therapies. This article presents the most recent progresses in immune-response activations by nanocatalytic medicine-initiated chemical reactions for tumor immunotherapy, and elucidates the mechanism of nanocatalytic medicines in regulating anti-tumor immunity. By reviewing the current research progress in the emerging field, this review will further highlight the great potential and broad prospects of nanocatalysis-based anti-tumor immune-therapeutics.

Programmed Remodeling of the Tumor Milieu to Enhance NK Cell Immunotherapy Combined with Chemotherapy for Pancreatic Cancer

Natural killer (NK) cell-based adoptive immunotherapy has demonstrated encouraging therapeutic effects in clinical trials for hematological cancers. However, the effectiveness of treatment for solid tumors remains a challenge due to insufficient recruitment and infiltration of NK cells into tumor tissues. Herein, a programmed nanoremodeler (DAS@P/H/pp) is designed to remodel dense physical stromal barriers and for dysregulation of the chemokine of the tumor environment to enhance the recruitment and infiltration of NK cells in tumors. The DAS@P/H/pp is triggered by the acidic tumor environment, resulting in charge reversal and subsequent hyaluronidase (HAase) release. HAase effectively degrades the extracellular matrix, promoting the delivery of immunoregulatory molecules and chemotherapy drugs into deep tumor tissues. In mouse models of pancreatic cancer, this nanomediated strategy for the programmed remodeling of the tumor microenvironment significantly boosts the recruitment of NK92 cells and their tumor cell-killing capabilities under the supervision of multiplexed near-infrared-II fluorescence.

Microfluidic-based preparation of artificial antigen-presenting gel droplets for integrated and minimalistic adoptive cell therapy strategies

Adoptive T-cell transfer for cancer therapy is limited by the inefficiency ofin vitroT-cell expansion and the ability ofin vivoT-cells to infiltrate tumors. The construction of multifunctional artificial antigen-presenting cells is a promising but challenging approach to achieve this goal. In this study, a multifunctional artificial antigen-presenting gel droplet (AAPGD) was designed. Its surface provides regulated T-cell receptor (TCR) stimulation and co-stimulation signals and is capable of slow release of mitogenic cytokines and collagen mimetic peptide. The highly uniform AAPGD are generated by a facile method based on standard droplet microfluidic devices. The results of the study indicate that, T-cell proliferatedin vitroutilizing AAPGD have a fast rate and high activity. AAPGD increased the proportion ofin vitroproliferating T cells low differentiation and specificity. The starting number of AAPGDs and the quality ratio of TCR-stimulated and co-stimulated signals on the surface have a large impact on the rapid proliferation of low-differentiated T cellsin vitro. During reinfusion therapy, AAPGD also enhanced T-cell infiltration into the tumor site. In experiments using AAPGD for adoptive T cell therapy in melanoma mice, tumor growth was inhibited, eliciting a potent cytotoxic T-lymphocyte immune response and improving mouse survival. In conclusion, AAPGD promotes rapid low-differentiation proliferation of T cellsin vitroand enhances T cell infiltration of tumorsin vivo. It simplifies the preparation steps of adoptive cell therapy, improves the therapeutic effect, and provides a new pathway for overdosing T cells to treat solid tumors.

SERS nanostructures with engineered active peptides against an immune checkpoint protein

The immune checkpoint programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) protein is expressed by tumor cells and it suppresses the killer activity of CD8+ T-lymphocyte cells binding to the programmed death 1 (PD-1) protein of these immune cells. Binding to either PD-L1 or PD1 is used for avoiding the inactivation of CD8+ T-lymphocyte cells. We report, for the first time, Au plasmonic nanostructures with surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) properties (SERS nanostructures) and functionalized with an engineered peptide (CLP002: Trp-His-Arg-Ser-Tyr-Tyr-Thr-Trp-Asn-Leu-Asn-Thr), which targets PD-L1. Molecular dynamics calculations are used to describe the interaction of the targeting peptide with PD-L1 in the region where the interaction with PD-1 occurs, showing also the poor targeting activity of a peptide with the same amino acids, but a scrambled sequence. The results are confirmed experimentally since a very good targeting activity is observed against the MDA-MB-231 breast adenocarcinoma cancer cell line, which overexpresses PD-L1. A good activity is observed, in particular, for SERS nanostructures where the CLP002-engineered peptide is linked to the nanostructure surface with a short charged amino acid sequence and a long PEG chain. The results show that the functionalized SERS nanostructures show very good targeting of the immune checkpoint PD-L1.

Apoptosis and Paraptosis Induced by Disulfiram-Loaded Ca2+/Cu2+ Dual-Ions Nano Trap for Breast Cancer Treatment

Regarded as one of the hallmarks of tumorigenesis and tumor progression, the evasion of apoptotic cell death would also account for treatment resistance or failure during cancer therapy. In this study, a Ca2+/Cu2+ dual-ion "nano trap" to effectively avoid cell apoptosis evasion by synchronously inducing paraptosis together with apoptosis was successfully designed and fabricated for breast cancer treatment. In brief, disulfiram (DSF)-loaded amorphous calcium carbonate nanoparticles (NPs) were fabricated via a gas diffusion method. Further on, the Cu2+-tannic acid metal phenolic network was embedded onto the NPs surface by self-assembling, followed by mDSPE-PEG/lipid capping to form the DSF-loaded Ca2+/Cu2+ dual-ions "nano trap". The as-prepared nanotrap would undergo acid-triggered biodegradation upon being endocytosed by tumor cells within the lysosome for Ca2+, Cu2+, and DSF releasing simultaneously. The released Ca2+ could cause mitochondrial calcium overload and lead to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) overexpression. Meanwhile, Ca2+/reactive oxygen species-associated mitochondrial dysfunction would lead to paraptosis cell death. Most importantly, cell paraptosis could be further induced and strengthened by the toxic dithiocarbamate (DTC)-copper complexes formed by the Cu2+ combined with the DTC, the metabolic products of DSF. Additionally, the released Cu2+ will be reduced by intracellular glutathione to generate Cu+, which can catalyze the H2O2 to produce a toxic hydroxyl radical by a Cu+-mediated Fenton-like reaction for inducing cell apoptosis. Both in vitro cellular assays and in vivo antitumor evaluations confirmed the cancer therapeutic efficiency by the dual ion nano trap. This study can broaden the cognition scope of dual-ion-mediated paraptosis together with apoptosis via a multifunctional nanoplatform.

Radiation Synergizes with IL2/IL15 Stimulation to Enhance Innate Immune Activation and Antitumor Immunity

Ionizing radiation is known to possess immune modulatory properties. However, how radiotherapy (RT) may complement with different types of immunotherapies to boost antitumor responses is unclear. In mice implanted with EO771 syngeneic tumors, NL-201 a stable, highly potent CD25-independent agonist to IL2 and IL15 receptors with enhanced affinity for IL2Rβγ was given with or without RT. Flow analysis and Western blot analysis was performed to determine the mechanisms involved. STING (-/-) and CD11c+ knockout mice were implanted with EO771 tumors to confirm the essential signaling and cell types required to mediate the effects seen. Combination of RT and NL-201 to enhance systemic immunotherapy with an anti-PD-1 checkpoint inhibitor was utilized to determine tumor growth inhibition and survival, along characterization of tumor microenvironment as compared with all other treatment groups. Here, we showed that RT, synergizing with NL-201 produced enhanced antitumor immune responses in murine breast cancer models. When given together, RT and NL-201 enhanced activation of the cytosolic DNA sensor cyclic GMP-AMP synthase-stimulator of IFN genes (cGAS-STING) pathway, resulting in increased type I IFN production in dendritic cells (DC), and consequently greater tumor infiltration and more efficient priming of antigen-specific T cells. The immune stimulatory mechanisms triggered by NL-201 and RT resulted in superior tumor growth inhibition and survival benefit in both localized and metastatic cancers. Our results support further preclinical and clinical investigation of this novel synergism regimen in locally advanced and metastatic settings.

Hydrogel Crosslinked with Nanoparticles for Prevention of Surgical Hemorrhage and Recurrence of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is acknowledged as an immunosuppressive neoplasm, whereby the inactive microenvironment facilitates immune tolerance and evasion of HCC. Post-surgical resected liver cancer exhibits a proclivity for relapse, rendering prevention of recurrence challenging as it may transpire at any point subsequent to surgery. Among the various anti-recurrence interventions, the primary clinical approach involving the administration of regimens atezolizumab and bevacizumab (A+T) is deemed the most efficacious in reversing the tumor microenvironment, albeit still lacking in complete satisfaction. Therefore, the objective is to utilize a recently developed block copolymer as a protective carrier for two specific monoclonal antibody drugs. Subsequently, a modified hemostatic hydrogel will be synthesized for application during hepatic surgery. The immunotherapy impact of this approach is significantly prolonged and intensified due to the combined hemostasis properties and controlled release of the constituents within the synthesized nanocomposite hydrogel. Furthermore, these nanocomposite hydrogels exhibit remarkable efficacy in preventing postoperative wound bleeding and substantially enhancing the safety of liver cancer resection. This research on the anti-recurrence hydrogel system presents a novel therapeutic approach for addressing local recurrence of liver cancer, potentially offering a substantial contribution to the field of surgical treatment for liver cancer in the future.

Nanomaterials in Medicine: Understanding Cellular Uptake, Localization, and Retention for Enhanced Disease Diagnosis and Therapy

Nanomaterials (NMs) have emerged as promising tools for disease diagnosis and therapy due to their unique physicochemical properties. To maximize the effectiveness and design of NMs-based medical applications, it is essential to comprehend the complex mechanisms of cellular uptake, subcellular localization, and cellular retention. This review illuminates the various pathways that NMs take to get from the extracellular environment to certain intracellular compartments by investigating the various mechanisms that underlie their interaction with cells. The cellular uptake of NMs involves complex interactions with cell membranes, encompassing endocytosis, phagocytosis, and other active transport mechanisms. Unique uptake patterns across cell types highlight the necessity for customized NMs designs. After internalization, NMs move through a variety of intracellular routes that affect where they are located subcellularly. Understanding these pathways is pivotal for enhancing the targeted delivery of therapeutic agents and imaging probes. Furthermore, the cellular retention of NMs plays a critical role in sustained therapeutic efficacy and long-term imaging capabilities. Factors influencing cellular retention include nanoparticle size, surface chemistry, and the cellular microenvironment. Strategies for prolonging cellular retention are discussed, including surface modifications and encapsulation techniques. In conclusion, a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms governing cellular uptake, subcellular localization, and cellular retention of NMs is essential for advancing their application in disease diagnosis and therapy. This review provides insights into the intricate interplay between NMs and biological systems, offering a foundation for the rational design of next-generation nanomedicines.

BioCanRx Summit for Cancer Immunotherapy 2022 Proceedings

From 19 to 21 November 2022, BioCanRx held its first post-pandemic in-person Summit for Cancer Immunotherapy in Montreal, Canada. The meeting was well attended by patients, trainees, researchers, clinicians, and industry professionals, who came together to discuss the current state and future of biotherapeutics for cancer in Canada and beyond. Three plenaries, three keynote speakers, a lively debate, and panel discussions, together with poster sessions and a social event, made the event memorable and productive. The current state of cellular therapies, cellular engineering, clinical trials, and the role of the cancer microbiome were discussed in plenary session, and the patient voice was welcomed and present throughout the meeting, in large part due to the Learning Institute, a BioCanRx initiative to include patient partners in research. In this meeting review, we highlight the platform presentations, keynote speakers, debate combatants, panellists, and the patient perspective on the annual meeting.

[Advances in Molecular Regulatory Mechanisms of Jaw Repair and Reconstruction]

Jawbone injuries resulting from trauma, diseases, and surgical resections are commonly seen in clinical practice, necessitating precise and effective strategies for repair and reconstruction to restore both function and aesthetics. The precise and effective repair and the reconstruction of jawbone injuries pose a significant challenge in the field of oral and maxillofacial surgery, owing to the unique biomechanical characteristics and physiological functions of the jawbone. The natural repair process following jawbone injuries involves stages such as hematoma formation, inflammatory response, ossification, and bone remodeling. Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and other growth factors play crucial roles in promoting jawbone regeneration. Cytokines such as interleukins and tumor necrosis factor play dual roles in regulating inflammatory response and bone repair. In recent years, significant progress in molecular biology research has been made in the field of jawbone repair and reconstruction. Tissue engineering technologies, including stem cell therapy, bioactive scaffolds, and growth factor delivery systems, have found important applications in jawbone repair. However, the intricate molecular regulatory mechanisms involved in the complex jawbone repair and reconstruction methods are not fully understood and still require further research. Future research directions will be focused on the precise control of these molecular processes and the development of more efficient combination therapeutic strategies to promote the effective and functional reconstruction of the jawbone. This review aims to examine the latest findings on the molecular regulatory mechanisms of the repair and reconstruction of jawbone injuries and the therapeutic strategies. The conclusions drawn in this article provide a molecular-level understanding of the repair of jawbone injuries and highlight potential directions for future research.

Photo-Controllable Smart Hydrogels for Biomedical Application: A Review

Nowadays, smart hydrogels are being widely studied by researchers because of their advantages such as simple preparation, stable performance, response to external stimuli, and easy control of response behavior. Photo-controllable smart hydrogels (PCHs) are a class of responsive hydrogels whose physical and chemical properties can be changed when stimulated by light at specific wavelengths. Since the light source is safe, clean, simple to operate, and easy to control, PCHs have broad application prospects in the biomedical field. Therefore, this review timely summarizes the latest progress in the PCHs field, with an emphasis on the design principles of typical PCHs and their multiple biomedical applications in tissue regeneration, tumor therapy, antibacterial therapy, diseases diagnosis and monitoring, etc. Meanwhile, the challenges and perspectives of widespread practical implementation of PCHs are presented in biomedical applications. This study hopes that PCHs will flourish in the biomedical field and this review will provide useful information for interested researchers.