Epidemiology, pathogenesis, treatment and outcomes of infection-associated glomerulonephritis

The intricate pathogenicity of group a Streptococcus: A comprehensive update

Group A Streptococcus (GAS) is a versatile pathogen that targets human lymphoid, decidual, skin, and soft tissues. Recent advancements have shed light on its airborne transmission, lymphatic spread, and interactions with neuronal systems. GAS promotes severe inflammation through mechanisms involving inflammasomes, IL-1β, and T-cell hyperactivation. Additionally, it secretes factors that directly induce skin necrosis via Gasdermin activation and sustains survival and replication in human blood through sophisticated immune evasion strategies. These include lysis of erythrocytes, using red cell membranes for camouflage, resisting antimicrobial peptides, evading phagocytosis, escaping from neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), inactivating chemokines, and cleaving targeted antibodies. GAS also employs molecular mimicry to traverse connective tissues undetected and exploits the host's fibrinolytic system, which contributes to its stealth and potential for causing autoimmune conditions after repeated infections. Secreted toxins disrupt host cell membranes, enhancing intracellular survival and directly activating nociceptor neurons to induce pain. Remarkably, GAS possesses mechanisms for precise genome editing to defend against phages, and its fibrinolytic capabilities have found applications in medicine. Immune responses to GAS are paradoxical: robust responses to its virulence factors correlate with more severe disease, whereas recurrent infections often show diminished immune reactions. This review focuses on the multifaceted virulence of GAS and introduces novel concepts in understanding its pathogenicity.

Targeting the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR/ErbB) for the potential treatment of renal pathologies

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), which is referred to as ErbB1/HER1, is the prototype of the EGFR family of receptor tyrosine kinases which also comprises ErbB2 (Neu, HER2), ErbB3 (HER3), and ErbB4 (HER4). EGFR, along with other ErbBs, is expressed in the kidney tubules and is physiologically involved in nephrogenesis and tissue repair, mainly following acute kidney injury. However, its sustained activation is linked to several kidney pathologies, including diabetic nephropathy, hypertensive nephropathy, glomerulonephritis, chronic kidney disease, and renal fibrosis. This review aims to provide a summary of the recent findings regarding the consequences of EGFR activation in several key renal pathologies. We also discuss the potential interplay between EGFR and the reno-protective angiotensin-(1-7) (Ang-(1-7), a heptapeptide member of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system that counter-regulates the actions of angiotensin II. Ang-(1-7)-mediated inhibition of EGFR transactivation might represent a potential mechanism of action for its renoprotection. Our review suggests that there is a significant body of evidence supporting the potential inhibition of EGFR/ErbB, and/or administration of Ang-(1-7), as potential novel therapeutic strategies in the treatment of renal pathologies. Thus, EGFR inhibitors such as Gefitinib and Erlinotib that have an acceptable safety profile and have been clinically used in cancer chemotherapy since their FDA approval in the early 2000s, might be considered for repurposing in the treatment of renal pathologies.

Macrophage-Biomimetic Nanoplatform-Based Therapy for Inflammation-Associated Diseases

Inflammation-associated diseases are very common clinically with a high incidence; however, there is still a lack of effective treatments. Cell-biomimetic nanoplatforms have led to many breakthroughs in the field of biomedicine, significantly improving the efficiency of drug delivery and its therapeutic implications especially for inflammation-associated diseases. Macrophages are an important component of immune cells and play a critical role in the occurrence and progression of inflammation-associated diseases while simultaneously maintaining homeostasis and modulating immune responses. Therefore, macrophage-biomimetic nanoplatforms not only inherit the functions of macrophages including the inflammation tropism effect for targeted delivery of drugs and the neutralization effect of pro-inflammatory cytokines and toxins via membrane surface receptors or proteins, but also maintain the functions of the inner nanoparticles. Macrophage-biomimetic nanoplatforms are shown to have remarkable therapeutic efficacy and excellent application potential in inflammation-associated diseases. In this review, inflammation-associated diseases, the physiological functions of macrophages, and the classification and construction of macrophage-biomimetic nanoplatforms are first introduced. Next, the latest applications of different macrophage-biomimetic nanoplatforms for the treatment of inflammation-associated diseases are summarized. Finally, challenges and opportunities for future biomedical applications are discussed. It is hoped that the review will provide new ideas for the further development of macrophage-biomimetic nanoplatforms.

[Nephropathology of infectious disease]

Infections can affect the kidney via different pathways. Urinary tract infections can directly involve the renal tissue by spreading along pre-existing canalicular structures. Such an ascending infection can manifest as a highly active and purulent or even abscessing interstitial nephritis or as a chronic-fibrosing process in recurrent pyelonephritis. Viral infections can also use the canalicular route as in polyomavirus nephropathy or spread via the blood stream in a hematogenous manner as in the case of cytomegalovirus or hantavirus infections. Likewise, bacterial infections can reach the kidney via the blood in the case of systemic infection. Another large group of nephropathies taking place as a sequel of infections includes infection-related glomerulonephritides (IRGN), which are mediated by a series of immunological mechanisms. These IRGN can be subdivided according to their temporal association with the infectious process, occurring either after the infection has healed (postinfectious) or accompanying the ongoing infectious process (parainfectious). The latter, in particular, is of increasing importance in the daily practice of nephropathologists, especially in older patients. A number of other glomerulonephritis forms, i.e., membranous or membranoproliferative forms, can occur as a consequence of infection. In addition, infections can trigger nephropathies, such as thrombotic microangiopathy. The present article gives an overview of morphologic changes in renal parenchyma that take place as a consequence of infectious processes, with particular focus on IRGN.

Pediatric IgA-Dominant Infection-Related Glomerulonephritis

The concept of infection-related glomerulonephritis (IRGN) has been introduced as adults diagnosed with glomerulonephritis often have coexisting active infections. Furthermore, IgA-dominant IRGN is associated with staphylococcal infections in adults with comorbidities, which often progress to end-stage renal disease. Little is known about IgA-dominant IRGN in children, and no consensus for a management strategy of this condition has been reached. We describe the case of a 9-year-old boy with IgA-dominant IRGN that was diagnosed using specific staining for nephritis-associated plasmin receptor (NAPlr)/plasmin activity and galactose-deficient IgA1 (Gd-IgA1), a marker of IgA nephropathy. The patient was successfully treated using a combination of prednisolone, mizoribine (an immunosuppressive drug), and lisinopril (an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor) and three courses of methylprednisolone pulse therapy. The patient was admitted to our hospital with generalized edema, gross hematuria, proteinuria, hypertension, and renal dysfunction. Hypocomplementemia contributed to a diagnosis of IRGN, although the causative organism was unknown. A renal biopsy performed when the patient presented with nephrotic syndrome showed IgA deposition, positive staining for NAPlr, and negative staining for Gd-IgA1, in addition to findings consistent with IRGN, leading to a pathologic diagnosis of IgA-dominant IRGN. The histological staining for NAPlr/plasmin activity and Gd-IgA1, together with clinical symptoms, could be helpful for diagnosing IgA-dominant IRGN. Our findings indicate that otherwise healthy children can also develop IgA-dominant IRGN. Therefore, early diagnosis and aggressive treatment should be considered when IgA-dominant IRGN is suspected to avoid the possibility of incomplete recovery of renal function.

Assessing the genetic relationship between phimosis and 26 urogenital diseases: a Mendelian randomization study

Purpose

This study aims to investigate the impacts of phimosis on the health of the genitourinary system through Mendelian random analysis.

Material and method

A dual-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis was conducted using the publicly available genome-wide association study (GWAS) data. The inverse variance weighted based on the random effects model (Re-IVW) method was used as the main statistical analysis. Complementary methods, including weighted median, MR-Egger regression, and MR pleiotropy residual sum and outlier (MR-PRESSO), were applied to detect or correct the impact of horizontal pleiotropy.

Result

Re-IVW showed a genetic predictive causal relationship of phimosis on glomerulonephritis (odds ratio [OR]: 1.37 [1.13-1.65], p = 0.00149) and IgA glomerulonephritis (OR: 1.57 [1.18-2.09), p = 0.00187). Suggestive evidence indicated that phimosis was associated with chronic nephritis syndrome (OR: 1.23 (1.00-1.51), p = 0.0481], acute nephritis syndrome (OR: 1.50 [1.13-2.01], p = 0.0058), and impotence (OR: 1.39 [1.11-1.73], p = 0.0035). Kidney and ureteral stone (OR: 1.14 [1.04-1.26], p = 0.0069), urethral strictures (OR: 1.26 [1.07-1.48], p = 0.0050), benign prostatic hyperplasia (OR: 1.07 [1.01-1.13], p = 0.0242), and decreased testicular function (OR: 0.72 [0.56-0.94], p = 0.0141) have genetically predictive causal relationships.

Conclusion

In summary, we employed a series of reliable analytical methods to investigate the association between phimosis and 26 urogenital diseases. We have reported several strong associations, but more research is needed to evaluate whether this discovery is replicated in other environments and to gain a better understanding of potential mechanisms.

Causal association of plasma circulating metabolites with nephritis: a Mendelian randomization study

Background

Nephritis is a pivotal catalyst in chronic kidney disease (CKD) progression. Although epidemiological studies have explored the impact of plasma circulating metabolites and drugs on nephritis, few have harnessed genetic methodologies to establish causal relationships.

Methods

Through Mendelian randomization (MR) in two substantial cohorts, spanning large sample sizes, we evaluated over 100 plasma circulating metabolites and 263 drugs to discern their causal effects on nephritis risk. The primary analytical tool was the inverse variance weighted (IVW) analysis. Our bioinformatic scrutiny of GSE115857 (IgA nephropathy, 86 samples) and GSE72326 (lupus nephritis, 238 samples) unveiled anomalies in lipid metabolism and immunological characteristics in nephritis. Thorough sensitivity analyses (MR-Egger, MR-PRESSO, leave-one-out analysis) were undertaken to verify the instrumental variables' (IVs) assumptions.

Results

Unique lipoprotein-related molecules established causal links with diverse nephritis subtypes. Notably, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) emerged as a protective factor for acute tubulointerstitial nephritis (ATIN) (OR1 = 0.84, [95% CI 0.78-0.90], p1 = 0.013; OR2 = 0.89, [95% CI 0.82-0.97], p2 = 0.007). Conversely, multivitamin supplementation minus minerals notably increased the risk of ATIN (OR = 31.25, [95% CI 9.23-105.85], p = 0.004). Reduced α-linolenic acid (ALA) levels due to lipid-lowering drugs were linked to both ATIN (OR = 4.88, [95% CI 3.52-6.77], p < 0.001) and tubulointerstitial nephritis (TIN) (OR = 7.52, [95% CI 2.78-20.30], p = 0.042). While the non-renal drug indivina showed promise for TIN treatment, the use of digoxin, hydroxocobalamin, and liothyronine elevated the risk of chronic tubulointerstitial nephritis (CTIN). Transcriptome analysis affirmed that anomalous lipid metabolism and immune infiltration are characteristic of IgA nephropathy and lupus nephritis. The robustness of these causal links was reinforced by sensitivity analyses and leave-one-out tests, indicating no signs of pleiotropy.

Conclusion

Dyslipidemia significantly contributes to nephritis development. Strategies aimed at reducing plasma low-density lipoprotein levels or ALA supplementation may enhance the efficacy of existing lipid-lowering drug regimens for nephritis treatment. Renal functional status should also be judiciously considered with regard to the use of nonrenal medications.

Infection-Associated Glomerulonephritis

The nephritic syndrome has been associated with a wide variety of infections, spanning many organisms and myriad clinical presentations. Infection-associated glomerulonephritis is challenging to diagnose given the many confounding factors linking kidney injury to infection; however, urine microscopy can assist in identifying abnormal cellular elements suggestive of glomerulonephritis. Kidney biopsy remains the gold standard for diagnosing the underlying pathologic lesion. Treatment of infection-associated glomerulonephritis centers around aggressive and complete treatment of the underlying infectious driver. It is often hard to know exactly when immunosuppression may be required in addition to treating the infection.

Functional nanomaterials as photosensitizers or delivery systems for antibacterial photodynamic therapy

Bacterial infection is a global health problem that closely related to various diseases threatening human life. Although antibiotic therapy has been the mainstream treatment method for various bacterial infectious diseases for decades, the increasing emergence of bacterial drug resistance has brought enormous challenges to the application of antibiotics. Therefore, developing novel antibacterial strategies is of great importance. By producing reactive oxygen species (ROS) with photosensitizers (PSs) under light irradiation, antibacterial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) has emerged as a non-invasive and promising approach for treating bacterial infections without causing drug resistance. However, the insufficient therapeutic penetration, poor hydrophilicity, and poor biocompatibility of traditional PSs greatly limit the efficacy of aPDT. Recently, studies have found that nanomaterials with characteristics of favorable photocatalytic activity, surface plasmonic resonance, easy modification, and high drug loading capacity can improve the therapeutic efficacy of aPDT. In this review, we aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of the mechanism of nanomaterials-mediated aPDT and summarize the representative nanomaterials in aPDT, either as PSs or carriers for PSs. In addition, the combination of advanced nanomaterials-mediated aPDT with other therapies, including targeted therapy, gas therapy, and multidrug resistance (MDR) therapy, is reviewed. Also, the concerns and possible solutions of nanomaterials-based aPDT are discussed. Overall, this review may provide theoretical basis and inspiration for the development of nanomaterials-based aPDT.

Proteinase‑3‑antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody‑associated vasculitis secondary to subacute infective endocarditis: A case report

A 58-year-old male patient was admitted to Peking University First Hospital (Beijing, China) due to recurrent hematuria, proteinuria and kidney dysfunction. The patient was positive for proteinase-3 (PR3)-antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA). Pathology of the kidney showed focal proliferative necrotizing glomerulonephritis with crescent formation and immune complex-mediated glomerulonephritis. The patient was diagnosed with PR3-ANCA-associated vasculitis (AAV), received intensive immunosuppressive therapy and experienced two relapses within 1 year. After admission, aortic valve vegetation was observed via echocardiography. The patient subsequently received antibiotic treatment and valve replacement, and achieved complete remission of kidney and cardiac function. The present case emphasized the importance of identifying secondary reasons for ANCA formation, especially infective endocarditis in patients with PR3-AAV.

Acute Post-infectious Glomerulonephritis in Children Admitted to a Tertiary Care Hospital: A Descriptive Cross-sectional Study

INTRODUCTION

Post infectious glomerulonephritis remains the most common cause leading to the majority of hospital admissions in children of developing countries like ours. The aim of our study was to find the prevalence of post infectious glomerulonephritis, study the clinical profile, biochemical changes and its complication in children admitted in a tertiary care hospital of Nepal.

METHODS

This descriptive cross-sectional study of children admitted at a tertiary care hospital was done from May 2020 till May 2023. A census sampling method was used and sample of 1554 children was taken. Detailed socio demographic data, clinical findings and laboratory investigations were done. Data analysis was done using SPSS software and the results obtained are shown in the form of frequencies along with percentages.

RESULTS

Among 1554 patients, the prevalence of acute post-infectious glomerulonephritis was found to be 63 (4.05%) (3.07-5.03 at 95% Confidence Interval). The mean age of the patients was 9.06±3.48 years. Antistreptolysin O titer was raised in 34 (54%) patients, while low serum C3 was observed in 39 (61.90%) patients with acute post-infectious glomerulonephritis.

CONCLUSIONS

Acute post-infectious glomerulonephritis (APIGN) remains a notable health concern in children, particularly in developing countries like Nepal. This highlights the need for ongoing surveillance, prevention strategies, and effective management protocols to address this burden effectively.

Infective Endocarditis Caused by Streptococcus sanguinis Resulting in Stroke, Ruptured Infected Pseudoaneurysm of Superior Mesenteric Artery, and Rapidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis

A 71-year-old-man was admitted to our hospital with a cerebral embolism and diagnosed with infective endocarditis (IE) caused by Streptococcus sanguinis. Mitral valve replacement was performed. About one month later, he experienced sudden abdominal pain and shock due to a ruptured infected mesenteric artery pseudoaneurysm. Forty-four days after abdominal surgery, he presented with rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis with anti-glomerular basement membrane antibodies. He was treated with plasma exchange and prednisolone, and his renal function gradually improved. Since postoperative complications often occur within a few years after surgery for IE, careful follow-up is important, even after antimicrobial therapy and valve surgery.

State transitions across the Strep A disease spectrum: scoping review and evidence gaps

The spectrum of diseases caused by Streptococcus pyogenes (Strep A) ranges from superficial to serious life-threatening invasive infections. We conducted a scoping review of published articles between 1980 and 2021 to synthesize evidence of state transitions across the Strep A disease spectrum. We identified 175 articles reporting 262 distinct observations of Strep A disease state transitions. Among the included articles, the transition from an invasive or toxin-mediated disease state to another disease state (i.e., to recurrent ARF, RHD or death) was described 115 times (43.9% of all included transition pairs) while the transition to and from locally invasive category was the lowest (n = 7; 0.02%). Transitions from well to any other state was most frequently reported (49%) whereas a relatively higher number of studies (n = 71) reported transition from invasive disease to death. Transitions from any disease state to locally invasive, Strep A pharyngitis to invasive disease, and chronic kidney disease to death were lacking. Transitions related to severe invasive diseases were more frequently reported than superficial ones. Most evidence originated from high-income countries and there is a critical need for new studies in low- and middle-income countries to infer the state transitions across the Strep A disease spectrum in these high-burden settings.

Clinicopathological differences between Bartonella and other bacterial endocarditis-related glomerulonephritis - our experience and a pooled analysis

Background

Although Staphylococcus aureus is the leading cause of acute infective endocarditis (IE) in adults, Bartonella spp. has concomitantly emerged as the leading cause of "blood culture-negative IE" (BCNE). Pre-disposing factors, clinical presentation and kidney biopsy findings in Bartonella IE-associated glomerulonephritis (GN) show subtle differences and some unique features relative to other bacterial infection-related GNs. We highlight these features along with key diagnostic clues and management approach in Bartonella IE-associated GN.

Methods

We conducted a pooled analysis of 89 cases of Bartonella IE-associated GN (54 published case reports and case series; 18 published conference abstracts identified using an English literature search of several commonly used literature search modalities); and four unpublished cases from our institution.

Results

Bartonella henselae and Bartonella quintana are the most commonly implicated species causing IE in humans. Subacute presentation, affecting damaged native and/or prosthetic heart valves, high titer anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCA), mainly proteinase-3 (PR-3) specificity, fastidious nature and lack of positive blood cultures of these Gram-negative bacilli, a higher frequency of focal glomerular crescents compared to other bacterial infection-related GNs are some of the salient features of Bartonella IE-associated GN. C3-dominant, but frequent C1q and IgM immunofluorescence staining is seen on biopsy. A "full-house" immunofluorescence staining pattern is also described but can be seen in IE -associated GN due to other bacteria as well. Non-specific generalized symptoms, cytopenia, heart failure and other organ damage due to embolic phenomena are the highlights on clinical presentation needing a multi-disciplinary approach for management. Awareness of the updated modified Duke criteria for IE, a high index of suspicion for underlying infection despite negative microbiologic cultures, history of exposure to animals, particularly infected cats, and use of send-out serologic tests for Bartonella spp. early in the course of management can help in early diagnosis and initiation of appropriate treatment.

Conclusion

Diagnosis of IE-associated GN can be challenging particularly with BCNE. The number of Bartonella IE-associated GN cases in a single institution tends to be less than IE due to gram positive cocci, however Bartonella is currently the leading cause of BCNE. We provide a much-needed discussion on this topic.

IgA-Dominant Staphylococcus-Associated Glomerulonephritis: An Uncommon Complication of Intravenous Drug Use

A 24-year-old female with a history of intravenous heroin use presented with two weeks of chills, myalgias, and cough and was found to be in acute hypoxemic respiratory failure. Subsequent workup revealed the presence of bilateral septic pulmonary emboli and tricuspid valve endocarditis. Several weeks into her hospitalization, she developed periorbital edema and laboratory testing revealed she had developed acute renal failure and nephrotic range proteinuria. A renal biopsy confirmed the diagnosis of IgA-dominant Staphylococcus-associated glomerulonephritis (IgA-SAGN). Early recognition of this newly recognized variant of glomerulonephritis is paramount, as improper treatment may lead to catastrophic consequences.

Rheumatic masqueraders: mimics of primary vasculitis - a case-based review

INTRODUCTION

Vasculitis conditions are often serious and sometimes fatal diseases, therefore it is paramount to diagnose correctly and treat appropriately. Mimics of primary vasculitis can include either non-inflammatory syndromes or secondary vasculitis where the underlying etiology of the vasculitis is being driven by infection, malignancy, drug-effect or other.

AREAS COVERED

This review comprises six individual cases of vasculitis mimics. Each case is presented and the clinical, radiographic, and histological features that distinguish the case from primary vasculitis are highlighted. Key mimics in large, medium and small vessel vasculitis are outlined.

EXPERT OPINION

The diagnosis of vasculitis requires a comprehensive assessment of clinical, radiographic, and histologic features. Clinicians should be familiar with mimics of primary vasculitis conditions. In the case of non-inflammatory mimics, it is important to differentiate from primary vasculitides in order to avoid unnecessary and potentially harmful immunosuppression. For cases of secondary vasculitis, identification of the correct etiologic cause is critical because treatment of the underlying stimulus is necessary for successful management and outcomes.

The five types of glomerulonephritis classified by pathogenesis, activity and chronicity (GN-AC)

Glomerulonephritis (GN) is a diverse group of immune-mediated disorders. Currently, GN is classified largely by histological patterns that are difficult to understand and teach, and most importantly, do not indicate treatment choices. Indeed, altered systemic immunity is the primary pathogenic process and the key therapeutic target in GN. Here, we apply a conceptual framework of immune-mediated disorders to GN guided by immunopathogenesis and hence immunophenotyping: (i) infection-related GN require pathogen identification and control; (ii) autoimmunity-related GN, defined by presence of autoantibodies and (iii) alloimmunity-related GN in transplant recipients both require the suppression of adaptive immunity in lymphoid organs and bone marrow; (iv) autoinflammation-related GN, e.g. inborn errors of immunity diagnosed by genetic testing, requires suppression of single cytokine or complement pathways; and (v) Monoclonal gammopathy-related GN requires B or plasma cell clone-directed therapy. A new GN classification should include disease category, immunological activity to tailor the use of the increasing number of immunomodulatory drugs, and chronicity to trigger standard chronic kidney disease care including the evolving spectrum of cardio-renoprotective drugs. Certain biomarkers allow diagnosis and the assessment of immunological activity and disease chronicity without kidney biopsy. The use of these five GN categories and a therapy-focused GN classification is likely to overcome some of the existing hurdles in GN research, management and teaching by reflecting disease pathogenesis and guiding the therapeutic approach.

A 7-Year-Old Boy with Fever and Dark Urine

A 7-Year-Old Boy with Fever and Dark UrineA 7-year-old boy with surgically repaired tetralogy of Fallot presented for evaluation of fever and dark urine. How do you approach the evaluation, and what is the diagnosis?

IgA-dominant infection-related glomerulonephritis with NAPlr-positive tubulointerstitial nephritis

Infection-related glomerulonephritis (IRGN) is one of the most common causes of acute kidney injury (AKI). Positive glomerular staining of the nephritis-associated plasmin receptor (NAPlr) has been reported as a useful biomarker of IRGN. Although the infection can provoke acute tubulointerstitial nephritis (AIN), there are few reports of positive staining for NAPlr with AIN. We report a case of methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA) infection-related nephritis complicated with AIN, which showed positive staining for tubulointerstitial NAPlr. The patient developed AKI and nephrotic syndrome during an intraperitoneal MSSA infection. A diagnosis of IRGN complicated by infection-related acute tubulointerstitial nephritis (IRAIN) was made based on glomerular endocapillary proliferation with tubulointerstitial infiltrating cells and tubular atrophy. Tubulointerstitial infiltrating cells were positive for NAPlr staining and plasmin activity. Treatment of the infection by antibiotics and drainage did not improve the AKI, but steroid administration improved that. NAPlr evaluation is a helpful tool for identifying causes of AIN during infection.

Clinical profile of children with acute post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis

BACKGROUND

Acute post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis (APSGN) is common in developing countries with a high hospitalization rate. Most patients have acute nephritic syndrome features, although some occasionally present with unusual clinical features. This study aims to describe and analyze clinical features, complications, and laboratory parameters in children diagnosed with APSGN at presentation, 4 and 12 weeks later, in a resource-limited setting.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study was conducted among children < 16 years with APSGN between January 2015 and July 2022. Hospital medical records and outpatient cards were reviewed for clinical findings, laboratory parameters, and kidney biopsy results. Descriptive analysis of multiple categorical variables was performed using SPSS version 16.0 and presented as frequencies and percentages.

RESULTS

The study included 77 patients. Most (94.8%) were older than five years, and age group 5-12 years had highest prevalence (72.7%). Boys were affected more frequently than girls (66.2% vs. 33.8%). Edema (93.5%), hypertension (87%), and gross hematuria (67.5%) were the most frequent presenting symptoms, and pulmonary edema (23.4%) was the most common severe complication. Anti-DNase B and anti-streptolysin O titers were positive in 86.9% and 72.7%, respectively, and 96.1% had C3 hypocomplementemia. Most clinical features resolved in three months. However, at 3 months, 6.5% of patients had persistent hypertension, impaired kidney function, and proteinuria alone or in combination. Most patients (84.4%) had an uncomplicated course; 12 underwent kidney biopsy, 9 required corticosteroids, and 1 required kidney replacement therapy. There was no mortality during the study period.

CONCLUSION

Generalized swelling, hypertension, and hematuria were most common presenting features. Persistent hypertension, impaired kidney function, and proteinuria persisted in a small proportion who had a significant clinical course and required kidney biopsy. A higher resolution version of the Graphical abstract is available as Supplementary information.

Autoimmunity and Infection in Glomerular Disease

The ongoing glomerular damage of infections is not limited to the most widely known form of post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis, which is today less common in the Western world; other forms of glomerulonephritis are associated with several bacterial, viral and parasitic pathogens. The mechanisms responsible range from the direct damage of glomerular cells to the formation and deposition of immunocomplexes to molecular mimicry to the secretion of superantigens. Similarly, in the course of glomerular disease, infections are more frequent than in the general population due to the loss of immunoglobulins in urine and the immunosuppressive agents used to treat the autoimmune disease that decrease the activity of the immune system. Recognizing this two-way link, understanding its pathogenetic mechanism, and identifying the most appropriate therapeutic choice are essential for the personalized management of patients. In this continuously developing field, this short review summarizes the current state of the art as support for physicians, who are increasingly involved in managing patients with glomerular disease and infections.

Infection-Related Glomerulonephritis in Children and Adults

Infection-related glomerulonephritis is an immunologically mediated glomerular injury after an infection. Glomerulonephritis may occur with the infection or after a variable latent period. Poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis (PSGN) is the prototype of infection-related glomerulonephritis. The streptococcal antigens, nephritis-associated plasmin-like receptor and streptococcal exotoxin B, have emerged as major players in the pathogenesis of PSGN. Although PSGN is the most common infection-related glomerulonephritis in children, in adults, glomerulonephritis is secondary to bacteria such as staphylococci, viruses such as hepatitis C, and human immunodeficiency virus, and, rarely, parasitic infections. Supportive therapy is the mainstay of treatment in most infection-related glomerulonephritis. Treatment of the underlying infection with specific antibiotics and antiviral medications is indicated in some infections. Parasitic infections, although rare, may be associated with significant morbidity. Poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis is a self-limiting condition with a good prognosis. However, bacterial, viral, and parasitic infections may be associated with significant morbidity and long-term consequences. Epidemiologic studies are required to assess the global burden of infection-related glomerulonephritis. A better understanding of the pathogenesis of infection-related glomerulonephritis may unravel more treatment options and preventive strategies.

Glomerulonephritis

Glomerulonephritis (GN) encompasses several disorders that cause glomerular inflammation and injury through an interplay of immune-mediated mechanisms, host characteristics, and environmental triggers, such as infections. GN can manifest solely in the kidney or in the setting of a systemic illness, and presentation can range from chronic and relatively asymptomatic hematuria to fulminant renal failure. Classic acute GN is characterized by hematuria, edema, and hypertension, the latter 2 of which are the consequence of sodium and water retention in the setting of renal impairment. Although presenting signs and symptoms and a compatible clinical history can suggest GN, serologic and urinary testing can further refine the differential diagnosis, and renal biopsy can be used for definitive diagnosis. Treatment of GN can include supportive care, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system blockade, immunomodulatory therapy, and renal transplant. Prognosis is largely dependent on the underlying cause of GN and can vary from a self-limited course to chronic kidney disease. This review focuses on lupus nephritis, IgA nephropathy, IgA vasculitis, and postinfectious GN.

Crescentic Glomerulonephritis Due to Enterococcal Endocarditis

Glomerulonephritis following an enterococcal endocarditis is an extremely rare and life-threatening condition. We present the case of a 71-year-old patient with rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis following enterococcal endocarditis after surgical replacement of the aortic valve. The combination of antibiotic therapy, corticosteroid therapy and haemodialysis led to an improvement in renal function; however, the severity of cardiac deterioration resulted in a fatal outcome.

Glomerulonephritis: immunopathogenesis and immunotherapy

'Glomerulonephritis' (GN) is a term used to describe a group of heterogeneous immune-mediated disorders characterized by inflammation of the filtration units of the kidney (the glomeruli). These disorders are currently classified largely on the basis of histopathological lesion patterns, but these patterns do not align well with their diverse pathological mechanisms and hence do not inform optimal therapy. Instead, we propose grouping GN disorders into five categories according to their immunopathogenesis: infection-related GN, autoimmune GN, alloimmune GN, autoinflammatory GN and monoclonal gammopathy-related GN. This categorization can inform the appropriate treatment; for example, infection control for infection-related GN, suppression of adaptive immunity for autoimmune GN and alloimmune GN, inhibition of single cytokines or complement factors for autoinflammatory GN arising from inborn errors in innate immunity, and plasma cell clone-directed or B cell clone-directed therapy for monoclonal gammopathies. Here we present the immunopathogenesis of GN and immunotherapies in use and in development and discuss how an immunopathogenesis-based GN classification can focus research, and improve patient management and teaching.

Pathogenesis, epidemiology and control of Group A Streptococcus infection

Streptococcus pyogenes (Group A Streptococcus; GAS) is exquisitely adapted to the human host, resulting in asymptomatic infection, pharyngitis, pyoderma, scarlet fever or invasive diseases, with potential for triggering post-infection immune sequelae. GAS deploys a range of virulence determinants to allow colonization, dissemination within the host and transmission, disrupting both innate and adaptive immune responses to infection. Fluctuating global GAS epidemiology is characterized by the emergence of new GAS clones, often associated with the acquisition of new virulence or antimicrobial determinants that are better adapted to the infection niche or averting host immunity. The recent identification of clinical GAS isolates with reduced penicillin sensitivity and increasing macrolide resistance threatens both frontline and penicillin-adjunctive antibiotic treatment. The World Health Organization (WHO) has developed a GAS research and technology road map and has outlined preferred vaccine characteristics, stimulating renewed interest in the development of safe and effective GAS vaccines.

Targeted Transcriptional Analysis of IgA Vasculitis, IgA Nephropathy, and IgA-Dominant Infection-Related Glomerulonephritis Reveals Both Distinct and Overlapping Immune Signatures

Key Points

Skin IL-9, calprotectin, and KIR gene expression may be predictive of subsequent kidney involvement in patients with IgAV. Histologically similar patients with IgAN, IgAV, and IgA-IRGN can be distinguished by their immune transcriptomes. Kidney biopsies from patients with IgA-IRGN are enriched for transcripts involved in granulocyte chemotaxis.

Background

IgA vasculitis (IgAV), IgA nephropathy (IgAN), and IgA-dominant infection-related glomerulonephritis (IgA-IRGN) have shared histopathologic features, but differences in clinical management and prognosis. The most serious IgAV organ involvement is in the kidneys (IgAV nephritis). In this study, we hypothesized that targeted immune transcript profiling could aid in (1 ) predicting the development of IgAV nephritis in patients with cutaneous IgAV and (2 ) differentiating IgAN, IgAV, and IgA-IRGN.

Methods

RNA was extracted from 24 formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue specimens (16 kidney, 8 skin) from 21 patients with IgAV nephritis (n=7), IgAN (n=5), and IgA-IRGN (n=4), and IgAV skin biopsies from patients with (n=3) and without (n=5) IgAV nephritis. Differential gene expression and gene set enrichment analysis were performed on a total of 594 transcripts (Nanostring immunology panel) profiled using the nCounter system.

Results

Skin biopsies in patients with IgAV who develop kidney involvement exhibit reduced S100A8/S100A9 , IL9 , and killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor expression. The kidney tissue immune transcriptomes of IgAN, IgAV, and IgA-IRGN are largely overlapping. IgA-IRGN kidney biopsies are, however, uniquely enriched for transcripts involved in granulocyte chemotaxis.

Conclusion

This study identifies immune transcript signatures that may predict IgAV nephritis in skin biopsies and distinguish IgA-IRGN from IgAN and IgAV in kidney biopsies.

Clinico-Pathogenic Similarities and Differences between Infection-Related Glomerulonephritis and C3 Glomerulopathy

Recently, the comprehensive concept of "infection-related glomerulonephritis (IRGN)" has replaced that of postinfectious glomerulonephritis (PIGN) because of the diverse infection patterns, epidemiology, clinical features, and pathogenesis. In addition to evidence of infection, hypocomplementemia particularly depresses serum complement 3 (C3), with endocapillary proliferative and exudative GN developing into membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis (MPGN); also, C3-dominant or co-dominant glomerular immunofluorescence staining is central for diagnosing IRGN. Moreover, nephritis-associated plasmin receptor (NAPlr), originally isolated from the cytoplasmic fraction of group A Streptococci, is vital as an essential inducer of C3-dominant glomerular injury and is a key diagnostic biomarker for IRGN. Meanwhile, "C3 glomerulopathy (C3G)", also showing a histological pattern of MPGN due to acquired or genetic dysregulation of the complement alternative pathway (AP), mimics C3-dominant IRGN. Initially, C3G was characterized by intensive "isolated C3" deposition on glomeruli. However, updated definitions allow for glomerular deposition of other complement factors or immunoglobulins if C3 positivity is dominant and at least two orders of magnitude greater than any other immunoreactant, which makes it challenging to quickly distinguish pathomorphological findings between IRGN and C3G. As for NAPlr, it was demonstrated to induce complement AP activation directly in vitro, and it aggravates glomerular injury in the development of IRGN. A recent report identified anti-factor B autoantibodies as a contributing factor for complement AP activation in pediatric patients with PIGN. Moreover, C3G with glomerular NAPlr deposition without evidence of infection was reported. Taken together, the clinico-pathogenic features of IRGN overlap considerably with those of C3G. In this review, similarities and differences between the two diseases are highlighted.

Diagnostic Problems in C3 Glomerulopathy

Background: C3 glomerulopathies (C3GN) are a group of rare kidney diseases associated with impaired complement regulation. The effects of this disease include the accumulation of complement C3 in the kidneys. Based on the clinical data, as well as light, fluorescence, and electron microscopy results, the diagnoses were verified. The study group consisted of biopsy specimens, which were obtained from 332 patients who were diagnosed with C3 glomerulopathy. In all cases, histopathological examinations were performed; deposits of complement C3 and C1q components, as well as the immunoglobulins IgA, IgG, and IgM, were identified using immunofluorescence. Furthermore, electron microscopy was also performed. Results: The histopathological examination results presented cases of C3GN (n = 111) and dense deposit disease (DDD; n = 17). The non-classified (NC) group was the most numerous (n = 204). The lack of classification was due to the poor severity of the lesions, even on the electron microscopic examination or in the presence of intense sclerotic lesions. Conclusions: In cases of suspected C3 glomerulopathies, we believe an electron microscopy examination is necessary. This examination is beneficial in mild-to-extremely-severe cases of this glomerulopathy, where the lesions are barely discernible when using immunofluorescence microscopy.

Proteomic Analysis of Complement Proteins in Glomerular Diseases

Introduction

Complement plays an important role in the pathogenesis of glomerulonephritis (GN). Even though the underlying etiology of GN might be different, complement activation with subsequent glomerular deposition of complement proteins result in glomerular injury and progression of the lesions. Routine immunofluorescence microscopy (IF) includes staining for only complement factors C3c and C1q. Therefore, with regard to evaluation of the complement pathways, routine kidney biopsy provides only limited information.

Methods

In this study, using laser microdissection of glomeruli followed by mass spectrometry, complement proteins and pathways involved in GN were analyzed.

Results

We found that C3 followed by C9 are the most abundant complement proteins in GN, indicating activation of classical or lectin or alternative, and terminal pathways, either exclusively or in a combination of pathways. Furthermore, depending on the type of GN, C4A and/or C4B were also present. Therefore, membranous nephropathy (MN), fibrillary GN, and infection-related GN showed C4A dominant pathways, whereas lupus nephritis (LN), proliferative GN with monoclonal Ig deposits, monoclonal Ig deposition disease (MIDD), and immunotactoid glomerulopathy showed C4B dominant pathways. Significant deposition of complement regulatory proteins, factor H-related protein-1 (FHR-1) and factor H-related protein-5 (FHR-5), were also detected in most GN.

Conclusions

This study shows accumulation of specific complement proteins in GN. The complement pathways, complement proteins, and the amount of complement protein deposition are variable in different types of GN. Selective targeting of complement pathways may be a novel option in the treatment of GN.

The Diagnostic Conundrum of Glomerular Crescents With IgA Deposits

Introduction

Glomerulonephritis (GN) with crescents and IgA deposits in kidney biopsy poses a frequent diagnostic and therapeutic dilemma because of multiple possibilities.

Methods

Native kidney biopsies showing glomerular IgA deposition and crescents (excluding lupus nephritis) were identified from our biopsy archives between 2010 and 2021. Detailed clinicopathologic features were assessed. One-year clinical follow-up on a subset of cases was obtained.

Results

A total of 285 cases were identified, and these clustered into IgA nephropathy (IgAN, n = 108), Staphylococcus or other infection-associated GN/infection-related GN (SAGN/IRGN, n = 43), and antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated GN (ANCA-GN, n = 26) based on a constellation of clinicopathologic features, but 101 cases (group X) could not be definitively differentiated. The reasons have been elucidated, most important being atypical combination of clinicopathologic features and lack of definitive evidence of active infection. Follow-up (on 72/101 cases) revealed that clinicians' working diagnosis was IgAN in 43%, SAGN/IRGN in 22%, ANCA-GN in 28%, and others in 7% of the cases, but treatment approach varied from supportive or antibiotics to immunosuppression in each subgroup. Comparing these cases as "received immunosuppression" versus "non-immunosuppression," only 2 features differed, namely C3-dominant staining, and possibility of recent infection (both higher in the no-immunosuppression group) (P < 0.05). Renal loss was higher in the non-immunosuppression subgroup, but not statistically significant (P = 0.11).

Conclusion

Diagnostic overlap may remain unresolved in a substantial number of kidney biopsies with glomerular crescents and IgA deposits. A case-by-case approach, appropriate antibiotics if infection is ongoing, and consideration for cautious immunosuppressive treatment for progressive renal dysfunction may be needed for best chance of renal recovery.

Antibiotic resistance and drug modification: Synthesis, characterization and bioactivity of newly modified potent pleuromutilin derivatives with a substituted piperazine moiety

Antibiotic-resistant bacteria pose a major global public health concern, owing to the lack of effective antibacterial drugs. Consequently, the discovery and development of innovative antibacterial drug classes with unique mechanisms of action are urgently needed. In this study, we designed, synthesised, and tested a series of novel pleuromutilin derivatives with piperazine linker substituted by amino acids moieties to determine their antibacterial properties. Most synthesized compounds exhibited potent activities against Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis. Compound 6l, the most potent antibacterial agent created in this study, displayed a rapid bactericidal activity against MRSA, Klebsiella pneumoniae and S. aureus cfr N12. Moreover, pharmacokinetics study of compound 6l exhibited good PK performance with a low in vivo clearance (CL = 1965 mL/h/kg) and a suitable half-life (T_1/2 = 11.614 ± 5.123 h). Molecular docking experiments revealed the binding model of compound 6l to the unmethylated A2503 of peptidyl transferase centre of 23S rRNA. Interaction pattern of 6l with cfr-mediated ribosomes revealed by molecular dynamics. Moreover in vivo mouse systemic infection experiments with compound 6l revealed its effectiveness against MRSA and S. aureus cfr N12 with the ED₅₀ of 11.08 mg/kg and 14.63 mg/kg body weight, respectively.

Case report: Bordetella holmesii: A rare pathogen causing infective endocarditis associated glomerulonephritis

Infective endocarditis (IE) can cause multiorgan dysfunction and chronic kidney disease, in addition to cardiac sequelae. The presentation may be vague and can manifest as acute glomerulonephritis. While the most common pathogens of infective endocarditis are Staphylococcus and Streptococcus species, we report a rare pathogen Bordetella holmesii causing infective endocarditis associated glomerulonephritis. A 20-year-old male patient with tetralogy of Fallot with pulmonary atresia and aortopulmonary collaterals underwent several cardiac surgeries including prosthetic pulmonary valve replacement in the past. He was admitted for 3 days at an outside hospital for fever, cough, and hemoptysis, and diagnosed with streptococcal pharyngitis, for which he received antibiotics. Five weeks later, he presented to our institution with lower extremity edema and gross hematuria. On examination, he was afebrile, normotensive, had a 7-kg weight gain with anasarca, and a systolic murmur, without rash. Investigations revealed elevated serum creatinine, nephrotic range proteinuria, hematuria, and hypocomplementemia, consistent with acute glomerulonephritis. Given his cardiac history, blood cultures were collected from three sites. Broad-spectrum antibiotics were initiated when he subsequently developed fever. Renal pathology on biopsy showed diffuse proliferative immune complex-mediated glomerulonephritis. Transesophageal echocardiogram visualized a vegetation on the pulmonary valve. Bordetella holmesii was ultimately cultured from the prior and current hospitalization. A serum sample detecting microbial cell-free DNA sequencing confirmed Bordetella holmesii at very high levels. After completing 6 weeks of intravenous antibiotics with concurrent angiotensin receptor blockade, his kidney function recovered with improvement in hypocomplementemia and proteinuria. This case report highlights the early recognition and comprehensive evaluation of a rare organism causing IE-associated GN, which allowed for renal recovery and preserved cardiac function.

Renal biopsy in systemic infections: expect the unexpected

Infection-related glomerulonephritis is well recognized in patients with ongoing infections. It can be missed, however, if the infection is unusual or undetected. We present three cases where the renal biopsy findings prompted the identification or treatment of systemic infections.Case 1: A 84-year-old male presented with acute kidney injury (AKI) and IgA vasculitis on skin biopsy. A renal biopsy showed active glomerulonephritis with abundant neutrophils and predominantly mesangial immune complex deposits containing IgA. The findings prompted an infectious workup which was positive for COVID-19, suggesting exacerbation of IgA nephropathy by recent COVID-19 infection. Case 2: A 31-year-old female status post kidney transplant for granulomatosis with polyangiitis (GPA) had recent pregnancy with preterm delivery, disseminated herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection with HSV hepatitis, E. coli on urine culture, and AKI. A renal biopsy showed proliferative glomerulonephritis with subendothelial and mesangial immune complex deposits containing IgG and C3. The findings were most consistent with infection-related immune complex glomerulonephritis, most likely HSV-related. Case 3: A 78-year-old female presented with AKI, proteinuria, hematuria, and positive p-ANCA. Clinically, ANCA vasculitis was suspected, and renal biopsy did show focal, segmental, necrotizing glomerulonephritis. However, immunofluorescence and electron microscopy showed IgM-rich deposits in the mesangium. The unusual presentation prompted an infectious workup including a Bartonella antibody panel which showed very high titers, suggesting Bartonella endocarditis.Infection-related glomerulonephritis has a wide variety of presentations histologically and clinically. The three cases we present here emphasize the importance of recognizing these entities to help guide treatment and improve patient care.

An Unusual Case of Seronegative Cryoglobulinemic Glomerulonephritis with Dominant Organized IgA Deposits Associated with Staphylococcal Infection: Casual or Causal Relationship?

Introduction

Cryoglobulinemia refers to the presence of cryoglobulins (CGs) in the serum, encompassing a group of diseases caused by the type of circulating GC. Cryoglobulinemic glomerulonephritis (CryoGN) is the principal manifestation of renal involvement. The diagnosis may be challenging because the hallmark of cryoglobulinemia is the detection of CG in the serum. However, cases of CryoGN without serological evidence of CGs are not uncommon in clinical practice, often diagnosed by anatomopathological findings in the renal biopsy.

Case Presentation

We report the case of an 86-year-old male who developed renal impairment, nephritic syndrome, and nephrotic-range proteinuria, without serological evidence of CGs, associated with staphylococcal bacteremia without apparent focus. Renal biopsy and pathological examination showed a membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis pattern with CD61-negative pseudothrombi. Immunofluorescence microscopy showed atypical IgA-dominant deposits. Electron microscopy revealed amorphous subendothelial and mesangial deposits and organized electrodense deposits within capillary loops (pseudothrombi) with microtubular substructure measuring 20-40 nm in thickness. These findings were consistent with seronegative CryoGN and microtubular organized atypical IgA-dominant deposits.

Discussion

In this report, we discuss the clinical, analytical, and histopathological findings of a rare case of CryoGN without serological evidence of CGs. Regarding the etiology that triggered the glomerular disease in our patient, we conducted an exhaustive study in order to determine the underlying cause of CryoGN. At the time of biopsy, the patient had an active staphylococcal bacteremia. There are reports that postulate that staphylococcal antigens drive activation of immune system and in consequence, could cause this rare form of IgA-dominant glomerulonephritis with cryoglobulinemic features. After ruling out other causes of cryoglobulinemia, we discuss a plausible causal relationship of the staphylococcal infection in the pathogenesis of CryoGN in our patient.

Rapid identification of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus by MALDI-TOF MS: A meta-analysis

Invasive infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) are associated with high mortality and morbidity. The sooner the pathogen is determined, the better it is beneficial to patient. However, routine laboratory inspections are time-consuming and laborious. A thorough research was conducted in PubMed and Web of Science (until June 2021) to identify studies evaluating the accuracy of MRSA identification by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). STATA 15.0 software was used to analyze the pooled results of sensitivity, specificity, and 95% confidence intervals (CI). The summary receiver operating characteristic curves (SROC) and area under the curve (AUC) were utilized to show the overall performance of MALDI-TOF MS. Fifteen studies involving 2471 isolates were included in this study after the final selection in this meta-analysis. Using the random effects model forest plot to summarize the overall statistics, the sensitivity of MALDI-TOF MS for identifying MRSA was 92% (95% CI: 81%-97%), and the specificity was 97% (95% CI: 89%-99%). In the SROC curve, the AUC reached 0.99 (95% CI: 97%-99%). Deeks' test showed no significant publication bias in this meta-analysis. Compared with clinical reference methods, MALDI-TOF MS identification of MRSA shows a higher degree of sensitivity and specificity.

Group A Streptococcus Infections: Their Mechanisms, Epidemiology, and Current Scope of Vaccines

Group A streptococci (GAS) are gram-positive, cocci-shaped bacteria that cause a wide variety of infections and are a cause of significant health burden, particularly in lower- and middle-income nations. The GAS genome contains a number of virulence factors such as the M-protein, hyaluronic acid, C5a peptidase, etc. Despite its significant health burden across the globe, a proper vaccine against GAS infections is not yet available. Various candidates for an effective GAS vaccine are currently being researched. These are based on various parts of the streptococcal genome. These include candidates based on the N-terminal region of the M protein, the conserved C-terminal region of the M protein, and other parts of the streptococcal genome. The development of a vaccine against GAS infections is hampered by certain challenges, such as extensive genetic heterogeneity and high protein sequence variation. This review paper sheds light on the various virulence factors of GAS, their epidemiology, the different vaccine candidates currently being researched, and the challenges associated with M-protein and non-M-protein-based vaccines. This review also sheds light on the current scenario regarding the status of vaccine development against GAS-related infections.

An analysis of the etiologies and economic indexes of inpatients with stage 5 chronic kidney disease in North China

Objective

The aim of this study was to analyze the epidemiological characteristics of the causes of chronic kidney disease (CKD) stage 5 patients in North China and to investigate the economic burden of those on hemodialysis (HD) or peritoneal dialysis (PD), as well as the associated influencing factors.

Methods

General clinical information, etiological categories, and hospitalization costs for HD or PD were collected from 1,515 patients hospitalized with stage 5 CKD at the Affiliated Hospital of Hebei University from 2016 to 2018. Logistic regression analysis was used to analyze the independent influencing factors affecting patients' financial burden.

Results

The highest rate of DN was found in patients aged 70 years or older (27.0%) and the highest incidence of primary glomerulopathy was found in patients aged <50 years (24.3%). Age, type of dialysis, and type of health insurance were independent influences on the total financial burden of patients, and the results of multifactorial logistic regression analysis showed that age [OR (95% CI): 1.009 (1.002, 1.020)] and type of dialysis [OR (95% CI): 1.746 (1.149, 2.659)] would increase the total financial burden. The type of health insurance would reduce the total financial burden [OR (95% CI): 0.222 (0.108, 0.418)].

Conclusion

Chronic kidney disease, with its complex etiology and the heavy financial burden required for treatment, remains a more serious public health problem globally, and it is therefore necessary to further improve medical coverage for dialysis patients, increase management efforts, broaden pro-poor policies and increase the accessibility of medical services in low- and middle-income areas.

Endocarditis-associated rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis mimicking vasculitis: a diagnostic and treatment challenge

BACKGROUND

Infective endocarditis (IE)-associated rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis (RPGN) is rarely reported. Sporadic case reports have noted the diagnostic and therapeutic challenge in IE-associated glomerulonephritis because it may masquerade as idiopathic vasculitis.

METHODS

Patients with clinical diagnosis of IE-related RPGN in a tertiary hospital in China between January 2004 and May 2021 were identified and retrospectively reviewed.

RESULTS

Twenty-four patients with IE-associated RPGN were identified. All patients presented with fever and multiorgan system involvement on top of heart and kidneys, spleen (79%, 19/24), skin (63%, 15/24), lung (33%, 8/24) and nervous system (17%, 4/24). Six of the 24 patients (25%) were initially suspected to have ANCA-associated or IgA vasculitis. Forty-five percent of patients are seropositive for ANCA. Renal histology showed mesangial and/or endocapillary hypercellularity with extensive crescents in most patients. C3-dominant deposition was the predominant pattern on immunofluorescence and pauci-immune necrotising crescentic glomerulonephritis was observed in one case. All patients received antibiotics with or without surgery. Six patients received immunosuppressive therapy before antibiotics due to misdiagnosis and seven patients received immunosuppressive therapy after antibiotics due to persistence of renal failure. Three of the 24 patients died due to severe infection. All the surviving patients had partial or complete recovery of renal function.

CONCLUSION

IE-associated RPGN is rare and the differential diagnosis from idiopathic vasculitis can be challenging due to overlaps in clinical manifestations, ANCA positivity and absence of typical presentations of IE. The prognosis is generally good if antibiotics and surgery are not delayed. The decision on introducing immunoruppressive treatment should be made carefully on a case by case basis when kidney function does not improve appropriately after proper anti-infective therapy.Key messagesInfective endocarditis associated RPGN is rare and differentiating it from idiopathic vasculitis can be challenging due to overlap in clinical manifestations, ANCA positivity and occasional absence of typical manifestations of infective endocarditis.Kidney function usually responds to antibiotic therapy alone.Immunosuppressive therapy may be beneficial in carefully selected patients whose kidney function does not improve with antibiotics alone.

Acute Postinfectious Glomerulonephritis

Postinfectious glomerulonephritis (PIGN) is a leading cause of acute glomerulonephritis in children. The presentation of PIGN can vary from asymptomatic microscopic hematuria incidentally detected on routine urinalysis to nephritic syndrome and a rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis. Treatment involves supportive care with salt and water restriction, and the use of diuretic and/or antihypertensive medication, depending on the severity of fluid retention and the presence of hypertension. PIGN resolves completely and spontaneously in most children, and the long-term outcomes are typically good with preserved renal function and no recurrence.

Therapeutic potential for P2Y2 receptor antagonism

G protein-coupled receptors are the target of more than 30% of all FDA-approved drug therapies. Though the purinergic P2 receptors have been an attractive target for therapeutic intervention with successes such as the P2Y₁₂ receptor antagonist, clopidogrel, P2Y₂ receptor (P2Y₂R) antagonism remains relatively unexplored as a therapeutic strategy. Due to a lack of selective antagonists to modify P2Y₂R activity, studies using primarily genetic manipulation have revealed roles for P2Y₂R in a multitude of diseases. These include inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, fibrotic diseases, renal diseases, cancer, and pathogenic infections. With the advent of AR-C118925, a selective and potent P2Y₂R antagonist that became commercially available only a few years ago, new opportunities exist to gain a more robust understanding of P2Y₂R function and assess therapeutic effects of P2Y₂R antagonism. This review discusses the characteristics of P2Y₂R that make it unique among P2 receptors, namely its involvement in five distinct signaling pathways including canonical Gα_q protein signaling. We also discuss the effects of other P2Y₂R antagonists and the pivotal development of AR-C118925. The remainder of this review concerns the mounting evidence implicating P2Y₂Rs in disease pathogenesis, focusing on those studies that have evaluated AR-C118925 in pre-clinical disease models.

Staphylococcus aureus-Associated Glomerulonephritis and Chronic Granulomatous Disease in an Adolescent Male

Staphylococcus-associated glomerulonephritis (GN) is an uncommon diagnosis in pediatric patients. Empiric therapy with steroids alone could potentially worsen the underlying infectious process in these patients, leading to worse clinical outcomes. An adolescent male diagnosed with GN was subsequently found to have chronic granulomatous disease with a Staphylococcus aureus liver abscess. His GN improved with antibiotics alone. This case illustrates the need to consider chronic infection, and primary immunodeficiency, in the differential diagnosis for new-onset GN.

Efficacy of Corticosteroids in Infection-Related Glomerulonephritis–A Randomized Controlled Trial

Introduction

Infection-related glomerulonephritis (IRGN) is associated with glomerular immune complex deposition along with complement activation. Steroids may attenuate glomerular injury and thereby improve renal outcomes.

Methods

We randomly assigned patients who had biopsy-proven IRGN and serum creatinine greater than 1.5 mg/dl to receive corticosteroids plus supportive care (intervention arm), or supportive care alone (control arm). Patients were followed up for 6 months. The primary outcome was complete renal recovery at 6 months. Safety of steroid therapy was also assessed.

Results

A total of 52 patients underwent randomization. At 6 months, 17 of 26 patients (65.4%) in the intervention arm and 14 of 26 patients (53.8%) in the control arm had complete renal recovery (odds ratio 1.6; 95% confidence interval, 0.5–4.9; P = 0.397). There was no statistically significant difference in any of the secondary outcomes. Adverse events occurred in 12 patients (46.2%) in the intervention arm and 2 patients (7.7%) in the control arm (P = 0.002).

Conclusion

In this single-center trial, corticosteroids did not result in a statistically significant increase in rates of complete renal recovery at 6 months. There was a significantly increased risk of adverse events associated with the use of corticosteroids.

Staphylococcus aureus Infection-Related Glomerulonephritis with Dominant IgA Deposition

Since 1995, when we reported the case of a patient with glomerulonephritis with IgA deposition that occurred after a methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection, many reports of MRSA infection-associated glomerulonephritis have accumulated. This disease is being systematized as Staphylococcus infection-associated glomerulonephritis (SAGN) in light of the apparent cause of infection, and as immunoglobulin A-dominant deposition infection-related glomerulonephritis (IgA-IRGN) in light of its histopathology. This glomerulonephritis usually presents as rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis or acute kidney injury with various degrees of proteinuria and microscopic hematuria along with an ongoing infection. Its renal pathology has shown several types of mesangial and/or endocapillary proliferative glomerulonephritis with various degrees of crescent formation and tubulointerstitial nephritis. IgA, IgG, and C₃ staining in the mesangium and along the glomerular capillary walls have been observed on immunofluorescence examinations. A marked activation of T cells, an increase in specific variable regions of the T-cell receptor β-chain-positive cells, hypercytokinemia, and increased polyclonal immune complexes have also been observed in this glomerulonephritis. In the development of this disease, staphylococcal enterotoxin may be involved as a superantigen, but further investigations are needed to clarify the mechanisms underlying this disease. Here, we review 336 cases of IgA-IRGN and 218 cases of SAGN.

Acute Post-Streptococcal Glomerulonephritis In Children: A Comprehensive Review

BACKGROUND

Acute post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis (APSGN) is an immune-complex (ICs) mediated glomerular disease triggered by group A β-hemolytic streptococcus (GAS) or Streptococcus pyogenes infections. APSGN represents a major cause of acquired kidney injury in children.

METHODS

This non-systematic review summarizes recent evidence on APSGN. We discuss the epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical and laboratory findings, histopathology, treatment and prognosis of the disease.

RESULTS

The median APSGN incidence in children in developing countries is estimated at 24.3/100,000 per year, compared with 6.2/100,000 per year in developed countries. Nephritis-associated plasmin receptor, identified as glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, and the cationic cysteine proteinase streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin B are thought to be two leading streptococcal antigens involved in the pathogenesis of APSGN, which activate the complement system, mainly via the alternative but also the lectin pathway. This process is critical for the generation of inflammation by the ICs deposited in the glomerulus. The classic phenotype is an acute diffuse proliferative glomerulonephritis leading to features of the nephritic syndrome including hematuria, oliguria, hypertension and edema. The histopathology shows that the glomeruli are diffused affected, mostly presenting enlarged glomerular tuffs due to hypercellularity. Proliferative endothelial and mesangial cells and inflammation are also observed. APSGN frequently has spontaneous recovery. There is no specific therapy, but its morbidity and mortality are drastically reduced by the prevention and/or treatment of complications.

CONCLUSION

Despite recent advances, the pathogenesis of APSGN is not fully understood. There is no specific treatment for APSGN. The prognosis is generally good. However some cases may evolve to chronic kidney disease.

Fabrication and Evaluation of Voriconazole Loaded Transethosomal Gel for Enhanced Antifungal and Antileishmanial Activity

Voriconazole (VRC) is a broad-spectrum antifungal agent belonging to BCS class II (biopharmaceutical classification system). Despite many efforts to enhance its solubility, this primary issue still remains challenging for formulation scientists. Transethosomes (TELs) are one of the potential innovative nano-carriers for improving the solubility and permeation of poorly soluble and permeable drugs. We herein report voriconazole-loaded transethosomes (VRCT) fabricated by the cold method and followed by their incorporation into carbopol 940 as a gel. The prepared VRCT were evaluated for % yield, % entrapment efficiency (EE), surface morphology, possible chemical interaction, particle size, zeta potential, and polydispersity index (PDI). The optimized formulation had a particle size of 228.2 nm, a zeta potential of −26.5 mV, and a PDI of 0.45 with enhanced % EE. Rheology, spreadability, extrudability, in vitro release, skin permeation, molecular docking, antifungal, and antileishmanial activity were also assessed for VRCT and VRC loaded transethosomal gel (VTEG). Ex-vivo permeation using rat skin depicted a transdermal flux of 22.8 µg/cm²/h with enhanced efficiency up to 4-fold. A two-fold reduction in inhibitory as well as fungicidal concentration was observed against various fungal strains by VRCT and VTEG besides similar results against L-donovani. The development of transethosomal formulation can serve as an efficient drug delivery system through a topical route with enhanced efficacy and better patient compliance.