Structures of mammalian RNA polymerase II pre-initiation complexes

XPD stalled on cross-linked DNA provides insight into damage verification

The superfamily 2 helicase XPD is a central component of the general transcription factor II H (TFIIH), which is essential for transcription and nucleotide excision DNA repair (NER). Within these two processes, the helicase function of XPD is vital for NER but not for transcription initiation, where XPD acts only as a scaffold for other factors. Using cryo-EM, we deciphered one of the most enigmatic steps in XPD helicase action: the active separation of double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) and its stalling upon approaching a DNA interstrand cross-link, a highly toxic form of DNA damage. The structure shows how dsDNA is separated and reveals a highly unusual involvement of the Arch domain in active dsDNA separation. Combined with mutagenesis and biochemical analyses, we identified distinct functional regions important for helicase activity. Surprisingly, those areas also affect core TFIIH translocase activity, revealing a yet unencountered function of XPD within the TFIIH scaffold. In summary, our data provide a universal basis for NER bubble formation, XPD damage verification and XPG incision.

Transcription start site scanning requires the fungi-specific hydrophobic loop of Tfb3

RNA polymerase II (pol II) initiates transcription from transcription start sites (TSSs) located ∼30-35 bp downstream of the TATA box in metazoans, whereas in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, pol II scans further downstream TSSs located ∼40-120 bp downstream of the TATA box. Previously, we found that removal of the kinase module TFIIK (Kin28-Ccl1-Tfb3) from TFIIH shifts the TSS in a yeast in vitro system upstream to the location observed in metazoans and that addition of recombinant Tfb3 back to TFIIH-ΔTFIIK restores the downstream TSS usage. Here, we report that this biochemical activity of yeast TFIIK in TSS scanning is attributable to the Tfb3 RING domain at the interface with pol II in the pre-initiation complex (PIC): especially, swapping Tfb3 Pro51-a residue conserved among all fungi-with Ala or Ser as in MAT1, the metazoan homolog of Tfb3, confers an upstream TSS shift in vitro in a similar manner to the removal of TFIIK. Yeast genetic analysis suggests that both Pro51 and Arg64 of Tfb3 are required to maintain the stability of the Tfb3-pol II interface in the PIC. Cryo-electron microscopy analysis of a yeast PIC lacking TFIIK reveals considerable variability in the orientation of TFIIH, which impairs TSS scanning after promoter opening.

Pause Patrol: Negative Elongation Factor's Role in Promoter-Proximal Pausing and Beyond

RNA polymerase (Pol) II is highly regulated to ensure appropriate gene expression. Early transcription elongation is associated with transient pausing of RNA Pol II in the promoter-proximal region. In multicellular organisms, this pausing is stabilized by the association of transcription elongation factors DRB-sensitivity inducing factor (DSIF) and Negative Elongation Factor (NELF). DSIF is a broadly conserved transcription elongation factor whereas NELF is mostly restricted to the metazoan lineage. Mounting evidence suggests that NELF association with RNA Pol II serves as checkpoint for either release into rapid and productive transcription elongation or premature termination at promoter-proximal pause sites. Here we summarize NELF's roles in promoter-proximal pausing, transcription termination, DNA repair, and signaling based on decades of cell biological, biochemical, and structural work and describe areas for future research.

RNA Polymerase II Activity Control of Gene Expression and Involvement in Disease

Gene expression is dependent on RNA Polymerase II (Pol II) activity in eukaryotes. In addition to determining the rate of RNA synthesis for all protein coding genes, Pol II serves as a platform for the recruitment of factors and regulation of co-transcriptional events, from RNA processing to chromatin modification and remodeling. The transcriptome can be shaped by changes in Pol II kinetics affecting RNA synthesis itself or because of alterations to co-transcriptional events that are responsive to or coupled with transcription. Genetic, biochemical, and structural approaches to Pol II in model organisms have revealed critical insights into how Pol II works and the types of factors that regulate it. The complexity of Pol II regulation generally increases with organismal complexity. In this review, we describe fundamental aspects of how Pol II activity can shape gene expression, discuss recent advances in how Pol II elongation is regulated on genes, and how altered Pol II function is linked to human disease and aging.

STK19 positions TFIIH for cell-free transcription-coupled DNA repair

In transcription-coupled repair, stalled RNA polymerase II (Pol II) is recognized by CSB and CRL4CSA, which co-operate with UVSSSA and ELOF1 to recruit TFIIH for nucleotide excision repair (TC-NER). To explore the mechanism of TC-NER, we recapitulated this reaction in vitro. When a plasmid containing a site-specific lesion is transcribed in frog egg extract, error-free repair is observed that depends on CSB, CRL4CSA, UVSSA, and ELOF1. Repair also depends on STK19, a factor previously implicated in transcription recovery after UV exposure. A 1.9 Å cryo-electron microscopy structure shows that STK19 joins the TC-NER complex by binding CSA and the RPB1 subunit of Pol II. Furthermore, AlphaFold predicts that STK19 interacts with the XPD subunit of TFIIH, and disrupting this interface impairs cell-free repair. Molecular modeling suggests that STK19 positions TFIIH ahead of Pol II for lesion verification. In summary, our analysis of cell-free TC-NER suggests that STK19 couples RNA polymerase II stalling to downstream repair events.

STK19 facilitates the clearance of lesion-stalled RNAPII during transcription-coupled DNA repair

Transcription-coupled DNA repair (TCR) removes bulky DNA lesions impeding RNA polymerase II (RNAPII) transcription. Recent studies have outlined the stepwise assembly of TCR factors CSB, CSA, UVSSA, and TFIIH around lesion-stalled RNAPII. However, the mechanism and factors required for the transition to downstream repair steps, including RNAPII removal to provide repair proteins access to the DNA lesion, remain unclear. Here, we identify STK19 as a new TCR factor facilitating this transition. Loss of STK19 does not impact initial TCR complex assembly or RNAPII ubiquitylation but delays lesion-stalled RNAPII clearance, thereby interfering with the downstream repair reaction. Cryo-EM and mutational analysis reveal that STK19 associates with the TCR complex, positioning itself between RNAPII, UVSSA, and CSA. The structural insights and molecular modeling suggest that STK19 positions the ATPase subunits of TFIIH onto DNA in front of RNAPII. Together, these findings provide new insights into the factors and mechanisms required for TCR.

Chromatin endogenous cleavage provides a global view of RNA polymerase II transcription kinetics

Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP-seq) is the most common approach to observe global binding of proteins to DNA in vivo. The occupancy of transcription factors (TFs) from ChIP-seq agrees well with an alternative method, chromatin endogenous cleavage (ChEC-seq2). However, ChIP-seq and ChEC-seq2 reveal strikingly different patterns of enrichment of yeast RNA polymerase II. We hypothesized that this reflects distinct populations of RNAPII, some of which are captured by ChIP-seq and some of which are captured by ChEC-seq2. RNAPII association with enhancers and promoters - predicted from biochemical studies - is detected well by ChEC-seq2 but not by ChIP-seq. Enhancer/promoter bound RNAPII correlates with transcription levels and matches predicted occupancy based on published rates of enhancer recruitment, preinitiation assembly, initiation, elongation and termination. The occupancy from ChEC-seq2 allowed us to develop a stochastic model for global kinetics of RNAPII transcription which captured both the ChEC-seq2 data and changes upon chemical-genetic perturbations to transcription. Finally, RNAPII ChEC-seq2 and kinetic modeling suggests that a mutation in the Gcn4 transcription factor that blocks interaction with the NPC destabilizes promoter-associated RNAPII without altering its recruitment to the enhancer.

Three-step mechanism of promoter escape by RNA polymerase II

The transition from transcription initiation to elongation is highly regulated in human cells but remains incompletely understood at the structural level. In particular, it is unclear how interactions between RNA polymerase II (RNA Pol II) and initiation factors are broken to enable promoter escape. Here, we reconstitute RNA Pol II promoter escape in vitro and determine high-resolution structures of initially transcribing complexes containing 8-, 10-, and 12-nt ordered RNAs and two elongation complexes containing 14-nt RNAs. We suggest that promoter escape occurs in three major steps. First, the growing RNA displaces the B-reader element of the initiation factor TFIIB without evicting TFIIB. Second, the rewinding of the transcription bubble coincides with the eviction of TFIIA, TFIIB, and TBP. Third, the binding of DSIF and NELF facilitates TFIIE and TFIIH dissociation, establishing the paused elongation complex. This three-step model for promoter escape fills a gap in our understanding of the initiation-elongation transition of RNA Pol II transcription.

Distinct negative elongation factor conformations regulate RNA polymerase II promoter-proximal pausing

Metazoan gene expression regulation involves pausing of RNA polymerase (Pol II) in the promoter-proximal region of genes and is stabilized by DSIF and NELF. Upon depletion of elongation factors, NELF appears to accompany elongating Pol II past pause sites; however, prior work indicates that NELF prevents Pol II elongation. Here, we report cryoelectron microscopy structures of Pol II-DSIF-NELF complexes with NELF in two distinct conformations corresponding to paused and poised states. The paused NELF state supports Pol II stalling, whereas the poised NELF state enables transcription elongation as it does not support a tilted RNA-DNA hybrid. Further, the poised NELF state can accommodate TFIIS binding to Pol II, allowing for Pol II reactivation at paused or backtracking sites. Finally, we observe that the NELF-A tentacle interacts with the RPB2 protrusion and is necessary for pausing. Our results define how NELF can support pausing, reactivation, and elongation by Pol II.

Energy-driven genome regulation by ATP-dependent chromatin remodellers

The packaging of DNA into chromatin in eukaryotes regulates gene transcription, DNA replication and DNA repair. ATP-dependent chromatin remodelling enzymes (re)arrange nucleosomes at the first level of chromatin organization. Their Snf2-type motor ATPases alter histone-DNA interactions through a common DNA translocation mechanism. Whether remodeller activities mainly catalyse nucleosome dynamics or accurately co-determine nucleosome organization remained unclear. In this Review, we discuss the emerging mechanisms of chromatin remodelling: dynamic remodeller architectures and their interactions, the inner workings of the ATPase cycle, allosteric regulation and pathological dysregulation. Recent mechanistic insights argue for a decisive role of remodellers in the energy-driven self-organization of chromatin, which enables both stability and plasticity of genome regulation - for example, during development and stress. Different remodellers, such as members of the SWI/SNF, ISWI, CHD and INO80 families, process (epi)genetic information through specific mechanisms into distinct functional outputs. Combinatorial assembly of remodellers and their interplay with histone modifications, histone variants, DNA sequence or DNA-bound transcription factors regulate nucleosome mobilization or eviction or histone exchange. Such input-output relationships determine specific nucleosome positions and compositions with distinct DNA accessibilities and mediate differential genome regulation. Finally, remodeller genes are often mutated in diseases characterized by genome dysregulation, notably in cancer, and we discuss their physiological relevance.

Mechanisms and Functions of the RNA Polymerase II General Transcription Machinery during the Transcription Cycle

Central to the development and survival of all organisms is the regulation of gene expression, which begins with the process of transcription catalyzed by RNA polymerases. During transcription of protein-coding genes, the general transcription factors (GTFs) work alongside RNA polymerase II (Pol II) to assemble the preinitiation complex at the transcription start site, open the promoter DNA, initiate synthesis of the nascent messenger RNA, transition to productive elongation, and ultimately terminate transcription. Through these different stages of transcription, Pol II is dynamically phosphorylated at the C-terminal tail of its largest subunit, serving as a control mechanism for Pol II elongation and a signaling/binding platform for co-transcriptional factors. The large number of core protein factors participating in the fundamental steps of transcription add dense layers of regulation that contribute to the complexity of temporal and spatial control of gene expression within any given cell type. The Pol II transcription system is highly conserved across different levels of eukaryotes; however, most of the information here will focus on the human Pol II system. This review walks through various stages of transcription, from preinitiation complex assembly to termination, highlighting the functions and mechanisms of the core machinery that participates in each stage.

Interplay between the transcription preinitiation complex and the +1 nucleosome

Eukaryotic transcription starts with the assembly of a preinitiation complex (PIC) on core promoters. Flanking this region is the +1 nucleosome, the first nucleosome downstream of the core promoter. While this nucleosome is rich in epigenetic marks and plays a key role in transcription regulation, how the +1 nucleosome interacts with the transcription machinery has been a long-standing question. Here, we summarize recent structural and functional studies of the +1 nucleosome in complex with the PIC. We specifically focus on how differently organized promoter-nucleosome templates affect the assembly of the PIC and PIC-Mediator on chromatin and result in distinct transcription initiation.

The Mediator kinase module enhances polymerase activity to regulate transcriptional memory after heat stress in Arabidopsis

Plants are often exposed to recurring adverse environmental conditions in the wild. Acclimation to high temperatures entails transcriptional responses, which prime plants to better withstand subsequent stress events. Heat stress (HS)-induced transcriptional memory results in more efficient re-induction of transcription upon recurrence of heat stress. Here, we identified CDK8 and MED12, two subunits of the kinase module of the transcription co-regulator complex, Mediator, as promoters of heat stress memory and associated histone modifications in Arabidopsis. CDK8 is recruited to heat-stress memory genes by HEAT SHOCK TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR A2 (HSFA2). Like HSFA2, CDK8 is largely dispensable for the initial gene induction upon HS, and its function in transcriptional memory is thus independent of primary gene activation. In addition to the promoter and transcriptional start region of target genes, CDK8 also binds their 3'-region, where it may promote elongation, termination, or rapid re-initiation of RNA polymerase II (Pol II) complexes during transcriptional memory bursts. Our work presents a complex role for the Mediator kinase module during transcriptional memory in multicellular eukaryotes, through interactions with transcription factors, chromatin modifications, and promotion of Pol II efficiency.

Structural visualization of transcription initiation in action

Transcription initiation is a complex process, and its mechanism is incompletely understood. We determined the structures of de novo transcribing complexes TC2 to TC17 with RNA polymerase II halted on G-less promoters when nascent RNAs reach 2 to 17 nucleotides in length, respectively. Connecting these structures generated a movie and a working model. As initially synthesized RNA grows, general transcription factors (GTFs) remain bound to the promoter and the transcription bubble expands. Nucleoside triphosphate (NTP)-driven RNA-DNA translocation and template-strand accumulation in a nearly sealed channel may promote the transition from initially transcribing complexes (ITCs) (TC2 to TC9) to early elongation complexes (EECs) (TC10 to TC17). Our study shows dynamic processes of transcription initiation and reveals why ITCs require GTFs and bubble expansion for initial RNA synthesis, whereas EECs need GTF dissociation from the promoter and bubble collapse for promoter escape.

TFIIH central activity in nucleotide excision repair to prevent disease

The heterodecameric transcription factor IIH (TFIIH) functions in multiple cellular processes, foremost in nucleotide excision repair (NER) and transcription initiation by RNA polymerase II. TFIIH is essential for life and hereditary mutations in TFIIH cause the devastating human syndromes xeroderma pigmentosum, Cockayne syndrome or trichothiodystrophy, or combinations of these. In NER, TFIIH binds to DNA after DNA damage is detected and, using its translocase and helicase subunits XPB and XPD, opens up the DNA and checks for the presence of DNA damage. This central activity leads to dual incision and removal of the DNA strand containing the damage, after which the resulting DNA gap is restored. In this review, we discuss new structural and mechanistic insights into the central function of TFIIH in NER. Moreover, we provide an elaborate overview of all currently known patients and diseases associated with inherited TFIIH mutations and describe how our understanding of TFIIH function in NER and transcription can explain the different disease features caused by TFIIH deficiency.

Mechanisms and biotechnological applications of transcription factors

Transcription factors play an indispensable role in maintaining cellular viability and finely regulating complex internal metabolic networks. These crucial bioactive functions rely on their ability to respond to effectors and concurrently interact with binding sites. Recent advancements have brought innovative insights into the understanding of transcription factors. In this review, we comprehensively summarize the mechanisms by which transcription factors carry out their functions, along with calculation and experimental-based methods employed in their identification. Additionally, we highlight recent achievements in the application of transcription factors in various biotechnological fields, including cell engineering, human health, and biomanufacturing. Finally, the current limitations of research and provide prospects for future investigations are discussed. This review will provide enlightening theoretical guidance for transcription factors engineering.

Regulation of the RNA polymerase II pre-initiation complex by its associated coactivators

The RNA polymerase II (Pol II) pre-initiation complex (PIC) is a critical node in eukaryotic transcription regulation, and its formation is the major rate-limiting step in transcriptional activation. Diverse cellular signals borne by transcriptional activators converge on this large, multiprotein assembly and are transduced via intermediary factors termed coactivators. Cryogenic electron microscopy, multi-omics and single-molecule approaches have recently offered unprecedented insights into both the structure and cellular functions of the PIC and two key PIC-associated coactivators, Mediator and TFIID. Here, we review advances in our understanding of how Mediator and TFIID interact with activators and affect PIC formation and function. We also discuss how their functions are influenced by their chromatin environment and selected cofactors. We consider how, through its multifarious interactions and functionalities, a Mediator-containing and TFIID-containing PIC can yield an integrated signal processing system with the flexibility to determine the unique temporal and spatial expression pattern of a given gene.

Transcription factor IID parks and drives preinitiation complexes at sharp or broad promoters

Core promoters are sites where transcriptional regulatory inputs of a gene are integrated to direct the assembly of the preinitiation complex (PIC) and RNA polymerase II (Pol II) transcription output. Until now, core promoter functions have been investigated by distinct methods, including Pol II transcription initiation site mappings and structural characterization of PICs on distinct promoters. Here, we bring together these previously unconnected observations and hypothesize how, on metazoan TATA promoters, the precisely structured building up of transcription factor (TF) IID-based PICs results in sharp transcription start site (TSS) selection; or, in contrast, how the less strictly controlled positioning of the TATA-less promoter DNA relative to TFIID-core PIC components results in alternative broad TSS selections by Pol II.

DNA-dependent RNA polymerases in plants

DNA-dependent RNA polymerases (Pols) transfer the genetic information stored in genomic DNA to RNA in all organisms. In eukaryotes, the typical products of nuclear Pol I, Pol II, and Pol III are ribosomal RNAs, mRNAs, and transfer RNAs, respectively. Intriguingly, plants possess two additional Pols, Pol IV and Pol V, which produce small RNAs and long noncoding RNAs, respectively, mainly for silencing transposable elements. The five plant Pols share some subunits, but their distinct functions stem from unique subunits that interact with specific regulatory factors in their transcription cycles. Here, we summarize recent advances in our understanding of plant nucleus-localized Pols, including their evolution, function, structures, and transcription cycles.

Mediator structure and function in transcription initiation

Recent advances in cryo-electron microscopy have led to multiple structures of Mediator in complex with the RNA polymerase II (Pol II) transcription initiation machinery. As a result we now hold in hands near-complete structures of both yeast and human Mediator complexes and have a better understanding of their interactions with the Pol II pre-initiation complex (PIC). Herein, we provide a summary of recent achievements and discuss their implications for future studies of Mediator and its role in gene regulation.

Structure and phase separation of the C-terminal domain of RNA polymerase II

The repetitive heptads in the C-terminal domain (CTD) of RPB1, the largest subunit of RNA Polymerase II (Pol II), play a critical role in the regulation of Pol II-based transcription. Recent findings on the structure of the CTD in the pre-initiation complex determined by cryo-EM and the novel phase separation properties of key transcription components offers an expanded mechanistic interpretation of the spatiotemporal distribution of Pol II during transcription. Current experimental evidence further suggests an exquisite balance between CTD's local structure and an array of multivalent interactions that drive phase separation of Pol II and thus shape its transcriptional activity.

Promoter-proximal nucleosomes attenuate RNA polymerase II transcription through TFIID

A nucleosome is typically positioned with its proximal edge (NPE) ∼50 bp downstream from the transcription start site of metazoan RNA polymerase II promoters. This +1 nucleosome has distinctive characteristics, including the presence of variant histone types and trimethylation of histone H3 at lysine 4. To address the role of these features in transcription complex assembly, we generated templates with four different promoters and nucleosomes located at a variety of downstream positions, which were transcribed in vitro using HeLa nuclear extracts. Two promoters lacked TATA elements, but all supported strong initiation from a single transcription start site. In contrast to results with minimal in vitro systems based on the TATA-binding protein (TBP), TATA promoter templates with a +51 NPE were transcriptionally inhibited in extracts; activity continuously increased as the nucleosome was moved downstream to +100. Inhibition was much more pronounced for the TATA-less promoters: +51 NPE templates were inactive, and substantial activity was only seen with the +100 NPE templates. Substituting the histone variants H2A.Z, H3.3, or both did not eliminate the inhibition. However, addition of excess TBP restored activity on nucleosomal templates with TATA promoters, even with an NPE at +20. Remarkably, nucleosomal templates with histone H3 trimethylated at lysine 4 are active with an NPE at +51 for both TATA and TATA-less promoters. Our results strongly suggest that the +1 nucleosome interferes with promoter recognition by TFIID. This inhibition can be overcome with TBP alone at TATA promoters or through positive interactions with histone modifications and TFIID.

Helicases required for nucleotide excision repair: structure, function and mechanism

Nucleotide excision repair (NER) is a major DNA repair pathway conserved from bacteria to humans. Various DNA helicases, a group of enzymes capable of separating DNA duplex into two strands through ATP binding and hydrolysis, are required by NER to unwind the DNA duplex around the lesion to create a repair bubble and for damage verification and removal. In prokaryotes, UvrB helicase is required for repair bubble formation and damage verification, while UvrD helicase is responsible for the removal of the excised damage containing single-strand (ss) DNA fragment. In addition, UvrD facilitates transcription-coupled repair (TCR) by backtracking RNA polymerase stalled at the lesion. In eukaryotes, two helicases XPB and XPD from the transcription factor TFIIH complex fulfill the helicase requirements of NER. Interestingly, homologs of all these four helicases UvrB, UvrD, XPB, and XPD have been identified in archaea. This review summarizes our current understanding about the structure, function, and mechanism of these four helicases.

Dynamic conformational switching underlies TFIIH function in transcription and DNA repair and impacts genetic diseases

Transcription factor IIH (TFIIH) is a protein assembly essential for transcription initiation and nucleotide excision repair (NER). Yet, understanding of the conformational switching underpinning these diverse TFIIH functions remains fragmentary. TFIIH mechanisms critically depend on two translocase subunits, XPB and XPD. To unravel their functions and regulation, we build cryo-EM based TFIIH models in transcription- and NER-competent states. Using simulations and graph-theoretical analysis methods, we reveal TFIIH's global motions, define TFIIH partitioning into dynamic communities and show how TFIIH reshapes itself and self-regulates depending on functional context. Our study uncovers an internal regulatory mechanism that switches XPB and XPD activities making them mutually exclusive between NER and transcription initiation. By sequentially coordinating the XPB and XPD DNA-unwinding activities, the switch ensures precise DNA incision in NER. Mapping TFIIH disease mutations onto network models reveals clustering into distinct mechanistic classes, affecting translocase functions, protein interactions and interface dynamics.

Lesion recognition by XPC, TFIIH and XPA in DNA excision repair

Nucleotide excision repair removes DNA lesions caused by ultraviolet light, cisplatin-like compounds and bulky adducts1. After initial recognition by XPC in global genome repair or a stalled RNA polymerase in transcription-coupled repair, damaged DNA is transferred to the seven-subunit TFIIH core complex (Core7) for verification and dual incisions by the XPF and XPG nucleases2. Structures capturing lesion recognition by the yeast XPC homologue Rad4 and TFIIH in transcription initiation or DNA repair have been separately reported3-7. How two different lesion recognition pathways converge and how the XPB and XPD helicases of Core7 move the DNA lesion for verification are unclear. Here we report on structures revealing DNA lesion recognition by human XPC and DNA lesion hand-off from XPC to Core7 and XPA. XPA, which binds between XPB and XPD, kinks the DNA duplex and shifts XPC and the DNA lesion by nearly a helical turn relative to Core7. The DNA lesion is thus positioned outside of Core7, as would occur with RNA polymerase. XPB and XPD, which track the lesion-containing strand but translocate DNA in opposite directions, push and pull the lesion-containing strand into XPD for verification.

Structural basis of transcription reduction by a promoter-proximal +1 nucleosome

At active human genes, the +1 nucleosome is located downstream of the RNA polymerase II (RNA Pol II) pre-initiation complex (PIC). However, at inactive genes, the +1 nucleosome is found further upstream, at a promoter-proximal location. Here, we establish a model system to show that a promoter-proximal +1 nucleosome can reduce RNA synthesis in vivo and in vitro, and we analyze its structural basis. We find that the PIC assembles normally when the edge of the +1 nucleosome is located 18 base pairs (bp) downstream of the transcription start site (TSS). However, when the nucleosome edge is located further upstream, only 10 bp downstream of the TSS, the PIC adopts an inhibited state. The transcription factor IIH (TFIIH) shows a closed conformation and its subunit XPB contacts DNA with only one of its two ATPase lobes, inconsistent with DNA opening. These results provide a mechanism for nucleosome-dependent regulation of transcription initiation.

Regulation of ribosomal RNA gene copy number, transcription and nucleolus organization in eukaryotes

One of the first biological machineries to be created seems to have been the ribosome. Since then, organisms have dedicated great efforts to optimize this apparatus. The ribosomal RNA (rRNA) contained within ribosomes is crucial for protein synthesis and maintenance of cellular function in all known organisms. In eukaryotic cells, rRNA is produced from ribosomal DNA clusters of tandem rRNA genes, whose organization in the nucleolus, maintenance and transcription are strictly regulated to satisfy the substantial demand for rRNA required for ribosome biogenesis. Recent studies have elucidated mechanisms underlying the integrity of ribosomal DNA and regulation of its transcription, including epigenetic mechanisms and a unique recombination and copy-number control system to stably maintain high rRNA gene copy number. In this Review, we disucss how the crucial maintenance of rRNA gene copy number through control of gene amplification and of rRNA production by RNA polymerase I are orchestrated. We also discuss how liquid-liquid phase separation controls the architecture and function of the nucleolus and the relationship between rRNA production, cell senescence and disease.

Structures of transcription preinitiation complex engaged with the +1 nucleosome

The preinitiation complex (PIC) assembles on promoters of protein-coding genes to position RNA polymerase II (Pol II) for transcription initiation. Previous structural studies revealed the PIC on different promoters, but did not address how the PIC assembles within chromatin. In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, PIC assembly occurs adjacent to the +1 nucleosome that is located downstream of the core promoter. Here we present cryo-EM structures of the yeast PIC bound to promoter DNA and the +1 nucleosome located at three different positions. The general transcription factor TFIIH engages with the incoming downstream nucleosome and its translocase subunit Ssl2 (XPB in human TFIIH) drives the rotation of the +1 nucleosome leading to partial detachment of nucleosomal DNA and intimate interactions between TFIIH and the nucleosome. The structures provide insights into how transcription initiation can be influenced by the +1 nucleosome and may explain why the transcription start site is often located roughly 60 base pairs upstream of the dyad of the +1 nucleosome in yeast.

DNA opening during transcription initiation by RNA polymerase II in atomic detail

RNA polymerase II (RNAP II) synthesizes RNA by reading the DNA code. During transcription initiation, RNAP II opens the double-stranded DNA to expose the DNA template to the active site. The molecular interactions driving and controlling DNA opening are not well understood. We used all-atom steered molecular dynamics simulations to derive a continuous pathway of DNA opening in human RNAP II, involving a 55 Å DNA strand displacement and a nearly 360° DNA helix rotation. To drive such large-scale transitions, we used a combination of RMSD-based collective variables, a newly designed rotational coordinate, and a path collective variable. The simulations reveal extensive interactions of the DNA with three conserved protein loops near the active site, namely with the rudder, fork loop 1, and fork loop 2. According to the simulations, DNA-protein interactions support DNA opening by a twofold mechanism; they catalyze DNA opening by attacking Watson-Crick hydrogen bonds, and they stabilize the open DNA bubble by the formation of a wide set of DNA-protein salt bridges.

The human RNA polymerase I structure reveals an HMG-like docking domain specific to metazoans

We characterize the human RNA polymerase I by evolutionary biochemistry and cryo-EM revealing a built-in structural domain that apparently serves as transcription factor–binding platform in metazoans.

Transcription of the ribosomal RNA precursor by RNA polymerase (Pol) I is a major determinant of cellular growth, and dysregulation is observed in many cancer types. Here, we present the purification of human Pol I from cells carrying a genomic GFP fusion on the largest subunit allowing the structural and functional analysis of the enzyme across species. In contrast to yeast, human Pol I carries a single-subunit stalk, and in vitro transcription indicates a reduced proofreading activity. Determination of the human Pol I cryo-EM reconstruction in a close-to-native state rationalizes the effects of disease-associated mutations and uncovers an additional domain that is built into the sequence of Pol I subunit RPA1. This “dock II” domain resembles a truncated HMG box incapable of DNA binding which may serve as a downstream transcription factor–binding platform in metazoans. Biochemical analysis, in situ modelling, and ChIP data indicate that Topoisomerase 2a can be recruited to Pol I via the domain and cooperates with the HMG box domain–containing factor UBF. These adaptations of the metazoan Pol I transcription system may allow efficient release of positive DNA supercoils accumulating downstream of the transcription bubble.

The Mediator complex as a master regulator of transcription by RNA polymerase II

The Mediator complex, which in humans is 1.4 MDa in size and includes 26 subunits, controls many aspects of RNA polymerase II (Pol II) function. Apart from its size, a defining feature of Mediator is its intrinsic disorder and conformational flexibility, which contributes to its ability to undergo phase separation and to interact with a myriad of regulatory factors. In this Review, we discuss Mediator structure and function, with emphasis on recent cryogenic electron microscopy data of the 4.0-MDa transcription preinitiation complex. We further discuss how Mediator and sequence-specific DNA-binding transcription factors enable enhancer-dependent regulation of Pol II function at distal gene promoters, through the formation of molecular condensates (or transcription hubs) and chromatin loops. Mediator regulation of Pol II reinitiation is also discussed, in the context of transcription bursting. We propose a working model for Mediator function that combines experimental results and theoretical considerations related to enhancer-promoter interactions, which reconciles contradictory data regarding whether enhancer-promoter communication is direct or indirect. We conclude with a discussion of Mediator's potential as a therapeutic target and of future research directions.

Systematic mutagenesis of TFIIH subunit p52/Tfb2 identifies residues required for XPB/Ssl2 subunit function and genetic interactions with TFB6

TFIIH is an evolutionarily conserved complex that plays central roles in both RNA polymerase II (pol II) transcription and DNA repair. As an integral component of the pol II preinitiation complex, TFIIH regulates pol II enzyme activity in numerous ways. The TFIIH subunit XPB/Ssl2 is an ATP-dependent DNA translocase that stimulates promoter opening prior to transcription initiation. Crosslinking-mass spectrometry and cryo-EM results have shown a conserved interaction network involving XPB/Ssl2 and the C-terminal Hub region of the TFIIH p52/Tfb2 subunit, but the functional significance of specific residues is unclear. Here, we systematically mutagenized the HubA region of Tfb2 and screened for growth phenotypes in a TFB6 deletion background in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We identified six lethal and 12 conditional mutants. Slow growth phenotypes of all but three conditional mutants were relieved in the presence of TFB6, thus identifying a functional interaction between Tfb2 HubA mutants and Tfb6, a protein that dissociates Ssl2 from TFIIH. Our biochemical analysis of Tfb2 mutants with severe growth phenotypes revealed defects in Ssl2 association, with similar results in human cells. Further characterization of these tfb2 mutant cells revealed defects in GAL gene induction, and reduced occupancy of TFIIH and pol II at GAL gene promoters, suggesting that functionally competent TFIIH is required for proper pol II recruitment to preinitiation complexes in vivo. Consistent with recent structural models of TFIIH, our results identify key residues in the p52/Tfb2 HubA domain that are required for stable incorporation of XPB/Ssl2 into TFIIH and for pol II transcription.

DeepTracer-ID: De novo protein identification from cryo-EM maps

The recent revolution in cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) has made it possible to determine macromolecular structures directly from cell extracts. However, identifying the correct protein from the cryo-EM map is still challenging and often needs additional sequence information from other techniques, such as tandem mass spectrometry and/or bioinformatics. Here, we present DeepTracer-ID, a server-based approach to identify the candidate protein in a user-provided organism de novo from a cryo-EM map, without the need for additional information. Our method first uses DeepTracer to generate a protein backbone model that best represents the cryo-EM map, and this model is then searched against the library of AlphaFold2 predictions for all proteins in the given organism. This method is highly accurate and robust for high-resolution cryo-EM maps: in all 13 experimental maps tested blindly, DeepTracer-ID identified the correct proteins as the top candidates. Eight of the maps were of known structures, while the other five unpublished maps were validated by prior protein annotation and careful inspection of the model refined into the map. The program also showed promising results for both homomeric and heteromeric protein complexes. This platform is possible because of the recent breakthroughs in large-scale three-dimensional protein structure prediction.

Investigation of the causal etiology in a patient with T-B+NK+ immunodeficiency

Newborn screening for severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) has not only accelerated diagnosis and improved treatment for affected infants, but also led to identification of novel genes required for human T cell development. A male proband had SCID newborn screening showing very low T cell receptor excision circles (TRECs), a biomarker for thymic output of nascent T cells. He had persistent profound T lymphopenia, but normal numbers of B and natural killer (NK) cells. Despite an allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant from his brother, he failed to develop normal T cells. Targeted resequencing excluded known SCID genes; however, whole exome sequencing (WES) of the proband and parents revealed a maternally inherited X-linked missense mutation in MED14 (MED14V763A), a component of the mediator complex. Morpholino (MO)-mediated loss of MED14 function attenuated T cell development in zebrafish. Moreover, this arrest was rescued by ectopic expression of cDNA encoding the wild type human MED14 ortholog, but not by MED14V763A , suggesting that the variant impaired MED14 function. Modeling of the equivalent mutation in mouse (Med14V769A) did not disrupt T cell development at baseline. However, repopulation of peripheral T cells upon competitive bone marrow transplantation was compromised, consistent with the incomplete T cell reconstitution experienced by the proband upon transplantation with bone marrow from his healthy male sibling, who was found to have the same MED14V763A variant. Suspecting that the variable phenotypic expression between the siblings was influenced by further mutation(s), we sought to identify genetic variants present only in the affected proband. Indeed, WES revealed a mutation in the L1 cell adhesion molecule (L1CAMQ498H); however, introducing that mutation in vivo in mice did not disrupt T cell development. Consequently, immunodeficiency in the proband may depend upon additional, unidentified gene variants.

Structural insights into assembly of transcription preinitiation complex

RNA polymerase II (Pol II)-mediated transcription in eukaryotic cells starts with assembly of preinitiation complex (PIC) on core promoter, a DNA sequence of ∼100 base pairs. The transcription PIC consists of Pol II and general transcription factors TFIID, TFIIA, TFIIB, TFIIF, TFIIE, and TFIIH. Previous structural studies focused on PIC assembled on TATA box promoters with TFIID replaced by its subunit, TATA box-binding protein (TBP). However, the megadalton TFIID complex is essential for promoter recognition, TBP loading onto promoter, and PIC assembly for almost all Pol II-mediated transcription, especially on the TATA-less promoters, which account for ∼85% of core promoters of human coding genes. The functions of TFIID could not be replaced by TBP. The recent breakthrough in structure determination of TFIID-based PIC complexes in different assembly stages revealed mechanistic insights into PIC assembly on TATA box and TATA-less promotes and provided a framework for further investigation of transcription initiation.

Mechanism of replication origin melting nucleated by CMG helicase assembly

The activation of eukaryotic origins of replication occurs in temporally separated steps to ensure that chromosomes are copied only once per cell cycle. First, the MCM helicase is loaded onto duplex DNA as an inactive double hexamer. Activation occurs after the recruitment of a set of firing factors that assemble two Cdc45-MCM-GINS (CMG) holo-helicases. CMG formation leads to the underwinding of DNA on the path to the establishment of the replication fork, but whether DNA becomes melted at this stage is unknown1. Here we use cryo-electron microscopy to image ATP-dependent CMG assembly on a chromatinized origin, reconstituted in vitro with purified yeast proteins. We find that CMG formation disrupts the double hexamer interface and thereby exposes duplex DNA in between the two CMGs. The two helicases remain tethered, which gives rise to a splayed dimer, with implications for origin activation and replisome integrity. Inside each MCM ring, the double helix becomes untwisted and base pairing is broken. This comes as the result of ATP-triggered conformational changes in MCM that involve DNA stretching and protein-mediated stabilization of three orphan bases. Mcm2 pore-loop residues that engage DNA in our structure are dispensable for double hexamer loading and CMG formation, but are essential to untwist the DNA and promote replication. Our results explain how ATP binding nucleates origin DNA melting by the CMG and maintains replisome stability at initiation.

Structural insights into nuclear transcription by eukaryotic DNA-dependent RNA polymerases

The eukaryotic transcription apparatus synthesizes a staggering diversity of RNA molecules. The labour of nuclear gene transcription is, therefore, divided among multiple DNA-dependent RNA polymerases. RNA polymerase I (Pol I) transcribes ribosomal RNA, Pol II synthesizes messenger RNAs and various non-coding RNAs (including long non-coding RNAs, microRNAs and small nuclear RNAs) and Pol III produces transfer RNAs and other short RNA molecules. Pol I, Pol II and Pol III are large, multisubunit protein complexes that associate with a multitude of additional factors to synthesize transcripts that largely differ in size, structure and abundance. The three transcription machineries share common characteristics, but differ widely in various aspects, such as numbers of RNA polymerase subunits, regulatory elements and accessory factors, which allows them to specialize in transcribing their specific RNAs. Common to the three RNA polymerases is that the transcription process consists of three major steps: transcription initiation, transcript elongation and transcription termination. In this Review, we outline the common principles and differences between the Pol I, Pol II and Pol III transcription machineries and discuss key structural and functional insights obtained into the three stages of their transcription processes.

Differences in RNA polymerase II complexes and their interactions with surrounding chromatin on human and cytomegalovirus genomes

Interactions of the RNA polymerase II (Pol II) preinitiation complex (PIC) and paused early elongation complexes with the first downstream (+1) nucleosome are thought to be functionally important. However, current methods are limited for investigating these relationships, both for cellular chromatin and the human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) genome. Digestion with human DNA fragmentation factor (DFF) before immunoprecipitation (DFF-ChIP) precisely revealed both similarities and major differences in PICs driven by TBP on the host genome in comparison with PICs driven by TBP or the viral-specific, late initiation factor UL87 on the viral genome. Host PICs and paused Pol II complexes are frequently found in contact with the +1 nucleosome and paused Pol II can also be found in a complex involved in the initial invasion of the +1 nucleosome. In contrast, viral transcription complexes have very limited nucleosomal interactions, reflecting a relative lack of chromatinization of transcriptionally active regions of HCMV genomes.

Here the authors digested chromatin with DNA fragmentation factor (DFF) prior to chromatin immunoprecipitation (DFF-ChIP) to depict transcription complex interactions with neighboring nucleosomes in cells. Applying this method to human cytomegalovirus (HMCV)-infected cells, they find that the viral genome is underchromatinized, leading to fewer transcription complex interactions with nucleosomes.

Assembly of RNA polymerase II transcription initiation complexes

The first step of eukaryotic gene expression is the assembly of RNA polymerase II and general transcription factors on promoter DNA. This highly regulated process involves ∼80 different proteins that together form the preinitiation complex (PIC). Decades of work have gone into understanding PIC assembly using biochemical and structural approaches. These efforts have yielded significant but partial descriptions of PIC assembly. Over the past few years, cryo-electron microscopy has provided the first high-resolution structures of the near-complete mammalian PIC assembly. These structures have revealed that PIC assembly is a highly dynamic process. This review will summarize recent structural findings and discuss their implications for understanding cell type-specific gene expression.

The TFIIH complex is required to establish and maintain mitotic chromosome structure

Condensins compact chromosomes to promote their equal segregation during mitosis, but the mechanism of condensin engagement with and action on chromatin is incompletely understood. Here, we show that the general transcription factor TFIIH complex is continuously required to establish and maintain a compacted chromosome structure in transcriptionally silent Xenopus egg extracts. Inhibiting the DNA-dependent ATPase activity of the TFIIH complex subunit XPB rapidly and reversibly induces a complete loss of chromosome structure and prevents the enrichment of condensins I and II, but not topoisomerase II, on chromatin. In addition, inhibiting TFIIH prevents condensation of both mouse and Xenopus nuclei in Xenopus egg extracts, which suggests an evolutionarily conserved mechanism of TFIIH action. Reducing nucleosome density through partial histone depletion restores chromosome structure and condensin enrichment in the absence of TFIIH activity. We propose that the TFIIH complex promotes mitotic chromosome condensation by dynamically altering the chromatin environment to facilitate condensin loading and condensin-dependent loop extrusion.

Structural visualization of de novo transcription initiation by Saccharomyces cerevisiae RNA polymerase II

Previous structural studies of the initiation-elongation transition of RNA polymerase II (pol II) transcription have relied on the use of synthetic oligonucleotides, often artificially discontinuous to capture pol II in the initiating state. Here, we report multiple structures of initiation complexes converted de novo from a 33-subunit yeast pre-initiation complex (PIC) through catalytic activities and subsequently stalled at different template positions. We determine that PICs in the initially transcribing complex (ITC) can synthesize a transcript of ∼26 nucleotides before transitioning to an elongation complex (EC) as determined by the loss of general transcription factors (GTFs). Unexpectedly, transition to an EC was greatly accelerated when an ITC encountered a downstream EC stalled at promoter proximal regions and resulted in a collided head-to-end dimeric EC complex. Our structural analysis reveals a dynamic state of TFIIH, the largest of GTFs, in PIC/ITC with distinct functional consequences at multiple steps on the pathway to elongation.

Structural basis of SNAPc-dependent snRNA transcription initiation by RNA polymerase II

RNA polymerase II (Pol II) carries out transcription of both protein-coding and non-coding genes. Whereas Pol II initiation at protein-coding genes has been studied in detail, Pol II initiation at non-coding genes, such as small nuclear RNA (snRNA) genes, is less well understood at the structural level. Here, we study Pol II initiation at snRNA gene promoters and show that the snRNA-activating protein complex (SNAPc) enables DNA opening and transcription initiation independent of TFIIE and TFIIH in vitro. We then resolve cryo-EM structures of the SNAPc-containing Pol IIpre-initiation complex (PIC) assembled on U1 and U5 snRNA promoters. The core of SNAPc binds two turns of DNA and recognizes the snRNA promoter-specific proximal sequence element (PSE), located upstream of the TATA box-binding protein TBP. Two extensions of SNAPc, called wing-1 and wing-2, bind TFIIA and TFIIB, respectively, explaining how SNAPc directs Pol II to snRNA promoters. Comparison of structures of closed and open promoter complexes elucidates TFIIH-independent DNA opening. These results provide the structural basis of Pol II initiation at non-coding RNA gene promoters.

Enzymology and Dynamics by Cryogenic Electron Microscopy

Cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM) has revolutionized the field of structural biology, particularly in solving the structures of large protein complexes or cellular machineries that play important biological functions. This review focuses on the contribution and future potential of cryo-EM in related emerging applications-enzymatic mechanisms and dynamic processes. Work on these subjects can benefit greatly from the capability of cryo-EM to solve the structures of specific protein complexes in multiple conditions, including variations in the buffer condition, ligands, and temperature, and to capture multiple conformational states, conformational change intermediates, and reaction intermediates. These studies can expand the structural landscape of specific proteins or protein complexes in multiple dimensions and drive new advances in the fields of enzymology and dynamic processes. The advantages and complementarity of cryo-EM relative to X-ray crystallography and nuclear magnetic resonance with regard to these applications are also addressed. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Biophysics, Volume 51 is May 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

C. elegans TFIIH subunit GTF-2H5/TTDA is a non-essential transcription factor indispensable for DNA repair

The 10-subunit TFIIH complex is vital to transcription and nucleotide excision repair. Hereditary mutations in its smallest subunit, TTDA/GTF2H5, cause a photosensitive form of the rare developmental disorder trichothiodystrophy. Some trichothiodystrophy features are thought to be caused by subtle transcription or gene expression defects. TTDA/GTF2H5 knockout mice are not viable, making it difficult to investigate TTDA/GTF2H5 in vivo function. Here we show that deficiency of C. elegans TTDA ortholog GTF-2H5 is, however, compatible with life, in contrast to depletion of other TFIIH subunits. GTF-2H5 promotes TFIIH stability in multiple tissues and is indispensable for nucleotide excision repair, in which it facilitates recruitment of TFIIH to DNA damage. Strikingly, when transcription is challenged, gtf-2H5 embryos die due to the intrinsic TFIIH fragility in absence of GTF-2H5. These results support the idea that TTDA/GTF2H5 mutations cause transcription impairment underlying trichothiodystrophy and establish C. elegans as model for studying pathogenesis of this disease.

Ssl2/TFIIH function in transcription start site scanning by RNA polymerase II in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, RNA polymerase II (Pol II) selects transcription start sites (TSSs) by a unidirectional scanning process. During scanning, a preinitiation complex (PIC) assembled at an upstream core promoter initiates at select positions within a window ~40-120 bp downstream. Several lines of evidence indicate that Ssl2, the yeast homolog of XPB and an essential and conserved subunit of the general transcription factor (GTF) TFIIH, drives scanning through its DNA-dependent ATPase activity, therefore potentially controlling both scanning rate and scanning extent (processivity). To address questions of how Ssl2 functions in promoter scanning and interacts with other initiation activities, we leveraged distinct initiation-sensitive reporters to identify novel ssl2 alleles. These ssl2 alleles, many of which alter residues conserved from yeast to human, confer either upstream or downstream TSS shifts at the model promoter ADH1 and genome-wide. Specifically, tested ssl2 alleles alter TSS selection by increasing or narrowing the distribution of TSSs used at individual promoters. Genetic interactions of ssl2 alleles with other initiation factors are consistent with ssl2 allele classes functioning through increasing or decreasing scanning processivity but not necessarily scanning rate. These alleles underpin a residue interaction network that likely modulates Ssl2 activity and TFIIH function in promoter scanning. We propose that the outcome of promoter scanning is determined by two functional networks, the first being Pol II activity and factors that modulate it to determine initiation efficiency within a scanning window, and the second being Ssl2/TFIIH and factors that modulate scanning processivity to determine the width of the scanning widow.

Structure of an inactive RNA polymerase II dimer

Eukaryotic gene transcription is carried out by three RNA polymerases: Pol I, Pol II and Pol III. Although it has long been known that Pol I can form homodimers, it is unclear whether and how the two other RNA polymerases dimerize. Here we present the cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structure of a mammalian Pol II dimer at 3.5 Å resolution. The structure differs from the Pol I dimer and reveals that one Pol II copy uses its RPB4-RPB7 stalk to penetrate the active centre cleft of the other copy, and vice versa, giving rise to a molecular handshake. The polymerase clamp domain is displaced and mobile, and the RPB7 oligonucleotide-binding fold mimics the DNA–RNA hybrid that occupies the cleft during active transcription. The Pol II dimer is incompatible with nucleic acid binding as required for transcription and may represent an inactive storage form of the polymerase.