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Powell D, Feinstein AD, Lee EKH, Zhang M, Tsai SM, Taylor J, Kirk J, Bell T, Barstow JK, Gao P, Bean JL, Blecic J, Chubb KL, Crossfield IJM, Jordan S, Kitzmann D, Moran SE, Morello G, Moses JI, Welbanks L, Yang J, Zhang X, Ahrer EM, Bello-Arufe A, Brande J, Casewell SL, Crouzet N, Cubillos PE, Demory BO, Dyrek A, Flagg L, Hu R, Inglis J, Jones KD, Kreidberg L, López-Morales M, Lagage PO, Meier Valdés EA, Miguel Y, Parmentier V, Piette AAA, Rackham BV, Radica M, Redfield S, Stevenson KB, Wakeford HR, Aggarwal K, Alam MK, Batalha NM, Batalha NE, Benneke B, Berta-Thompson ZK, Brady RP, Caceres C, Carter AL, Désert JM, Harrington J, Iro N, Line MR, Lothringer JD, MacDonald RJ, Mancini L, Molaverdikhani K, Mukherjee S, Nixon MC, Oza AV, Palle E, Rustamkulov Z, Sing DK, Steinrueck ME, Venot O, Wheatley PJ, Yurchenko SN. Sulfur dioxide in the mid-infrared transmission spectrum of WASP-39b. Nature 2024; 626:979-983. [PMID: 38232945 PMCID: PMC10901732 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-024-07040-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/05/2024] [Indexed: 01/19/2024]
Abstract
The recent inference of sulfur dioxide (SO2) in the atmosphere of the hot (approximately 1,100 K), Saturn-mass exoplanet WASP-39b from near-infrared JWST observations1-3 suggests that photochemistry is a key process in high-temperature exoplanet atmospheres4. This is because of the low (<1 ppb) abundance of SO2 under thermochemical equilibrium compared with that produced from the photochemistry of H2O and H2S (1-10 ppm)4-9. However, the SO2 inference was made from a single, small molecular feature in the transmission spectrum of WASP-39b at 4.05 μm and, therefore, the detection of other SO2 absorption bands at different wavelengths is needed to better constrain the SO2 abundance. Here we report the detection of SO2 spectral features at 7.7 and 8.5 μm in the 5-12-μm transmission spectrum of WASP-39b measured by the JWST Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI) Low Resolution Spectrometer (LRS)10. Our observations suggest an abundance of SO2 of 0.5-25 ppm (1σ range), consistent with previous findings4. As well as SO2, we find broad water-vapour absorption features, as well as an unexplained decrease in the transit depth at wavelengths longer than 10 μm. Fitting the spectrum with a grid of atmospheric forward models, we derive an atmospheric heavy-element content (metallicity) for WASP-39b of approximately 7.1-8.0 times solar and demonstrate that photochemistry shapes the spectra of WASP-39b across a broad wavelength range.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Powell
- Center for Astrophysics | Harvard & Smithsonian, Cambridge, MA, USA.
- Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
| | - Adina D Feinstein
- Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
- Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Elspeth K H Lee
- Center for Space and Habitability, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Michael Zhang
- Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Shang-Min Tsai
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Jake Taylor
- Department of Physics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Institut Trottier de Recherche sur les Exoplanètes, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
- Département de Physique, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - James Kirk
- Department of Physics, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Taylor Bell
- Bay Area Environmental Research Institute, NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA, USA
- Space Science and Astrobiology Division, NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA, USA
| | - Joanna K Barstow
- School of Physical Sciences, The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK
| | - Peter Gao
- Earth and Planets Laboratory, Carnegie Institution for Science, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Jacob L Bean
- Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Jasmina Blecic
- Department of Physics, New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
- Center for Astro, Particle, and Planetary Physics (CAP3), New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Katy L Chubb
- Centre for Exoplanet Science, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| | - Ian J M Crossfield
- Department of Physics & Astronomy, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
| | - Sean Jordan
- Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Daniel Kitzmann
- Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Sarah E Moran
- Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Giuseppe Morello
- Department of Space, Earth and Environment, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias (IAC), Tenerife, Spain
- INAF - Palermo Astronomical Observatory, Palermo, Italy
| | | | - Luis Welbanks
- School of Earth and Space Exploration, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Jeehyun Yang
- Planetary Sciences Section, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Xi Zhang
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Eva-Maria Ahrer
- Centre for Exoplanets and Habitability, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
- Department of Physics, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
| | - Aaron Bello-Arufe
- Astrophysics Section, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Jonathan Brande
- Department of Physics & Astronomy, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
| | - S L Casewell
- School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Nicolas Crouzet
- Leiden Observatory, University of Leiden, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Patricio E Cubillos
- INAF - Turin Astrophysical Observatory, Pino Torinese, Italy
- Space Research Institute, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Graz, Austria
| | - Brice-Olivier Demory
- Center for Space and Habitability, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Space and Planetary Sciences, Institute of Physics, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Achrène Dyrek
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, AIM, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Laura Flagg
- Department of Astronomy, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
- Carl Sagan Institute, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Renyu Hu
- Astrophysics Section, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
- Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Julie Inglis
- Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Kathryn D Jones
- Center for Space and Habitability, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | | | | | | | - Yamila Miguel
- Leiden Observatory, University of Leiden, Leiden, The Netherlands
- SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Vivien Parmentier
- Université Côte d'Azur, Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur, CNRS, Laboratoire Lagrange, French Riviera, France
| | - Anjali A A Piette
- Earth and Planets Laboratory, Carnegie Institution for Science, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Benjamin V Rackham
- Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Kavli Institute for Astrophysics and Space Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Michael Radica
- Institut Trottier de Recherche sur les Exoplanètes, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
- Département de Physique, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Seth Redfield
- Astronomy Department, Wesleyan University, Middletown, CT, USA
- Van Vleck Observatory, Wesleyan University, Middletown, CT, USA
| | - Kevin B Stevenson
- Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel, MD, USA
| | | | | | - Munazza K Alam
- Earth and Planets Laboratory, Carnegie Institution for Science, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Natalie M Batalha
- Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | | | - Björn Benneke
- Institut Trottier de Recherche sur les Exoplanètes, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
- Département de Physique, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Zach K Berta-Thompson
- Department of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Ryan P Brady
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London, London, UK
| | - Claudio Caceres
- Instituto de Astrofisica, Facultad Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
- Centro de Astrofisica y Tecnologias Afines (CATA), Santiago, Chile
- Núcleo Milenio de Formación Planetaria (NPF), Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Aarynn L Carter
- Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Jean-Michel Désert
- Anton Pannekoek Institute for Astronomy, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Joseph Harrington
- Planetary Sciences Group, Department of Physics and Florida Space Institute, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Nicolas Iro
- Institute of Planetary Research, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Berlin, Germany
| | - Michael R Line
- School of Earth and Space Exploration, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | | | - Ryan J MacDonald
- Department of Astronomy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Luigi Mancini
- INAF - Turin Astrophysical Observatory, Pino Torinese, Italy
- Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Physics, University of Rome "Tor Vergata", Rome, Italy
| | - Karan Molaverdikhani
- Universitäts-Sternwarte, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, München, Germany
- Exzellenzcluster Origins, Garching, Germany
| | - Sagnick Mukherjee
- Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Matthew C Nixon
- Department of Astronomy, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
| | - Apurva V Oza
- Astrophysics Section, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Enric Palle
- Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias (IAC), Tenerife, Spain
| | - Zafar Rustamkulov
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - David K Sing
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | - Olivia Venot
- Université de Paris Cité and Université Paris-Est Creteil, CNRS, LISA, Paris, France
| | - Peter J Wheatley
- Centre for Exoplanets and Habitability, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
- Department of Physics, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
| | - Sergei N Yurchenko
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London, London, UK
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3
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Coulombe LP, Benneke B, Challener R, Piette AAA, Wiser LS, Mansfield M, MacDonald RJ, Beltz H, Feinstein AD, Radica M, Savel AB, Dos Santos LA, Bean JL, Parmentier V, Wong I, Rauscher E, Komacek TD, Kempton EMR, Tan X, Hammond M, Lewis NT, Line MR, Lee EKH, Shivkumar H, Crossfield IJM, Nixon MC, Rackham BV, Wakeford HR, Welbanks L, Zhang X, Batalha NM, Berta-Thompson ZK, Changeat Q, Désert JM, Espinoza N, Goyal JM, Harrington J, Knutson HA, Kreidberg L, López-Morales M, Shporer A, Sing DK, Stevenson KB, Aggarwal K, Ahrer EM, Alam MK, Bell TJ, Blecic J, Caceres C, Carter AL, Casewell SL, Crouzet N, Cubillos PE, Decin L, Fortney JJ, Gibson NP, Heng K, Henning T, Iro N, Kendrew S, Lagage PO, Leconte J, Lendl M, Lothringer JD, Mancini L, Mikal-Evans T, Molaverdikhani K, Nikolov NK, Ohno K, Palle E, Piaulet C, Redfield S, Roy PA, Tsai SM, Venot O, Wheatley PJ. A broadband thermal emission spectrum of the ultra-hot Jupiter WASP-18b. Nature 2023; 620:292-298. [PMID: 37257843 PMCID: PMC10412449 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06230-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Close-in giant exoplanets with temperatures greater than 2,000 K ('ultra-hot Jupiters') have been the subject of extensive efforts to determine their atmospheric properties using thermal emission measurements from the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) and Spitzer Space Telescope1-3. However, previous studies have yielded inconsistent results because the small sizes of the spectral features and the limited information content of the data resulted in high sensitivity to the varying assumptions made in the treatment of instrument systematics and the atmospheric retrieval analysis3-12. Here we present a dayside thermal emission spectrum of the ultra-hot Jupiter WASP-18b obtained with the NIRISS13 instrument on the JWST. The data span 0.85 to 2.85 μm in wavelength at an average resolving power of 400 and exhibit minimal systematics. The spectrum shows three water emission features (at >6σ confidence) and evidence for optical opacity, possibly attributable to H-, TiO and VO (combined significance of 3.8σ). Models that fit the data require a thermal inversion, molecular dissociation as predicted by chemical equilibrium, a solar heavy-element abundance ('metallicity', [Formula: see text] times solar) and a carbon-to-oxygen (C/O) ratio less than unity. The data also yield a dayside brightness temperature map, which shows a peak in temperature near the substellar point that decreases steeply and symmetrically with longitude towards the terminators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louis-Philippe Coulombe
- Department of Physics, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada.
- Trottier Institute for Research on Exoplanets, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada.
| | - Björn Benneke
- Department of Physics, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
- Trottier Institute for Research on Exoplanets, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Ryan Challener
- Department of Astronomy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Anjali A A Piette
- Earth and Planets Laboratory, Carnegie Institution for Science, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Lindsey S Wiser
- School of Earth and Space Exploration, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | | | - Ryan J MacDonald
- Department of Astronomy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Department of Astronomy, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
- Carl Sagan Institute, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Hayley Beltz
- Department of Astronomy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Adina D Feinstein
- Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Michael Radica
- Department of Physics, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
- Trottier Institute for Research on Exoplanets, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Arjun B Savel
- Department of Astronomy, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
- Center for Computational Astrophysics, Flatiron Institute, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - Jacob L Bean
- Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Vivien Parmentier
- Université Côte d'Azur, Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur, CNRS, Laboratoire Lagrange, Nice, France
| | - Ian Wong
- NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD, USA
| | - Emily Rauscher
- Department of Astronomy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | | | - Eliza M-R Kempton
- Department of Astronomy, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
| | - Xianyu Tan
- Tsung-Dao Lee Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
- School of Physics and Astronomy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
- Atmospheric, Oceanic and Planetary Physics, Department of Physics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Mark Hammond
- Atmospheric, Oceanic and Planetary Physics, Department of Physics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Neil T Lewis
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Faculty of Environment, Science and Economy, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | - Michael R Line
- School of Earth and Space Exploration, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Elspeth K H Lee
- Center for Space and Habitability, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Hinna Shivkumar
- Anton Pannekoek Institute for Astronomy, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ian J M Crossfield
- Department of Physics & Astronomy, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
| | - Matthew C Nixon
- Department of Astronomy, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
| | - Benjamin V Rackham
- Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Kavli Institute for Astrophysics and Space Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | | | - Luis Welbanks
- School of Earth and Space Exploration, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Xi Zhang
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Natalie M Batalha
- Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Zachory K Berta-Thompson
- Department of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Quentin Changeat
- European Space Agency, Space Telescope Science Institute, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London, London, UK
| | - Jean-Michel Désert
- Anton Pannekoek Institute for Astronomy, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Jayesh M Goyal
- School of Earth and Planetary Sciences (SEPS), National Institute of Science Education and Research (NISER), Homi Bhabha National Institute (HBNI), Jatni, India
| | - Joseph Harrington
- Planetary Sciences Group, Department of Physics, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
- Florida Space Institute, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Heather A Knutson
- Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | | | | | - Avi Shporer
- Kavli Institute for Astrophysics and Space Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - David K Sing
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Department of Physics & Astronomy, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | | | - Eva-Maria Ahrer
- Centre for Exoplanets and Habitability, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
- Department of Physics, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
| | - Munazza K Alam
- Earth and Planets Laboratory, Carnegie Institution for Science, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Taylor J Bell
- Bay Area Environmental Research Institute, NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA, USA
| | - Jasmina Blecic
- Department of Physics, New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
- Center for Astro, Particle, and Planetary Physics (CAP3), New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Claudio Caceres
- Instituto de Astrofisica, Universidad Andrés Bello, Santiago, Chile
- Núcleo Milenio de Formación Planetaria (NPF), Valparaíso, Chile
- Centro de Astrofisica y Tecnologias Afines (CATA), Santiago, Chile
| | - Aarynn L Carter
- Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Sarah L Casewell
- School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Nicolas Crouzet
- Leiden Observatory, University of Leiden, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Patricio E Cubillos
- INAF - Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino, Pino Torinese, Italy
- Space Research Institute, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Graz, Austria
| | - Leen Decin
- Institute of Astronomy, Department of Physics and Astronomy, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jonathan J Fortney
- Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Neale P Gibson
- School of Physics, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Kevin Heng
- Department of Physics, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
- Universitäts-Sternwarte München, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, München, Germany
- ARTORG Center for Biomedical Engineering Research, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Nicolas Iro
- Institute of Planetary Research (PF), German Aerospace Center (DLR), Berlin, Germany
| | - Sarah Kendrew
- European Space Agency, Space Telescope Science Institute, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Pierre-Olivier Lagage
- Université Paris-Saclay, Université Paris Cité, CEA, CNRS, AIM, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Jérémy Leconte
- Laboratoire d'Astrophysique de Bordeaux, Université de Bordeaux, Pessac, France
| | - Monika Lendl
- Département d'Astronomie, Université de Genève, Sauverny, Switzerland
| | | | - Luigi Mancini
- Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Heidelberg, Germany
- INAF - Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino, Pino Torinese, Italy
- Department of Physics, University of Rome "Tor Vergata", Rome, Italy
| | | | - Karan Molaverdikhani
- Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Heidelberg, Germany
- Universitäts-Sternwarte München, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, München, Germany
- Exzellenzcluster Origins, Garching, Germany
| | | | - Kazumasa Ohno
- Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Enric Palle
- Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias (IAC), Tenerife, Spain
| | - Caroline Piaulet
- Department of Physics, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
- Trottier Institute for Research on Exoplanets, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Seth Redfield
- Astronomy Department, Van Vleck Observatory, Wesleyan University, Middletown, CT, USA
| | - Pierre-Alexis Roy
- Department of Physics, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
- Trottier Institute for Research on Exoplanets, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Shang-Min Tsai
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Olivia Venot
- Université Paris Cité and Université Paris-Est Creteil, CNRS, LISA, Paris, France
| | - Peter J Wheatley
- Centre for Exoplanets and Habitability, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
- Department of Physics, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
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