Transglutaminase 2 regulates osteoclast differentiation via a Blimp1-dependent pathway

Transglutaminase 2 Prevents Premature Senescence and Promotes Osteoblastic Differentiation of Mesenchymal Stem Cells through NRF2 Activation

Transglutaminase 2 (TG2) is a multifunctional enzyme that exhibits transamidase, GTPase, kinase, and protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) activities. Of these, transamidase-mediated modification of proteins regulates apoptosis, differentiation, inflammation, and fibrosis. TG2 is highly expressed in mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) compared with differentiated cells, suggesting a role of TG2 specific for MSC characteristics. In this study, we report a new function of TG2 in the regulation of MSC redox homeostasis. During in vitro MSC expansion, TG2 is required for cell proliferation and self-renewal by preventing premature senescence but has no effect on the expression of surface antigens and oxidative stress-induced cell death. Moreover, induction of differentiation upregulates TG2 that promotes osteoblastic differentiation. Molecular analyses revealed that TG2 mediates tert-butylhydroquinone, but not sulforaphane, -induced nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2) activation in a transamidase activity-independent manner. Differences in the mechanism of action between two NRF2 activators suggest that PDI activity of TG2 may be implicated in the stabilization of NRF2. The role of TG2 in the regulation of antioxidant response was further supported by transcriptomic analysis of MSC. These results indicate that TG2 is a critical enzyme in eliciting antioxidant response in MSC through NRF2 activation, providing a target for optimizing MSC manufacturing processes to prevent premature senescence.

Increased Osteoclastogenesis in Absence of TG2 Is Reversed by Transglutaminase Inhibition-Evidence for the Role for TG1 in Osteoclast Formation

Osteoclasts are multinucleated, bone-resorbing giant cells derived from monocyte-macrophage cell lines. Increased bone resorption results in loss of bone mass and osteoporosis. Osteoclast and bone marrow macrophages have been shown to express three TG enzymes (TG2, Factor XIII-A, and TG1) and TG activity to regulate osteoclast differentiation from bone marrow macrophages in vitro. In vivo and in vitro studies have demonstrated that the deletion of TG2 causes increased osteoclastogenesis and a significant loss of bone mass in mice (Tgm2-/- mice). Here, we confirm that TG2 deficiency results in increased osteoclastogenesis in vitro and show that this increase can be reversed by a TG inhibitor, NC9, suggesting that other TGs are responsible for driving osteoclastogenesis in the absence of TG2. An assessment of total TG activity with 5-(biotinamido)-pentylamine, as well as TG1 and FXIII-A activities using TG-specific Hitomi peptides (bK5 and bF11) in Tgm2-/- bone marrow flushes, bone marrow macrophages, and osteoclasts, showed a significant increase in total TG activity and TG1 activity. Factor XIII-A activity was unchanged. Aspartate proteases, such as cathepsins, are involved in the degradation of organic bone matrix and can be produced by osteoclasts. Moreover, Cathepsin D was shown in previous work to be increased in TG2-null cells and is known to activate TG1. We show that Pepstatin A, an aspartate protease inhibitor, blocks osteoclastogenesis in wild-type and Tgm2-/- cells and decreases TG1 activity in Tgm2-/- osteoclasts. Cathepsin D protein levels were unaltered in Tgm2-/-cells and its activity moderately but significantly increased. Tgm2-/- and Tgm2+/+ bone marrow macrophages and osteoclasts also expressed Cathepsin E, and Renin of the aspartate protease family, suggesting their potential involvement in this process. Our study brings further support to the observation that TGs are significant regulators of osteoclastogenesis and that the absence of TG2 can cause increased activity of other TGs, such as TG1.

Allosteric Activation of Transglutaminase 2 via Inducing an "Open" Conformation for Osteoblast Differentiation

Osteoblasts play an important role in the regulation of bone homeostasis throughout life. Thus, the damage of osteoblasts can lead to serious skeletal diseases, highlighting the urgent need for novel pharmacological targets. This study introduces chemical genetics strategy by using small molecule forskolin (FSK) as a probe to explore the druggable targets for osteoporosis. Here, this work reveals that transglutaminase 2 (TGM2) served as a major cellular target of FSK to obviously induce osteoblast differentiation. Then, this work identifies a previously undisclosed allosteric site in the catalytic core of TGM2. In particular, FSK formed multiple hydrogen bonds in a saddle-like domain to induce an "open" conformation of the β-sandwich domain in TGM2, thereby promoting the substrate protein crosslinks by incorporating polyamine. Furthermore, this work finds that TGM2 interacted with several mitochondrial homeostasis-associated proteins to improve mitochondrial dynamics and ATP production for osteoblast differentiation. Finally, this work observes that FSK effectively ameliorated osteoporosis in the ovariectomy mice model. Taken together, these findings show a previously undescribed pharmacological allosteric site on TGM2 for osteoporosis treatment, and also provide an available chemical tool for interrogating TGM2 biology and developing bone anabolic agent.

Strategies of Macrophages to Maintain Bone Homeostasis and Promote Bone Repair: A Narrative Review

Bone homeostasis (a healthy bone mass) is regulated by maintaining a delicate balance between bone resorption and bone formation. The regulation of physiological bone remodeling by a complex system that involves multiple cells in the skeleton is closely related to bone homeostasis. Loss of bone mass or repair of bone is always accompanied by changes in bone homeostasis. However, due to the complexity of bone homeostasis, we are currently unable to identify all the mechanisms that affect bone homeostasis. To date, bone macrophages have been considered a third cellular component in addition to osteogenic spectrum cells and osteoclasts. As confirmed by co-culture models or in vivo experiments, polarized or unpolarized macrophages interact with multiple components within the bone to ensure bone homeostasis. Different macrophage phenotypes are prone to resorption and formation of bone differently. This review comprehensively summarizes the mechanisms by which macrophages regulate bone homeostasis and concludes that macrophages can control bone homeostasis from osteoclasts, mesenchymal cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and the blood/vasculature system. The elaboration of these mechanisms in this narrative review facilitates the development of macrophage-based strategies for the treatment of bone metabolic diseases and bone defects.

Anti-Osteoclast Effect of Exportin-1 Inhibitor Eltanexor on Osteoporosis Depends on Nuclear Accumulation of IκBα–NF-κB p65 Complex

Osteoporosis affects around 200 million people globally, with menopausal women accounting for the bulk of cases. In the occurrence and development of osteoporosis, a key role is played by osteoclasts. Excessive osteoclast-mediated bone resorption activity reduces bone mass and increases bone fragility, resulting in osteoporosis. Thus, considerable demand exists for designing effective osteoporosis treatments based on targeting osteoclasts. Eltanexor (Elt; KPT-8602) is a selective nuclear-export inhibitor that covalently binds to and blocks the function of the nuclear-export protein exportin-1 (XPO1), which controls the nucleus-to-cytoplasm transfer of certain critical proteins related to growth regulation and tumor suppression, such as p53, IκBα [nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) inhibitor α] and FOXO1; among these proteins, IκBα, a critical component of the NF-κB signaling pathway that primarily governs NF-κB activation and transcription. How Elt treatment affects osteoclasts remains poorly elucidated. Elt inhibited the growth and activity of RANKL-induced osteoclasts in vitro in a dose-dependent manner, and Elt exerted no cell-killing effect within the effective inhibitory concentration. Mechanistically, Elt was found to trap IκBα in the nucleus and thus protect IκBα from proteasome degradation, which resulted in the blocking of the translocation of IκBα and NF-κB p65 and the consequent inhibition of NF-κB activity. The suppression of NF-κB activity, in turn, inhibited the activity of two transcription factors (NFATc1 and c-Fos) essential for osteoclast formation and led to the downregulation of genes and proteins related to bone resorption. Our study thus provides a newly identified mechanism for targeting in the treatment of osteoporosis.

Tereticornate A suppresses RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis via the downregulation of c-Src and TRAF6 and the inhibition of RANK signaling pathways

Excessive osteoclast differentiation and activation are closely associated with the development and progression of osteoporosis. Natural plant-derived compounds that can inhibit osteoclastogenesis are an efficient strategy for the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis. Tereticornate A (TA) is a natural terpene ester compound extracted from the leaves and branches of Eucalyptus gracilis, with antiviral, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory activities. However, the effect of TA on osteoclastogenesis and the underlying molecular mechanism remain unclear. Based on the key role of the NF-κB pathway in the regulation of osteoclastogenesis and the observation that TA exhibits an anti-inflammatory effect by inhibiting NF-κB activity, we speculated that TA could exert anti-osteoclastogenesis activity. Herein, TA could inhibit the RANKL-induced osteoclast differentiation and formation of F-actin rings in RAW 264.7 cells. Mechanistically, TA downregulated the expression of c-Src and TRAF6, and also suppressed the RANKL-stimulated canonical RANK signaling pathways, including AKT, MAPK (p38, JNK, and ERK), and NF-κB; ultimately, downregulating the expression of NFATc1 and c-Fos, the key transcriptional factors required for the expression of genes (e.g., TRAP, cathepsin K, β-Integrin, MMP-9, ATP6V0D2, and DC-STAMP) that govern osteoclastogenesis. Our findings demonstrated that TA could effectively inhibit RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis via the downregulation of c-Src and TRAF6 and the inhibition of RANK signaling pathways. Thus, TA could serve as a novel osteoclastogenesis inhibitor and might have beneficial effects on bone health.

Mechanisms of Bone Remodeling Disorder in Hemophilia

Hemophilia is caused by a lack of antihemophilic factor(s), for example, factor VIII (FVIII; hemophilia A) and factor IX (FIX; hemophilia B). Low bone mass is widely reported in epidemiological studies of hemophilia, and patients with hemophilia are at an increased risk of fracture. The detailed etiology of bone homeostasis imbalance in hemophilia is unclear. Clinical and experimental studies show that FVIII and FIX are involved in bone remodeling. However, it is likely that antihemophilic factors affect bone biology through thrombin pathways rather than via their own intrinsic properties. In addition, among patients with hemophilia, there are pathophysiological processes in several systems that might contribute to bone loss. This review summarizes studies on the association between hemophilia and bone remodeling, and might shed light on the challenges facing the care and prevention of osteoporosis and fracture in patients with hemophilia.

Osteoclast Multinucleation: Review of Current Literature

Multinucleation is a hallmark of osteoclast maturation. The unique and dynamic multinucleation process not only increases cell size but causes functional alterations through reconstruction of the cytoskeleton, creating the actin ring and ruffled border that enable bone resorption. Our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying osteoclast multinucleation has advanced considerably in this century, especially since the identification of DC-STAMP and OC-STAMP as “master fusogens”. Regarding the molecules and pathways surrounding these STAMPs, however, only limited progress has been made due to the absence of their ligands. Various molecules and mechanisms other than the STAMPs are involved in osteoclast multinucleation. In addition, several preclinical studies have explored chemicals that may be able to target osteoclast multinucleation, which could enable us to control pathogenic bone metabolism more precisely. In this review, we will focus on recent discoveries regarding the STAMPs and other molecules involved in osteoclast multinucleation.

Osteoclastogenesis in periodontal diseases: Possible mediators and mechanisms

BACKGROUND

Periodontitis is the inflammation of the tooth-supporting structures and is one of the most common diseases of the oral cavity. The outcome of periodontal infections is tooth loss due to a lack of alveolar bone support. Osteoclasts are giant, multi-nucleated, and bone-resorbing cells that are central for many osteolytic diseases, including periodontitis. Receptor activator of nuclear factor-kB ligand (RANKL) is the principal factor involved in osteoclast differentiation, activation, and survival. However, under pathological conditions, a variety of pro-inflammatory cytokines secreted by activated immune cells also contribute to osteoclast differentiation and activity. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a vital component of the outer membrane of the Gram-negative bacteria. It binds to the Toll-like receptors (TLRs) expressed in many cells and elicits an immune response.

HIGHLIGHTS

The presence of bacterial LPS in the periodontal area stimulates the secretion of RANKL as well as other inflammatory mediators, activating the process of osteoclastogenesis. RANKL, either independently or synergistically with LPS, can regulate osteoclastogenesis, while LPS alone cannot. MicroRNA, IL-22, M1/M2 macrophages, and memory B cells have recently been shown to modulate osteoclastogenesis in periodontal diseases.

CONCLUSION

In this review, we summarize the mechanism of osteoclastogenesis accompanying periodontal diseases at the cellular level. We discuss a) the effects of LPS/TLR signaling and other cytokines on RANKL-dependent and -independent mechanisms involved in osteoclastogenesis; b) the recently identified role of several endogenous factors such as miRNA, IL-22, M1/M2 macrophages, and memory B cells in regulating osteoclastogenesis during periodontal pathogenesis.

C-phycocyanin attenuates RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption in vitro through inhibiting ROS levels, NFATc1 and NF-κB activation

Excessive bone loss occurs in inflammatory disorders such as periodontitis and osteoporosis. The underlying mechanism is related to the differentiation of macrophages into multinucleated giant osteoclasts and their bone resorptive activity. C-Phycocyanin (C-PC) is a phycobiliprotein extracted from the blue-green algae, which has been shown to have various pharmacological effects. The role of C-PC on bone metabolism needs revelation. In this study, we determined the effectiveness of C-PC as an inhibitor of osteoclast differentiation, activity, and survival in vitro. We found that C-PC strongly inhibited the differentiation of macrophages to TRAP-positive osteoclasts, distinctive osteoclast specific podosomal organization, and dentine matrix resorption without any cytotoxicity. Also, it suppressed the expression of osteoclast specific markers, such as cathepsin K and integrin β3 at mRNA and protein levels. RANKL mediated signaling utilizes reactive oxygen species (ROS) for the differentiation of osteoclasts. C-PC attenuated RANKL stimulated ROS. Mechanistic studies indicate that C-PC has the potential to reduce osteoclast formation via blocking the degradation of cytosolic IκB-α and hence, the activation of downstream markers such as c-Fos and NFATc1. However, it does not have any effect on osteoblast-mediated bone formation in vitro. Collectively, our data suggest that C-PC may be utilized as a therapeutic agent that can target bone loss mediated by excessive osteoclastic bone resorption without affecting osteoblastic activity in bone.

Functionalization of titanium substrate with multifunctional peptide OGP-NAC for the regulation of osteoimmunology

The immune response to an orthopedic implant is closely related to the nearby bone metabolism balance. To modify titanium (Ti) substrates and accordingly regulate the balance between osteoclast activation and osteoblast differentiation, a multifunctional peptide OGP-NAC was synthesized via conjugating an osteogenic growth peptide (OGP) with N-acetylcysteine (NAC). Then, the synthesized peptide was employed to functionalize Ti substrates and the response of both osteoblasts and osteoclasts was investigated in vitro. The results showed that OGP-NAC was successfully prepared and immobilized onto Ti substrate surfaces. Thereafter, studies on introducing RAW 264.7 cells (one kind of monocyte macrophage responsible for immune responses) to osteoclasts demonstrated that the peptide modified Ti surface could inhibit RAW 264.7 cells from secreting important inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-1β), and suppress the activation of MAPK, NF-κB and NFAT c1, which are important transcription factors for osteoclastogenesis. Meanwhile, the modified surface promoted osteoblast spreading, proliferation and differentiation. The study offers a feasible strategy to mediate the balance between osteoclast activation and osteoblast differentiation, having great potential for improving osseointegration of an orthopedic implant.

Transglutaminases in Monocytes and Macrophages

Macrophages are key players in various inflammatory disorders and pathological conditions via phagocytosis and orchestrating immune responses. They are highly heterogeneous in terms of their phenotypes and functions by adaptation to different organs and tissue environments. Upon damage or infection, monocytes are rapidly recruited to tissues and differentiate into macrophages. Transglutaminases (TGs) are a family of structurally and functionally related enzymes with Ca²⁺-dependent transamidation and deamidation activity. Numerous studies have shown that TGs, particularly TG2 and Factor XIII-A, are extensively involved in monocyte- and macrophage-mediated physiological and pathological processes. In the present review, we outline the current knowledge of the role of TGs in the adhesion and extravasation of monocytes, the expression of TGs during macrophage differentiation, and the regulation of TG2 expression by various pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators in macrophages. Furthermore, we summarize the role of TGs in macrophage phagocytosis and the understanding of the mechanisms involved. Finally, we review the roles of TGs in tissue-specific macrophages, including monocytes/macrophages in vasculature, alveolar and interstitial macrophages in lung, microglia and infiltrated monocytes/macrophages in central nervous system, and osteoclasts in bone. Based on the studies in this review, we conclude that monocyte- and macrophage-derived TGs are involved in inflammatory processes in these organs. However, more in vivo studies and clinical studies during different stages of these processes are required to determine the accurate roles of TGs, their substrates, and the mechanisms-of-action.

Cysteinyl leukotriene receptor 1 (cysLT1R) regulates osteoclast differentiation and bone resorption

Excessive bone resorption induced by abnormal osteoclast differentiation has been associated with bone microstructure damage and bone-associated disorders, including osteoporosis. Here, we investigated the physiological roles of the type 1 cysteinyl leukotriene receptor (cysLTR-1) and the pharmacological functions of the specific cysLTR-1 antagonist montelukast on M-CSF- and RANKL-induced osteoclast differentiation. We showed that cysLTR-1 but not cysLTR-2 is expressed in osteoclast precursor cells: mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMMs). We also found that treatment with M-CSF and RANKL significantly increased expression of cysLTR-1. Overexpression of cysLTR-1 promoted osteoclast differentiation of BMMs by increasing NFATc1 and TRAP. In contrast, treatment with montelukast prevented M-CSF- and RANKL-induced osteoclast differentiation of BMMs. Mechanically, our findings demonstrate that montelukast treatment attenuated activation of the ERK1/2, p38, JNK and NF-κB signalling pathways. Additionally, we reported that montelukast treatment ameliorated the generation of ROS and calcium signalling. Importantly, the co-immunoprecipitation assay displayed that montelukast treatment prevented the interaction of RANK and TRAF6. Finally, in vivo experiments indicated that montelukast rescued the reduction of bone volume as well as trabecular number in an ovariectomy mouse model.

Ameloblastin attenuates RANKL-mediated osteoclastogenesis by suppressing activation of nuclear factor of activated T-cell cytoplasmic 1 (NFATc1)

Ameloblastin (Ambn) is an extracellular matrix protein and member of the family of enamel-related gene products. Like amelogenin, Ambn is mainly associated with tooth development, especially biomineralization of enamel. Previous studies have shown reductions in the skeletal dimensions of Ambn-deficient mice, suggesting that the protein also has effects on the differentiation of osteoblasts and/or osteoclasts. However, the specific pathways used by Ambn to influence osteoclast differentiation have yet to be identified. In the present study, two cellular models, one based on bone marrow cells and another on RAW264.7 cells, were used to examine the effects of Ambn on receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand (RANKL)-induced osteoclastogenesis. The results showed that Ambn suppresses osteoclast differentiation, cytoskeletal organization, and osteoclast function by the downregulation of the number of tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP)-positive multinucleated osteoclasts, actin ring formation, and areas of pit resorption. The expression of the osteoclast-specific genes TRAP, MMP9, cathepsin K, and osteoclast stimulatory transmembrane protein (OC-STAMP) was abolished in the presence of Ambn, while that of nuclear factor of activated T cells cytoplasmic 1 (NFATc1), the master regulatory factor of osteoclastogenesis, was also attenuated by the downregulation of c-Fos expression. In Ambn-induced RAW264.7 cells, phosphorylation of cAMP-response element-binding protein (CREB), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK), but not extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2), was reduced. Calcium oscillation was also decreased in the presence of Ambn, suggesting its involvement in both RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis and costimulatory signaling. B-lymphocyte-induced maturation protein-1 (Blimp1), a transcriptional repressor of negative regulators of osteoclastogenesis, was also downregulated by Ambn, resulting in the elevated expression of v-maf musculoaponeurotic fibrosarcoma oncogene family, protein B (MafB), B-cell lymphoma 6 (Bcl6), and interferon regulatory factor-8 (Irf8). Taken together, these findings suggest that Ambn suppresses RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis by modulating the NFATc1 axis.

Targeting transglutaminase 2 partially restores extracellular matrix structure but not alveolar architecture in experimental bronchopulmonary dysplasia

The generation, maturation and remodelling of the extracellular matrix (ECM) are essential for the formation of alveoli during lung development. Alveoli formation is disturbed in preterm infants that develop bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), where collagen fibres are malformed, and perturbations to lung ECM structures may underlie BPD pathogenesis. Malformed ECM structures might result from abnormal protein cross-linking, in part attributable to the increased expression and activity of transglutaminase 2 (TGM2) that have been noted in affected patient lungs, as well as in hyperoxia-based BPD animal models. The objective of the present study was to assess whether TGM2 plays a causal role in normal and aberrant lung alveolarization. Targeted deletion of Tgm2 in C57BL/6J mice increased septal thickness and reduced gas-exchange surface area in otherwise normally developing lungs. During aberrant lung alveolarization that occurred under hyperoxic conditions, collagen structures in Tgm2^-/- mice were partially protected from the impact of hyperoxia, where normal dihydroxylysinonorleucine and hydroxylysylpiridinoline collagen cross-link abundance was restored; however, the lung alveolar architecture remained abnormal. Inhibition of transglutaminases (including TGM2) with cysteamine appreciably reduced transglutaminase activity in vivo, as assessed by N^ε -(γ-l-glutamyl)-l-lysine abundance and TGM catalytic activity, and restored normal dihydroxylysinonorleucine and hydroxylysylpiridinoline collagen cross-link abundance under pathological conditions. Furthermore, a moderate improvement in alveoli size and gas-exchange surface density was noted in cysteamine-treated mouse lungs in which BPD was modelled. These data indicate that TGM2 plays a role in normal lung alveolarization, and contributes to the formation of aberrant ECM structures during disordered lung alveolarization.

Transglutaminase activity regulates differentiation, migration and fusion of osteoclasts via affecting actin dynamics

Osteoclasts, bone resorbing cells, derive from monocyte/macrophage cell lineage. Increased osteoclast activity is responsible for bone destruction in diseases such as osteoporosis, periodontitis and rheumatoid arthritis. Transglutaminases (TGs), protein crosslinking enzymes, were recently found involved in osteoclastogenesis in vivo, however their mechanisms of action have remained unknown. In this study, we have investigated the role of TG activity in osteoclastogenesis in vitro using four TG inhibitors, NC9, Z006, T101, and monodansyl cadaverine. Our results showed that all TG inhibitors were capable of blocking the entire osteoclastogenesis process. The most potent of the inhibitors, NC9 when added to cultures at different phases of osteoclastogenesis, inhibited differentiation, migration, and fusion of pre-osteoclasts as well as resorption activity of mature osteoclasts. Further investigation into the mechanisms revealed that NC9 increased RhoA levels and blocked podosome belt formation suggesting that TG activity regulates actin dynamics in pre-osteoclasts. The inhibitory effect of NC9 on osteoclastogenesis as well as podosome belt formation was completely reversed with a Rho-family inhibitor Exoenzyme C3. Microtubule architecture, acetylation, and detyrosination of α-tubulin were not affected. Finally, we demonstrated that macrophages and osteoclasts expressed mRNA of three TGs:TG1, TG2, and Factor XIII-A which were all differentially regulated in these cells during differentiation. Immunofluoresence microscopic analysis showed that all three enzymes co-localized to podosomes in osteoclasts. Taken together, our data suggests that TG activity regulates differentiation, migration and fusion of osteoclasts via affecting actin dynamics and that this may involve contribution from all three TG enzymes.