Comparative venom-gland transcriptomics and venom proteomics of four Sidewinder Rattlesnake (Crotalus cerastes) lineages reveal little differential expression despite individual variation

Diverse Gene Regulatory Mechanisms Alter Rattlesnake Venom Gene Expression at Fine Evolutionary Scales

Understanding and predicting the relationships between genotype and phenotype is often challenging, largely due to the complex nature of eukaryotic gene regulation. A step towards this goal is to map how phenotypic diversity evolves through genomic changes that modify gene regulatory interactions. Using the Prairie Rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis) and related species, we integrate mRNA-seq, proteomic, ATAC-seq and whole-genome resequencing data to understand how specific evolutionary modifications to gene regulatory network components produce differences in venom gene expression. Through comparisons within and between species, we find a remarkably high degree of gene expression and regulatory network variation across even a shallow level of evolutionary divergence. We use these data to test hypotheses about the roles of specific trans-factors and cis-regulatory elements, how these roles may vary across venom genes and gene families, and how variation in regulatory systems drive diversity in venom phenotypes. Our results illustrate that differences in chromatin and genotype at regulatory elements play major roles in modulating expression. However, we also find that enhancer deletions, differences in transcription factor expression, and variation in activity of the insulator protein CTCF also likely impact venom phenotypes. Our findings provide insight into the diversity and gene-specificity of gene regulatory features and highlight the value of comparative studies to link gene regulatory network variation to phenotypic variation.

Highly conserved and extremely variable: The paradoxical pattern of toxin expression revealed by comparative venom-gland transcriptomics of Phalotris (Serpentes: Dipsadidae)

Although non-front fanged snakes account for almost two-thirds of snake diversity, most studies on venom composition and evolution focus exclusively on front-fanged species, which comprise most of the clinically relevant accidents. Comprehensive reports on venom composition of non-front fanged snakes are still scarce for several groups. In this study, we address such shortage of knowledge by providing new insights about the venom composition among species of Phalotris, a poorly studied Neotropical dipsadid genus. Phalotris are known for their specialized venom delivery system and toxic venoms, which can cause life-threatening accidents in humans. We evaluate the venom-gland transcriptome of Phalotris, comparing the following three South American species: P. reticulatus for the Araucaria Pine forests, P. lemniscatus for the Pampa grasslands, and P. mertensi for the Brazilian Cerrado. Our results indicate similar venom profiles, in which they share a high expression level of Kunitz-type inhibitors (KUNZ). On the other hand, comparative analyses revealed substantial differences in the expression levels of C-type lectins (CTL) and snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMP). The diverse set of SVMP and CTL isoforms shows signals of positive selection, and we also identified truncated forms of type III SVMPs, which resemble type II and type I SVMPs of viperids. Additionally, we identified a CNP precursor hosting a proline-rich region containing a BPP motif resembling those commonly detected in viperid venoms with hypotensive activity. Altogether, our results suggest an evolutionary history favoring high expression levels of few KUNZ isoforms in Phalotris venoms, contrasting with a highly diverse set of SVMP and CTL isoforms. Such diversity can be comparable with the venom variability observed in some viperids. Our findings highlight the extreme phenotypic diversity of non-front fanged snakes and the importance to allocate greater effort to study neglected groups of Colubroidea.

Anticancer potency of Egyptian venom snakes on MCF-7 and HepG2 carcinoma cells

Breast and hepatic cancers are the leading incidences in the globe occurring of the human sufferings from various cancers. Snake venoms have been reported to provide effective therapeutic agents. The current study investigates the anticancer potency of Egyptian venoms snakes on two cells: breast cancer cells (MCF-7) and hepato-cancer cells (HepG2) (In vitro assay). The examined venoms were more potent on MCF-7 than HepG2 cells. Their inhibition % on MCF-7 ranged from 71.47 to 99.02% with medium inhibition concentrations (IC50s): 3.48, 3.60, 3.70, 4.33, and 4.49 μg/ml for venoms: Echis pyramid (E.H), Cerastes vipera (C.V), Naja haje (N.H), Echis coloratus (E.C), and Cerastes cerastes (C.C), respectively. The values of IC50s on HepG2 were 4.32, 17.77, 59.72, 63.75, and 217.90 μg/ml for toxins: E.C, E.P, C.V, C.C, and N.H, respectively. Some biomarkers were conducted to investigate the apoptotic effects of toxins into the cells. Increasing profiles of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity and levels of glutathione content (GSH) and malodialdhyde (MDA) as well as repairment of DNA indicated such these actions. So, more reliable investigations on these venoms were needed to provide intelligent therapeutic agent for cancer treatment.

Venom Composition of Neglected Bothropoid Snakes from the Amazon Rainforest: Ecological and Toxinological Implications

Snake venoms have evolved in several families of Caenophidae, and their toxins have been assumed to be biochemical weapons with a role as a trophic adaptation. However, it remains unclear how venom contributes to the success of venomous species for adaptation to different environments. Here we compared the venoms from Bothrocophias hyoprora, Bothrops taeniatus, Bothrops bilineatus smaragdinus, Bothrops brazili, and Bothrops atrox collected in the Amazon Rainforest, aiming to understand the ecological and toxinological consequences of venom composition. Transcriptomic and proteomic analyses indicated that the venoms presented the same toxin groups characteristic from bothropoids, but with distinct isoforms with variable qualitative and quantitative abundances, contributing to distinct enzymatic and toxic effects. Despite the particularities of each venom, commercial Bothrops antivenom recognized the venom components and neutralized the lethality of all species. No clear features could be observed between venoms from arboreal and terrestrial habitats, nor in the dispersion of the species throughout the Amazon habitats, supporting the notion that venom composition may not shape the ecological or toxinological characteristics of these snake species and that other factors influence their foraging or dispersal in different ecological niches.

A Review of Rattlesnake Venoms

Venom components are invaluable in biomedical research owing to their specificity and potency. Many of these components exist in two genera of rattlesnakes, Crotalus and Sistrurus, with high toxicity and proteolytic activity variation. This review focuses on venom components within rattlesnakes, and offers a comparison and itemized list of factors dictating venom composition, as well as presenting their known characteristics, activities, and significant applications in biosciences. There are 64 families and subfamilies of proteins present in Crotalus and Sistrurus venom. Snake venom serine proteases (SVSP), snake venom metalloproteases (SVMP), and phospholipases A2 (PLA2) are the standard components in Crotalus and Sistrurus venom. Through this review, we highlight gaps in the knowledge of rattlesnake venom; there needs to be more information on the venom composition of three Crotalus species and one Sistrurus subspecies. We discuss the activity and importance of both major and minor components in biomedical research and drug development.

Comparing morphological and secretory aspects of cephalic glands among the New World coral snakes brings novel insights on their biological roles

Oral and other cephalic glands have been surveyed by several studies with distinct purposes. Despite the wide diversity and medical relevance of the New World coral snakes, studies focusing on understanding the biological roles of the glands within this group are still scarce. Specifically, the venom glands of some coral snakes were previously investigated but all other cephalic glands remain uncharacterized. In this sense, performing morphological and molecular analysis of these glands may help better understand their biological role. Here, we studied the morphology of the venom, infralabial, rictal, and harderian glands of thirteen species of Micrurus and Micruroides euryxanthus. We also performed a molecular characterization of these glands from selected species of Micrurus using transcriptomic and proteomic approaches. We described substantial morphological variation in the cephalic glands of New World coral snakes and structural evidence for protein-secreting cells in the inferior rictal glands. Our molecular analysis revealed that the venom glands, as expected, are majorly devoted to toxin production, however, the infralabial and inferior rictal glands also expressed some toxin genes at low to medium levels, despite the marked morphological differences. On the other hand, the harderian glands were dominated by the expression of lipocalins, but do not produce toxins. Our integrative analysis, including the prediction of biological processes and pathways, helped decipher some important traits of cephalic glands and better understand their biology.

De Novo Assembly of Venom Gland Transcriptome of Tropidolaemus wagleri (Temple Pit Viper, Malaysia) and Insights into the Origin of Its Major Toxin, Waglerin

The venom proteome of Temple Pit Viper (Tropidolaemus wagleri) is unique among pit vipers, characterized by a high abundance of a neurotoxic peptide, waglerin. To further explore the genetic diversity of its toxins, the present study de novo assembled the venom gland transcriptome of T. wagleri from west Malaysia. Among the 15 toxin gene families discovered, gene annotation and expression analysis reveal the dominating trend of bradykinin-potentiating peptide/angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor-C-type natriuretic peptide (BPP/ACEI-CNP, 76.19% of all-toxin transcription) in the transcriptome, followed by P-III snake venom metalloproteases (13.91%) and other toxins. The transcript TwBNP01 of BPP/ACEI-CNP represents a large precursor gene (209 amino acid residues) containing the coding region for waglerin (24 residues). TwBNP01 shows substantial sequence variations from the corresponding genes of its sister species, Tropidolaemus subannulatus of northern Philippines, and other viperid species which diversely code for proline-rich small peptides such as bradykinin-potentiating peptides (BPPs). The waglerin/waglerin-like peptides, BPPs and azemiopsin are proline-rich, evolving de novo from multiple highly diverged propeptide regions within the orthologous BPP/ACEI-CNP genes. Neofunctionalization of the peptides results in phylogenetic constraints consistent with a phenotypic dichotomy, where Tropidolaemus spp. and Azemiops feae convergently evolve a neurotoxic trait while vasoactive BPPs evolve only in other species.

Sequence Divergence in Venom Genes Within and Between Montane Pitviper (Viperidae: Crotalinae: Cerrophidion) Species is Driven by Mutation-Drift Equilibrium

Snake venom can vary both among and within species. While some groups of New World pitvipers-such as rattlesnakes-have been well studied, very little is known about the venom of montane pitvipers (Cerrophidion) found across the Mesoamerican highlands. Compared to most well-studied rattlesnakes, which are widely distributed, the isolated montane populations of Cerrophidion may facilitate unique evolutionary trajectories and venom differentiation. Here, we describe the venom gland transcriptomes for populations of C. petlalcalensis, C. tzotzilorum, and C. godmani from Mexico, and a single individual of C. sasai from Costa Rica. We explore gene expression variation in Cerrophidion and sequence evolution of toxins within C. godmani specifically. Cerrophidion venom gland transcriptomes are composed primarily of snake venom metalloproteinases, phospholipase A[Formula: see text]s (PLA[Formula: see text]s), and snake venom serine proteases. Cerrophidion petlalcalensis shows little intraspecific variation; however, C. godmani and C. tzotzilorum differ significantly between geographically isolated populations. Interestingly, intraspecific variation was mostly attributed to expression variation as we did not detect signals of selection within C. godmani toxins. Additionally, we found PLA[Formula: see text]-like myotoxins in all species except C. petlalcalensis, and crotoxin-like PLA[Formula: see text]s in the southern population of C. godmani. Our results demonstrate significant intraspecific venom variation within C. godmani and C. tzotzilorum. The toxins of C. godmani show little evidence of directional selection where variation in toxin sequence is consistent with evolution under a model of mutation-drift equilibrium. Cerrophidion godmani individuals from the southern population may exhibit neurotoxic venom activity given the presence of crotoxin-like PLA[Formula: see text]s; however, further research is required to confirm this hypothesis.

The Venom Composition of the Snake Tribe Philodryadini: 'Omic' Techniques Reveal Intergeneric Variability among South American Racers

Snakes of the Philodryadini tribe are included in the Dipsadidae family, which is a diverse group of rear-fanged snakes widespread in different ecological conditions, including habitats and diet. However, little is known about the composition and effects of their venoms despite their relevance for understanding the evolution of these snakes or even their impact on the occasional cases of human envenoming. In this study, we integrated venom gland transcriptomics, venom proteomics and functional assays to characterize the venoms from eight species of the Philodryadini tribe, which includes the genus Philodryas, Chlorosoma and Xenoxybelis. The most abundant components identified in the venoms were snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs), cysteine-rich secretory proteins (CRISPs), C-type lectins (CTLs), snake endogenous matrix metalloproteinases type 9 (seMMP-9) and snake venom serinoproteinases (SVSPs). These protein families showed a variable expression profile in each genus. SVMPs were the most abundant components in Philodryas, while seMMP-9 and CRISPs were the most expressed in Chlorosoma and Xenoxybelis, respectively. Lineage-specific differences in venom composition were also observed among Philodryas species, whereas P. olfersii presented the highest amount of SVSPs and P. agassizii was the only species to express significant amounts of 3FTx. The variability observed in venom composition was confirmed by the venom functional assays. Philodryas species presented the highest SVMP activity, whereas Chlorosoma species showed higher levels of gelatin activity, which may correlate to the seMMP-9 enzymes. The variability observed in the composition of these venoms may be related to the tribe phylogeny and influenced by their diets. In the presented study, we expanded the set of venomics studies of the Philodryadini tribe, which paves new roads for further studies on the evolution and ecology of Dipsadidae snakes.

Venom phenotype conservation suggests integrated specialization in a lizard-eating snake

Biological specialization reduces the size of niche space while increasing efficiency in the use of available resources. Specialization often leads to phenotypic changes via natural selection aligning with niche space constraints. Commonly observed changes are in size, shape, behavior, and traits associated with feeding. One often selected trait for dietary specialization is venom, which, in snakes, often shows variation dependent on diet across and within species. The Neotropical Blunt-headed Treesnake (Imantodes cenchoa) is a highly specialized, rear-fanged, arboreal, lizard hunter that displays a long thin body, enlarged eyes, and a large Duvernoy's gland. However, toxin characterization of I. cenchoa has never been completed. Here, we use RNA-seq and mass spectrometry to assemble, annotate, and analyze the venom gland transcriptomes of four I. cenchoa from across their range. We find a lack of significant venom variation at the sequence and expression levels, suggesting venom conservation across the species. We propose this conservation provides evidence of a specialized venom repertoire, adapted to maximize efficiency of capturing and processing lizards. Importantly, this study provides the most complete venom gland transcriptomes of I. cenchoa and evidence of venom specialization in a rear-fanged snake, giving insight into selective pressures of venom across all snake species.

One Size Fits All-Venomics of the Iberian Adder (Vipera seoanei, Lataste 1878) Reveals Low Levels of Venom Variation across Its Distributional Range

European vipers (genus Vipera) are medically important snakes displaying considerable venom variation, occurring at different levels in this group. The presence of intraspecific venom variation, however, remains understudied in several Vipera species. Vipera seoanei is a venomous snake endemic to the northern Iberian Peninsula and south-western France, presenting notable phenotypic variation and inhabiting several diverse habitats across its range. We analysed the venoms of 49 adult specimens of V. seoanei from 20 localities across the species' Iberian distribution. We used a pool of all individual venoms to generate a V. seoanei venom reference proteome, produced SDS-PAGE profiles of all venom samples, and visualised patterns of variation using NMDS. By applying linear regression, we then assessed presence and nature of venom variation between localities, and investigated the effect of 14 predictors (biological, eco-geographic, genetic) on its occurrence. The venom comprised at least 12 different toxin families, of which five (i.e., PLA2, svSP, DI, snaclec, svMP) accounted for about 75% of the whole proteome. The comparative analyses of the SDS-PAGE venom profiles showed them to be remarkably similar across the sampled localities, suggesting low geographic variability. The regression analyses suggested significant effects of biological and habitat predictors on the little variation we detected across the analysed V. seoanei venoms. Other factors were also significantly associated with the presence/absence of individual bands in the SDS-PAGE profiles. The low levels of venom variability we detected within V. seoanei might be the result of a recent population expansion, or of processes other than directional positive selection.

Origins, genomic structure and copy number variation of snake venom myotoxins

Crotamine, myotoxin a and homologs are short peptides that often comprise major fractions of rattlesnake venoms and have been extensively studied for their bioactive properties. These toxins are thought to be important for rapidly immobilizing mammalian prey and are implicated in serious, and sometimes fatal, responses to envenomation in humans. While high quality reference genomes for multiple venomous snakes are available, the loci that encode myotoxins have not been successfully assembled in any existing genome assembly. Here, we integrate new and existing genomic and transcriptomic data from the Prairie Rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis viridis) to reconstruct, characterize, and infer the chromosomal locations of myotoxin-encoding loci. We integrate long-read transcriptomics (Pacific Bioscience's Iso-Seq) and short-read RNA-seq to infer gene sequence diversity and characterize patterns of myotoxin and paralogous β-defensin expression across multiple tissues. We also identify two long non-coding RNA sequences which both encode functional myotoxins, demonstrating a newly discovered source of venom coding sequence diversity. We also integrate long-range mate-pair chromatin contact data and linked-read sequencing to infer the structure and chromosomal locations of the three myotoxin-like loci. Further, we conclude that the venom-associated myotoxin is located on chromosome 1 and is adjacent to non-venom paralogs. Consistent with this locus contributing to venom composition, we find evidence that the promoter of this gene is selectively open in venom gland tissue and contains transcription factor binding sites implicated in broad trans-regulatory pathways that regulate snake venoms. This study provides the best genomic reconstruction of myotoxin loci to date and raises questions about the physiological roles and interplay between myotoxin and related genes, as well as the genomic origins of snake venom variation.

Venom gene sequence diversity and expression jointly shape diet adaptation in pitvipers

Understanding the joint roles of protein sequence variation and differential expression during adaptive evolution is a fundamental, yet largely unrealized goal of evolutionary biology. Here, we use phylogenetic path analysis to analyze a comprehensive venom-gland transcriptome dataset spanning three genera of pitvipers to identify the functional genetic basis of a key adaptation (venom complexity) linked to diet breadth (DB). The analysis of gene-family-specific patterns reveals that, for genes encoding two of the most important venom proteins (snake venom metalloproteases and snake venom serine proteases), there are direct, positive relationships between sequence diversity (SD), expression diversity (ED), and increased DB. Further analysis of gene-family diversification for these proteins showed no constraint on how individual lineages achieved toxin gene SD in terms of the patterns of paralog diversification. In contrast, another major venom protein family (PLA₂s) showed no relationship between venom molecular diversity and DB. Additional analyses suggest that other molecular mechanisms—such as higher absolute levels of expression—are responsible for diet adaptation involving these venom proteins. Broadly, our findings argue that functional diversity generated through sequence and expression variations jointly determine adaptation in the key components of pitviper venoms, which mediate complex molecular interactions between the snakes and their prey.

The rise of genomics in snake venom research: recent advances and future perspectives

Snake venoms represent a danger to human health, but also a gold mine of bioactive proteins that can be harnessed for drug discovery purposes. The evolution of snakes and their venom has been studied for decades, particularly via traditional morphological and basic genetic methods alongside venom proteomics. However, while the field of genomics has matured rapidly over the past 2 decades, owing to the development of next-generation sequencing technologies, snake genomics remains in its infancy. Here, we provide an overview of the state of the art in snake genomics and discuss its potential implications for studying venom evolution and toxinology. On the basis of current knowledge, gene duplication and positive selection are key mechanisms in the neofunctionalization of snake venom proteins. This makes snake venoms important evolutionary drivers that explain the remarkable venom diversification and adaptive variation observed in these reptiles. Gene duplication and neofunctionalization have also generated a large number of repeat sequences in snake genomes that pose a significant challenge to DNA sequencing, resulting in the need for substantial computational resources and longer sequencing read length for high-quality genome assembly. Fortunately, owing to constantly improving sequencing technologies and computational tools, we are now able to explore the molecular mechanisms of snake venom evolution in unprecedented detail. Such novel insights have the potential to affect the design and development of antivenoms and possibly other drugs, as well as provide new fundamental knowledge on snake biology and evolution.

The Enzymatic Core of Scorpion Venoms

Enzymes are an integral part of animal venoms. Unlike snakes, in which enzymes play a primary role in envenomation, in scorpions, their function appears to be ancillary in most species. Due to this, studies on the diversity of scorpion venom components have focused primarily on the peptides responsible for envenomation (toxins) and a few others (e.g., antimicrobials), while enzymes have been overlooked. In this work, a comprehensive study on enzyme diversity in scorpion venoms was performed by transcriptomic and proteomic techniques. Enzymes of 63 different EC types were found, belonging to 330 orthogroups. Of them, 24 ECs conform the scorpion venom enzymatic core, since they were determined to be present in all the studied scorpion species. Transferases and lyases are reported for the first time. Novel enzymes, which can play different roles in the venom, including direct toxicity, as venom spreading factors, activators of venom components, venom preservatives, or in prey pre-digestion, were described and annotated. The expression profile for transcripts coding for venom enzymes was analyzed, and shown to be similar among the studied species, while being significantly different from their expression pattern outside the telson.

Differences in PLA2 Constitution Distinguish the Venom of Two Endemic Brazilian Mountain Lanceheads, Bothrops cotiara and Bothrops fonsecai

Interspecific differences in snake venom compositions can result from distinct regulatory mechanisms acting in each species. However, comparative analyses focusing on identifying regulatory elements and patterns that led to distinct venom composition are still scarce. Among venomous snakes, Bothrops cotiara and Bothrops fonsecai represent ideal models to complement our understanding of the regulatory mechanisms of venom production. These recently diverged species share a similar specialized diet, habitat, and natural history, but each presents a distinct venom phenotype. Here, we integrated data from the venom gland transcriptome and miRNome and the venom proteome of B. fonsecai and B. cotiara to better understand the regulatory mechanisms that may be acting to produce differing venom compositions. We detected not only the presence of similar toxin isoforms in both species but also distinct expression profiles of phospholipases A2 (PLA2) and some snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs) and snake venom serine proteinases (SVSPs) isoforms. We found evidence of modular expression regulation of several toxin isoforms implicated in venom divergence and observed correlated expression of several transcription factors. We did not find strong evidence for miRNAs shaping interspecific divergence of the venom phenotypes, but we identified a subset of toxin isoforms whose final expression may be fine-tuned by specific miRNAs. Sequence analysis on orthologous toxins showed a high rate of substitutions between PLA2s, which indicates that these toxins may be under strong positive selection or represent paralogous toxins in these species. Our results support other recent studies in suggesting that gene regulation is a principal mode of venom evolution across recent timescales, especially among species with conserved ecotypes.

An integrative view of the toxic potential of Conophis lineatus (Dipsadidae: Xenodontinae), a medically relevant rear-fanged snake

Most traditional research on snake venoms has focused on front-fanged snake families (Viperidae, Elapidae, and Atractaspididae). However, venom is now generally accepted as being a much more broadly possessed trait within snakes, including species traditionally considered harmless. Unfortunately, due to historical inertia and methodological challenges, the toxin repertoires of non-front-fanged snake families (e.g., Colubridae, Dipsadidae, and Natricidae) have been heavily neglected despite the knowledge of numerous species capable of inflicting medically relevant envenomations. Integrating proteomic data for validation, we perform a de novo assembly and analysis of the Duvernoy's venom gland transcriptome of the Central American Road Guarder (Dipsadidae: Xenodontinae: Conophis lineatus), a species known for its potent bite. We identified 28 putative toxin transcripts from 13 toxin families in the Duvernoy's venom gland transcriptome, comprising 63.7% of total transcriptome expression. In addition to ubiquitous snake toxin families, we proteomically confirmed several atypical venom components. The most highly expressed toxins (55.6% of total toxin expression) were recently described snake venom matrix metalloproteases (svMMPs), with 48.0% of svMMP expression contributable to a novel svMMP isoform. We investigate the evolution of the new svMMP isoform in the context of rear-fanged snakes using phylogenetics. Finally, we examine the morphology of the venom apparatus using μCT and explore how the venom relates to autecology and the highly hemorrhagic effects seen in human envenomations. Importantly, we provide the most complete venom characterization of this medically relevant snake species to date, producing insights into the effects and evolution of its venom, and point to future research directions to better understand the venoms of 'harmless' non-front-fanged snakes.

Intraspecific venom variation of Mexican West Coast Rattlesnakes (Crotalus basiliscus) and its implications for antivenom production

Intraspecific variation in snake venoms has been widely documented worldwide. However, there are few studies on this subject in Mexico. Venom characterization studies provide important data used to predict clinical syndromes, to evaluate the efficacy of antivenoms and, in some cases, to improve immunogenic mixtures in the production of antivenoms. In the present work, we evaluated the intraspecific venom variation of Crotalus basiliscus, a rattlesnake of medical importance and whose venom is used in the immunization of horses to produce one of the Mexican antivenoms. Our results demonstrate that there is variation in biological and biochemical activities among adult venoms and that there is an ontogenetic change from juvenile to adult venoms. Juvenile venoms were more lethal and had higher percentages of crotamine and crotoxin, while adult venoms had higher percentages of snake venom metalloproteases (SVMPs). Additionally, we documented crotoxin-like PLA₂ variation in which specimens from Zacatecas, Sinaloa and Michoacán (except 1) lacked the neurotoxin, while the rest of the venoms had it. Finally, we evaluated the efficacy of three lots of Birmex antivenom and all three were able to neutralize the lethality of four representative venoms but were not able to neutralize crotamine. We also observed significant differences in the LD₅₀ values neutralized per vial among the different lots. Based on these results, we recommend including venoms containing crotamine in the production of antivenom for a better immunogenic mixture and to improve the homogeneity of lots.

A Combined Transcriptomics and Proteomics Approach Reveals the Differences in the Predatory and Defensive Venoms of the Molluscivorous Cone Snail Cylinder ammiralis (Caenogastropoda: Conidae)

Venoms are complex mixtures of proteins that have evolved repeatedly in the animal kingdom. Cone snail venoms represent one of the best studied venom systems. In nature, this venom can be dynamically adjusted depending on its final purpose, whether to deter predators or hunt prey. Here, the transcriptome of the venom gland and the proteomes of the predation-evoked and defensive venoms of the molluscivorous cone snail Cylinder ammiralis were catalogued. A total of 242 venom-related transcripts were annotated. The conotoxin superfamilies presenting more different peptides were O1, O2, T, and M, which also showed high expression levels (except T). The three precursors of the J superfamily were also highly expressed. The predation-evoked and defensive venoms showed a markedly distinct profile. A total of 217 different peptides were identified, with half of them being unique to one venom. A total of 59 peptides ascribed to 23 different protein families were found to be exclusive to the predatory venom, including the cono-insulin, which was, for the first time, identified in an injected venom. A total of 43 peptides from 20 protein families were exclusive to the defensive venom. Finally, comparisons of the relative abundance (in terms of number of peptides) of the different conotoxin precursor superfamilies showed that most of them present similar abundance regardless of the diet.

Venom of the Annulated Sea Snake Hydrophis cyanocinctus: A Biochemically Simple but Genetically Complex Weapon

Given that the venom system in sea snakes has a role in enhancing their secondary adaption to the marine environment, it follows that elucidating the diversity and function of venom toxins will help to understand the adaptive radiation of sea snakes. We performed proteomic and de novo NGS analyses to explore the diversity of venom toxins in the annulated sea snake (Hydrophis cyanocinctus) and estimated the adaptive molecular evolution of the toxin-coding unigenes and the toxicity of the major components. We found three-finger toxins (3-FTxs), phospholipase A2 (PLA2) and cysteine-rich secretory protein (CRISP) in the venom proteome and 59 toxin-coding unigenes belonging to 24 protein families in the venom-gland transcriptome; 3-FTx and PLA2 were the most abundant families. Nearly half of the toxin-coding unigenes had undergone positive selection. The short- (i.p. 0.09 μg/g) and long-chain neurotoxin (i.p. 0.14 μg/g) presented fairly high toxicity, whereas both basic and acidic PLA2s expressed low toxicity. The toxicity of H. cyanocinctus venom was largely determined by the 3-FTxs. Our data show the venom is used by H. cyanocinctus as a biochemically simple but genetically complex weapon and venom evolution in H. cyanocinctus is presumably driven by natural selection to deal with fast-moving prey and enemies in the marine environment.

Using yeast two-hybrid system and molecular dynamics simulation to detect venom protein-protein interactions

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The venom protein-protein interactions in snake venom remain largely unknown.

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Y2H coupled with MD simulations was used to detect venom protein interactions.

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Venom PLA₂s interact with themselves and Lys49 PLA₂ interacts with venom CRISP.

Proteins and peptides are major components of snake venom. Venom protein transcriptomes and proteomes of many snake species have been reported; however, snake venom complexity (i.e., the venom protein-protein interactions, PPIs) remains largely unknown. To detect the venom protein interactions, we used the most common snake venom component, phospholipase A₂s (PLA₂s) as a “bait” to identify the interactions between PLA₂s and 14 of the most common proteins in Western diamondback rattlesnake (Crotalus atrox) venom by using yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) analysis, a technique used to detect PPIs. As a result, we identified PLA₂s interacting with themselves, and lysing-49 PLA₂ (Lys49 PLA₂) interacting with venom cysteine-rich secretory protein (CRISP). To reveal the complex structure of Lys49 PLA₂-CRISP interaction at the structural level, we first built the three-dimensional (3D) structures of Lys49 PLA₂ and CRISP by a widely used computational program-MODELLER. The binding modes of Lys49 PLA₂-CRISP interaction were then predicted through three different docking programs including ClusPro, ZDOCK and HADDOCK. Furthermore, the most likely complex structure of Lys49 PLA₂-CRISP was inferred by molecular dynamic (MD) simulations with GROMACS software. The techniques used and results obtained from this study strengthen the understanding of snake venom protein interactions and pave the way for the study of animal venom complexity.

Venom-gland transcriptomic, venomic, and antivenomic profiles of the spine-bellied sea snake (Hydrophis curtus) from the South China Sea

Background

A comprehensive evaluation of the -omic profiles of venom is important for understanding the potential function and evolution of snake venom. Here, we conducted an integrated multi-omics-analysis to unveil the venom-transcriptomic and venomic profiles in a same group of spine-bellied sea snakes (Hydrophis curtus) from the South China Sea, where the snake is a widespread species and might generate regionally-specific venom potentially harmful to human activities. The capacity of two heterologous antivenoms to immunocapture the H. curtus venom was determined for an in-depth evaluation of their rationality in treatment of H. curtus envenomation. In addition, a phylogenetic analysis by maximum likelihood was used to detect the adaptive molecular evolution of full-length toxin-coding unigenes.

Results

A total of 90,909,384 pairs of clean reads were generated via Illumina sequencing from a pooled cDNA library of six specimens, and yielding 148,121 unigenes through de novo assembly. Sequence similarity searching harvested 63,845 valid annotations, including 63,789 non-toxin-coding and 56 toxin-coding unigenes belonging to 22 protein families. Three protein families, three-finger toxins (3-FTx), phospholipase A₂ (PLA₂), and cysteine-rich secretory protein, were detected in the venom proteome. 3-FTx (27.15% in the transcriptome/41.94% in the proteome) and PLA₂ (59.71%/49.36%) were identified as the most abundant families in the venom-gland transcriptome and venom proteome. In addition, 24 unigenes from 11 protein families were shown to have experienced positive selection in their evolutionary history, whereas four were relatively conserved throughout evolution. Commercial Naja atra antivenom exhibited a stronger capacity than Bungarus multicinctus antivenom to immunocapture H. curtus venom components, especially short neurotoxins, with the capacity of both antivenoms to immunocapture short neurotoxins being weaker than that for PLA₂s.

Conclusions

Our study clarified the venom-gland transcriptomic and venomic profiles along with the within-group divergence of a H. curtus population from the South China Sea. Adaptive evolution of most venom components driven by natural selection appeared to occur rapidly during evolutionary history. Notably, the utility of commercial N. atra and B. multicinctus antivenoms against H. curtus toxins was not comprehensive; thus, the development of species-specific antivenom is urgently needed.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12864-021-07824-7.

A Meta-Analysis of the Protein Components in Rattlesnake Venom

The specificity and potency of venom components give them a unique advantage in developing various pharmaceutical drugs. Though venom is a cocktail of proteins, rarely are the synergy and association between various venom components studied. Understanding the relationship between various components of venom is critical in medical research. Using meta-analysis, we observed underlying patterns and associations in the appearance of the toxin families. For Crotalus, Dis has the most associations with the following toxins: PDE; BPP; CRL; CRiSP; LAAO; SVMP P-I and LAAO; SVMP P-III and LAAO. In Sistrurus venom, CTL and NGF have the most associations. These associations can predict the presence of proteins in novel venom and understand synergies between venom components for enhanced bioactivity. Using this approach, the need to revisit the classification of proteins as major components or minor components is highlighted. The revised classification of venom components is based on ubiquity, bioactivity, the number of associations, and synergies. The revised classification can be expected to trigger increased research on venom components, such as NGF, which have high biomedical significance. Using hierarchical clustering, we observed that the genera's venom compositions were similar, based on functional characteristics rather than phylogenetic relationships.

Duvernoy's Gland Transcriptomics of the Plains Black-Headed Snake, Tantilla nigriceps (Squamata, Colubridae): Unearthing the Venom of Small Rear-Fanged Snakes

The venoms of small rear-fanged snakes (RFS) remain largely unexplored, despite increased recognition of their importance in understanding venom evolution more broadly. Sequencing the transcriptome of venom-producing glands has greatly increased the ability of researchers to examine and characterize the toxin repertoire of small taxa with low venom yields. Here, we use RNA-seq to characterize the Duvernoy's gland transcriptome of the Plains Black-headed Snake, Tantilla nigriceps, a small, semi-fossorial colubrid that feeds on a variety of potentially dangerous arthropods including centipedes and spiders. We generated transcriptomes of six individuals from three localities in order to both characterize the toxin expression of this species for the first time, and to look for initial evidence of venom variation in the species. Three toxin families-three-finger neurotoxins (3FTxs), cysteine-rich secretory proteins (CRISPs), and snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPIIIs)-dominated the transcriptome of T. nigriceps; 3FTx themselves were the dominant toxin family in most individuals, accounting for as much as 86.4% of an individual's toxin expression. Variation in toxin expression between individuals was also noted, with two specimens exhibiting higher relative expression of c-type lectins than any other sample (8.7-11.9% compared to <1%), and another expressed CRISPs higher than any other toxin. This study provides the first Duvernoy's gland transcriptomes of any species of Tantilla, and one of the few transcriptomic studies of RFS not predicated on a single individual. This initial characterization demonstrates the need for further study of toxin expression variation in this species, as well as the need for further exploration of small RFS venoms.

ToxCodAn: a new toxin annotator and guide to venom gland transcriptomics

MOTIVATION

Next-generation sequencing has become exceedingly common and has transformed our ability to explore nonmodel systems. In particular, transcriptomics has facilitated the study of venom and evolution of toxins in venomous lineages; however, many challenges remain. Primarily, annotation of toxins in the transcriptome is a laborious and time-consuming task. Current annotation software often fails to predict the correct coding sequence and overestimates the number of toxins present in the transcriptome. Here, we present ToxCodAn, a python script designed to perform precise annotation of snake venom gland transcriptomes. We test ToxCodAn with a set of previously curated transcriptomes and compare the results to other annotators. In addition, we provide a guide for venom gland transcriptomics to facilitate future research and use Bothrops alternatus as a case study for ToxCodAn and our guide.

RESULTS

Our analysis reveals that ToxCodAn provides precise annotation of toxins present in the transcriptome of venom glands of snakes. Comparison with other annotators demonstrates that ToxCodAn has better performance with regard to run time ($>20x$ faster), coding sequence prediction ($>3x$ more accurate) and the number of toxins predicted (generating $>4x$ less false positives). In this sense, ToxCodAn is a valuable resource for toxin annotation. The ToxCodAn framework can be expanded in the future to work with other venomous lineages and detect novel toxins.

Replacement and Parallel Simplification of Nonhomologous Proteinases Maintain Venom Phenotypes in Rear-Fanged Snakes

Novel phenotypes are commonly associated with gene duplications and neofunctionalization, less documented are the cases of phenotypic maintenance through the recruitment of novel genes. Proteolysis is the primary toxic character of many snake venoms, and ADAM metalloproteinases, named snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs), are largely recognized as the major effectors of this phenotype. However, by investigating original transcriptomes from 58 species of advanced snakes (Caenophidia) across their phylogeny, we discovered that a different enzyme, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP), is actually the dominant venom component in three tribes (Tachymenini, Xenodontini, and Conophiini) of rear-fanged snakes (Dipsadidae). Proteomic and functional analyses of these venoms further indicate that MMPs are likely playing an "SVMP-like" function in the proteolytic phenotype. A detailed look into the venom-specific sequences revealed a new highly expressed MMP subtype, named snake venom MMP (svMMP), which originated independently on at least three occasions from an endogenous MMP-9. We further show that by losing ancillary noncatalytic domains present in its ancestors, svMMPs followed an evolutionary path toward a simplified structure during their expansion in the genomes, thus paralleling what has been proposed for the evolution of their Viperidae counterparts, the SVMPs. Moreover, we inferred an inverse relationship between the expression of svMMPs and SVMPs along the evolutionary history of Xenodontinae, pointing out that one type of enzyme may be substituting for the other, whereas the general (metallo)proteolytic phenotype is maintained. These results provide rare evidence on how relevant phenotypic traits can be optimized via natural selection on nonhomologous genes, yielding alternate biochemical components.

Size Matters: An Evaluation of the Molecular Basis of Ontogenetic Modifications in the Composition of Bothrops jararacussu Snake Venom

Ontogenetic changes in venom composition have been described in Bothrops snakes, but only a few studies have attempted to identify the targeted paralogues or the molecular mechanisms involved in modifications of gene expression during ontogeny. In this study, we decoded B. jararacussu venom gland transcripts from six specimens of varying sizes and analyzed the variability in the composition of independent venom proteomes from 19 individuals. We identified 125 distinct putative toxin transcripts, and of these, 73 were detected in venom proteomes and only 10 were involved in the ontogenetic changes. Ontogenetic variability was linearly related to snake size and did not correspond to the maturation of the reproductive stage. Changes in the transcriptome were highly predictive of changes in the venom proteome. The basic myotoxic phospholipases A₂ (PLA₂s) were the most abundant components in larger snakes, while in venoms from smaller snakes, PIII-class SVMPs were the major components. The snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs) identified corresponded to novel sequences and conferred higher pro-coagulant and hemorrhagic functions to the venom of small snakes. The mechanisms modulating venom variability are predominantly related to transcriptional events and may consist of an advantage of higher hematotoxicity and more efficient predatory function in the venom from small snakes.

The origin and diversification of a novel protein family in venomous snakes

The genetic origins of novelty are a central interest of evolutionary biology. Most new proteins evolve from preexisting proteins but the evolutionary path from ancestral gene to novel protein is challenging to trace, and therefore the requirements for and order of coding sequence changes, expression changes, or gene duplication are not clear. Snake venoms are important novel traits that are comprised of toxins derived from several distinct protein families, but the genomic and evolutionary origins of most venom components are not understood. Here, we have traced the origin and diversification of one prominent family, the snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs) that play key roles in subduing prey in many vipers. Genomic analyses of several rattlesnake (Crotalus) species revealed the SVMP family massively expanded from a single, deeply conserved adam28 disintegrin and metalloproteinase gene, to as many as 31 tandem genes in the Western Diamondback rattlesnake (Crotalus atrox) through a number of single gene and multigene duplication events. Furthermore, we identified a series of stepwise intragenic deletions that occurred at different times in the course of gene family expansion and gave rise to the three major classes of secreted SVMP toxins by sequential removal of a membrane-tethering domain, the cysteine-rich domain, and a disintegrin domain, respectively. Finally, we show that gene deletion has further shaped the SVMP complex within rattlesnakes, creating both fusion genes and substantially reduced gene complexes. These results indicate that gene duplication and intragenic deletion played essential roles in the origin and diversification of these novel biochemical weapons.

Trait differentiation and modular toxin expression in palm-pitvipers

Background

Modularity is the tendency for systems to organize into semi-independent units and can be a key to the evolution and diversification of complex biological systems. Snake venoms are highly variable modular systems that exhibit extreme diversification even across very short time scales. One well-studied venom phenotype dichotomy is a trade-off between neurotoxicity versus hemotoxicity that occurs through the high expression of a heterodimeric neurotoxic phospholipase A₂ (PLA₂) or snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs). We tested whether the variation in these venom phenotypes could occur via variation in regulatory sub-modules through comparative venom gland transcriptomics of representative Black-Speckled Palm-Pitvipers (Bothriechis nigroviridis) and Talamancan Palm-Pitvipers (B. nubestris).

Results

We assembled 1517 coding sequences, including 43 toxins for B. nigroviridis and 1787 coding sequences including 42 toxins for B. nubestris. The venom gland transcriptomes were extremely divergent between these two species with one B. nigroviridis exhibiting a primarily neurotoxic pattern of expression, both B. nubestris expressing primarily hemorrhagic toxins, and a second B. nigroviridis exhibiting a mixed expression phenotype. Weighted gene coexpression analyses identified six submodules of transcript expression variation, one of which was highly associated with SVMPs and a second which contained both subunits of the neurotoxic PLA₂ complex. The sub-module association of these toxins suggest common regulatory pathways underlie the variation in their expression and is consistent with known patterns of inheritance of similar haplotypes in other species. We also find evidence that module associated toxin families show fewer gene duplications and transcript losses between species, but module association did not appear to affect sequence diversification.

Conclusion

Sub-modular regulation of expression likely contributes to the diversification of venom phenotypes within and among species and underscores the role of modularity in facilitating rapid evolution of complex traits.

Omics Technologies for Profiling Toxin Diversity and Evolution in Snake Venom: Impacts on the Discovery of Therapeutic and Diagnostic Agents

Snake venoms are primarily composed of proteins and peptides, and these toxins have developed high selectivity to their biological targets. This makes venoms interesting for exploration into protein evolution and structure-function relationships. A single venom protein superfamily can exhibit a variety of pharmacological effects; these variations in activity originate from differences in functional sites, domains, posttranslational modifications, and the formations of toxin complexes. In this review, we discuss examples of how the major venom protein superfamilies have diversified, as well as how newer technologies in the omics fields, such as genomics, transcriptomics, and proteomics, can be used to characterize both known and unknown toxins.Because toxins are bioactive molecules with a rich diversity of activities, they can be useful as therapeutic and diagnostic agents, and successful examples of toxin applications in these areas are also reviewed. With the current rapid pace of technology, snake venom research and its applications will only continue to expand.

Hadrurid Scorpion Toxins: Evolutionary Conservation and Selective Pressures

Scorpion toxins are thought to have originated from ancestral housekeeping genes that underwent diversification and neofunctionalization, as a result of positive selection. Our understanding of the evolutionary origin of these peptides is hindered by the patchiness of existing taxonomic sampling. While recent studies have shown phylogenetic inertia in some scorpion toxins at higher systematic levels, evolutionary dynamics of toxins among closely related taxa remain unexplored. In this study, we used new and previously published transcriptomic resources to assess evolutionary relationships of closely related scorpions from the family Hadruridae and their toxins. In addition, we surveyed the incidence of scorpine-like peptides (SLP, a type of potassium channel toxin), which were previously known from 21 scorpion species. We demonstrate that scorpine-like peptides exhibit gene duplications. Our molecular analyses demonstrate that only eight sites of two SLP copies found in scorpions are evolving under positive selection, with more sites evolving under negative selection, in contrast to previous findings. These results show evolutionary conservation in toxin diversity at shallow taxonomic scale.

Intraspecific sequence and gene expression variation contribute little to venom diversity in sidewinder rattlesnakes ( Crotalus cerastes)

Traits can evolve rapidly through changes in gene expression or protein-coding sequences. However, these forms of genetic variation can be correlated and changes to one can influence the other. As a result, we might expect traits lacking differential expression to preferentially evolve through changes in protein sequences or morphological adaptation. Given the lack of differential expression across the distribution of sidewinder rattlesnakes ( Crotalus cerastes), we tested this hypothesis by comparing the coding regions of genes expressed in the venom gland transcriptomes and fang morphology. We calculated Tajima's D and F_ST across four populations comparing toxin and nontoxin loci. Overall, we found little evidence of directional selection or differentiation between populations, suggesting that changes to protein sequences do not underlie the evolution of sidewinder venom or that toxins are under extremely variant selection pressures. Although low-expression toxins do not have higher sequence divergence between populations, they do have more standing variation on which selection can act. Additionally, we found significant differences in fang length among populations. The lack of differential expression and sequence divergence suggests sidewinders-given their generalist diet, moderate gene flow and environmental variation-are under stabilizing selection which functions to maintain a generalist phenotype. Overall, we demonstrate the importance of examining the relationship between gene expression and protein-coding changes to understand the evolution of complex traits.

Ontogenetic Change in the Venom of Mexican Black-Tailed Rattlesnakes (Crotalus molossus nigrescens)

Ontogenetic changes in venom composition have important ecological implications due the relevance of venom in prey acquisition and defense. Additionally, intraspecific venom variation has direct medical consequences for the treatment of snakebite. However, ontogenetic changes are not well documented in most species. The Mexican Black-tailed Rattlesnake (Crotalus molossus nigrescens) is large-bodied and broadly distributed in Mexico. To document venom variation and test for ontogenetic changes in venom composition, we obtained venom samples from twenty-seven C. m. nigrescens with different total body lengths (TBL) from eight states in Mexico. The primary components in the venom were detected by reverse-phase HPLC, western blot, and mass spectrometry. In addition, we evaluated the biochemical (proteolytic, coagulant and fibrinogenolytic activities) and biological (LD₅₀ and hemorrhagic activity) activities of the venoms. Finally, we tested for recognition and neutralization of Mexican antivenoms against venoms of juvenile and adult snakes. We detected clear ontogenetic venom variation in C. m. nigrescens. Venoms from younger snakes contained more crotamine-like myotoxins and snake venom serine proteinases than venoms from older snakes; however, an increase of snake venom metalloproteinases was detected in venoms of larger snakes. Venoms from juvenile snakes were, in general, more toxic and procoagulant than venoms from adults; however, adult venoms were more proteolytic. Most of the venoms analyzed were hemorrhagic. Importantly, Mexican antivenoms had difficulties recognizing low molecular mass proteins (<12 kDa) of venoms from both juvenile and adult snakes. The antivenoms did not neutralize the crotamine effect caused by the venom of juveniles. Thus, we suggest that Mexican antivenoms would have difficulty neutralizing some human envenomations and, therefore, it may be necessary improve the immunization mixture in Mexican antivenoms to account for low molecular mass proteins, like myotoxins.