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Zhou H, Li Z, Jing S, Wang B, Ye Z, Xiong W, Liu Y, Liu Y, Xu C, Kumeria T, He Y, Ye Q. Repair spinal cord injury with a versatile anti-oxidant and neural regenerative nanoplatform. J Nanobiotechnology 2024; 22:351. [PMID: 38902789 PMCID: PMC11188197 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-024-02610-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/31/2024] [Indexed: 06/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) often results in motor and sensory deficits, or even paralysis. Due to the role of the cascade reaction, the effect of excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the early and middle stages of SCI severely damage neurons, and most antioxidants cannot consistently eliminate ROS at non-toxic doses, which leads to a huge compromise in antioxidant treatment of SCI. Selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) have excellent ROS scavenging bioactivity, but the toxicity control problem limits the therapeutic window. Here, we propose a synergistic therapeutic strategy of SeNPs encapsulated by ZIF-8 (SeNPs@ZIF-8) to obtain synergistic ROS scavenging activity. Three different spatial structures of SeNPs@ZIF-8 were synthesized and coated with ferrostatin-1, a ferroptosis inhibitor (FSZ NPs), to achieve enhanced anti-oxidant and anti-ferroptosis activity without toxicity. FSZ NPs promoted the maintenance of mitochondrial homeostasis, thereby regulating the expression of inflammatory factors and promoting the polarization of macrophages into M2 phenotype. In addition, the FSZ NPs presented strong abilities to promote neuronal maturation and axon growth through activating the WNT4-dependent pathways, while prevented glial scar formation. The current study demonstrates the powerful and versatile bioactive functions of FSZ NPs for SCI treatment and offers inspiration for other neural injury diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heng Zhou
- Center of Regenerative Medicine, Department of Stomatology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, China
| | - Ziwei Li
- Center of Regenerative Medicine, Department of Stomatology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, China
| | - Shuili Jing
- Center of Regenerative Medicine, Department of Stomatology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, China
| | - Ben Wang
- The Second People's Hospital of Linhai, Linhai, Zhejiang, 317000, China
| | - Zhifei Ye
- The Second People's Hospital of Linhai, Linhai, Zhejiang, 317000, China
| | - Wei Xiong
- Center of Regenerative Medicine, Department of Stomatology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, China
| | - Yonghao Liu
- Center of Regenerative Medicine, Department of Stomatology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, China
| | - Ye Liu
- Center of Regenerative Medicine, Department of Stomatology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, China
| | - Chun Xu
- School of Dentistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Tushar Kumeria
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of New South Wales, Kensington, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Yan He
- Institute of Regenerative and Translational Medicine, Tianyou Hospital, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430064, Hubei, China
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Qingsong Ye
- Center of Regenerative Medicine, Department of Stomatology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, China.
- The Second People's Hospital of Linhai, Linhai, Zhejiang, 317000, China.
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Zhao W, Liu J, Wang S, Tao Q, Lei Q, Huang C. Varespladib mitigates acute liver injury via suppression of excessive mitophagy on Naja atra envenomed mice by inhibiting PLA 2. Toxicon 2024; 242:107694. [PMID: 38556061 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2024.107694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2024] [Revised: 03/05/2024] [Accepted: 03/19/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
Snakebite envenomation often leads to severe visceral injuries, including acute liver injury (ALI). However, the toxicity mechanism remains unclear. Moreover, varespladib can directly inhibit phospholipase A2 (PLA2) in snake venom, but its protective effect on snakebite-induced ALI and the mechanism have not been clarified. Previous studies have shown that snake venom PLA2 leads to neuron cell death via reactive oxygen species (ROS), one of the initial factors related to the mitophagy pathway. The present study group also found that ROS accumulation occurred after Naja atra envenoming. Hematoxylin and eosin (H/E) staining and immunohistochemistry (IHC) were performed to identify the expression of inflammatory factors in the liver tissue, and flow cytometry and immunofluorescence were used to detect ROS levels and mitochondrial function. Immunofluorescence and western blotting were also used for detecting mitophagy pathway-related proteins. The results showed that N. atra bite induced ALI by activating mitophagy and inducing inflammation and that varespladib had a protective effect. Collectively, these results showed the pathological mechanism of ALI caused by N. atra bite and revealed the protective effect of varespladib.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjie Zhao
- School of Basic Medicine Sciences, Jiangxi Medical College, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, 330006, China
| | - Jiahao Liu
- School of Basic Medicine Sciences, Jiangxi Medical College, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, 330006, China
| | - Sidan Wang
- Queen Mary School, Jiangxi Medical College, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, 330006, China
| | - Qinqin Tao
- School of Basic Medicine Sciences, Jiangxi Medical College, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, 330006, China
| | - Qiongqiong Lei
- School of Nursing, Jiangxi Medical College, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, 330006, China.
| | - Chunhong Huang
- School of Basic Medicine Sciences, Jiangxi Medical College, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, 330006, China.
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Alekseeva AS, Boldyrev IA. Alternative Targets for sPLA2 Activity: Role of Membrane-Enzyme Interactions. MEMBRANES 2023; 13:618. [PMID: 37504984 PMCID: PMC10384401 DOI: 10.3390/membranes13070618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Revised: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
The secreted phospholipases A2 (sPLA2s) play important roles both physiologically and pathologically, with their expression increasing significantly in diseases such as sepsis, inflammation, different cancers, glaucoma, obesity, Alzheimer's disease and even COVID-19. The fact has led to a large-scale search for inhibitors of these enzymes. In total, several dozen promising molecules have been proposed, but not a single one has successfully passed clinical trials. The failures in clinical studies motivated in-depth fundamental studies of PLA2s. Here we review alternative ways to control sPLA2 activity, outside its catalytic site. The concept can be realized by preventing sPLA2 from attaching to the membrane surface; by binding to an external protein which blocks sPLA2 hydrolytic activity; by preventing sPLA2 from orienting properly on the membrane surface; and by preventing substrate binding to the enzyme, keeping the catalytic site unaltered. Evidence in the literature is summarized in the review with the aim to serve as a starting point for new types of sPLA2 inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna S Alekseeva
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Ivan A Boldyrev
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 117997 Moscow, Russia
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4
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Vivas-Ruiz DE, Rosas P, Proleón A, Torrejón D, Lazo F, Tenorio-Ricca AB, Guajardo F, Almarza C, Andrades V, Astorga J, Oropesa D, Toledo J, Vera MJ, Martínez J, Araya-Maturana R, Dubois-Camacho K, Hermoso MA, Alvarenga VG, Sanchez EF, Yarlequé A, Oliveira LS, Urra FA. Pictolysin-III, a Hemorrhagic Type-III Metalloproteinase Isolated from Bothrops pictus (Serpentes: Viperidae) Venom, Reduces Mitochondrial Respiration and Induces Cytokine Secretion in Epithelial and Stromal Cell Lines. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15051533. [PMID: 37242775 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15051533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Revised: 04/22/2023] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
From the venom of the Bothrops pictus snake, an endemic species from Peru, we recently have described toxins that inhibited platelet aggregation and cancer cell migration. In this work, we characterize a novel P-III class snake venom metalloproteinase, called pictolysin-III (Pic-III). It is a 62 kDa proteinase that hydrolyzes dimethyl casein, azocasein, gelatin, fibrinogen, and fibrin. The cations Mg2+ and Ca2+ enhanced its enzymatic activity, whereas Zn2+ inhibited it. In addition, EDTA and marimastat were also effective inhibitors. The amino acid sequence deduced from cDNA shows a multidomain structure that includes a proprotein, metalloproteinase, disintegrin-like, and cysteine-rich domains. Additionally, Pic-III reduces the convulxin- and thrombin-stimulated platelet aggregation and in vivo, it has hemorrhagic activity (DHM = 0.3 µg). In epithelial cell lines (MDA-MB-231 and Caco-2) and RMF-621 fibroblast, it triggers morphological changes that are accompanied by a decrease in mitochondrial respiration, glycolysis, and ATP levels, and an increase in NAD(P)H, mitochondrial ROS, and cytokine secretion. Moreover, Pic-III sensitizes to the cytotoxic BH3 mimetic drug ABT-199 (Venetoclax) in MDA-MB-231 cells. To our knowledge, Pic-III is the first SVMP reported with action on mitochondrial bioenergetics and may offer novel opportunities for promising lead compounds that inhibit platelet aggregation or ECM-cancer-cell interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan E Vivas-Ruiz
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Av. Venezuela Cdra 34 S/N, Ciudad Universitaria, Lima Cercado, Lima 15081, Peru
- Network for Snake Venom Research and Drug Discovery, Av. Independencia 1027, Santiago 7810000, Chile
- MIBI: Interdisciplinary Group on Mitochondrial Targeting and Bioenergetics, Universidad de Talca, Talca 3460000, Chile
| | - Paola Rosas
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Av. Venezuela Cdra 34 S/N, Ciudad Universitaria, Lima Cercado, Lima 15081, Peru
- Network for Snake Venom Research and Drug Discovery, Av. Independencia 1027, Santiago 7810000, Chile
| | - Alex Proleón
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Av. Venezuela Cdra 34 S/N, Ciudad Universitaria, Lima Cercado, Lima 15081, Peru
- Network for Snake Venom Research and Drug Discovery, Av. Independencia 1027, Santiago 7810000, Chile
| | - Daniel Torrejón
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Av. Venezuela Cdra 34 S/N, Ciudad Universitaria, Lima Cercado, Lima 15081, Peru
- Network for Snake Venom Research and Drug Discovery, Av. Independencia 1027, Santiago 7810000, Chile
| | - Fanny Lazo
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Av. Venezuela Cdra 34 S/N, Ciudad Universitaria, Lima Cercado, Lima 15081, Peru
| | - Ana Belén Tenorio-Ricca
- Network for Snake Venom Research and Drug Discovery, Av. Independencia 1027, Santiago 7810000, Chile
- MIBI: Interdisciplinary Group on Mitochondrial Targeting and Bioenergetics, Universidad de Talca, Talca 3460000, Chile
- Metabolic Plasticity and Bioenergetics Laboratory, Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology Program, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Av. Independencia 1027, Santiago 7810000, Chile
| | - Francisco Guajardo
- Network for Snake Venom Research and Drug Discovery, Av. Independencia 1027, Santiago 7810000, Chile
- MIBI: Interdisciplinary Group on Mitochondrial Targeting and Bioenergetics, Universidad de Talca, Talca 3460000, Chile
- Metabolic Plasticity and Bioenergetics Laboratory, Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology Program, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Av. Independencia 1027, Santiago 7810000, Chile
| | - Cristopher Almarza
- Network for Snake Venom Research and Drug Discovery, Av. Independencia 1027, Santiago 7810000, Chile
- MIBI: Interdisciplinary Group on Mitochondrial Targeting and Bioenergetics, Universidad de Talca, Talca 3460000, Chile
- Metabolic Plasticity and Bioenergetics Laboratory, Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology Program, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Av. Independencia 1027, Santiago 7810000, Chile
| | - Víctor Andrades
- Network for Snake Venom Research and Drug Discovery, Av. Independencia 1027, Santiago 7810000, Chile
- MIBI: Interdisciplinary Group on Mitochondrial Targeting and Bioenergetics, Universidad de Talca, Talca 3460000, Chile
- Metabolic Plasticity and Bioenergetics Laboratory, Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology Program, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Av. Independencia 1027, Santiago 7810000, Chile
| | - Jessica Astorga
- Network for Snake Venom Research and Drug Discovery, Av. Independencia 1027, Santiago 7810000, Chile
- MIBI: Interdisciplinary Group on Mitochondrial Targeting and Bioenergetics, Universidad de Talca, Talca 3460000, Chile
- Metabolic Plasticity and Bioenergetics Laboratory, Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology Program, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Av. Independencia 1027, Santiago 7810000, Chile
| | - Daniel Oropesa
- Advanced Scientific Equipment Network (REDECA), Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile
| | - Jorge Toledo
- Advanced Scientific Equipment Network (REDECA), Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile
| | - María Jesús Vera
- MIBI: Interdisciplinary Group on Mitochondrial Targeting and Bioenergetics, Universidad de Talca, Talca 3460000, Chile
- Laboratorio de Biología Celular, INTA, University of Chile, Santiago 7810000, Chile
| | - Jorge Martínez
- MIBI: Interdisciplinary Group on Mitochondrial Targeting and Bioenergetics, Universidad de Talca, Talca 3460000, Chile
- Laboratorio de Biología Celular, INTA, University of Chile, Santiago 7810000, Chile
| | - Ramiro Araya-Maturana
- Network for Snake Venom Research and Drug Discovery, Av. Independencia 1027, Santiago 7810000, Chile
- MIBI: Interdisciplinary Group on Mitochondrial Targeting and Bioenergetics, Universidad de Talca, Talca 3460000, Chile
- Instituto de Química de Recursos Naturales, Universidad de Talca, Talca 3460000, Chile
| | - Karen Dubois-Camacho
- Network for Snake Venom Research and Drug Discovery, Av. Independencia 1027, Santiago 7810000, Chile
- MIBI: Interdisciplinary Group on Mitochondrial Targeting and Bioenergetics, Universidad de Talca, Talca 3460000, Chile
- Metabolic Plasticity and Bioenergetics Laboratory, Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology Program, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Av. Independencia 1027, Santiago 7810000, Chile
| | - Marcela A Hermoso
- Laboratory of Innate Immunity, Program of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Santiago 7810000, Chile
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Medical Center Groningen, 9713 Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Valéria G Alvarenga
- Network for Snake Venom Research and Drug Discovery, Av. Independencia 1027, Santiago 7810000, Chile
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Proteins from Animal Venoms, Research and Development Center, Ezequiel Dias Foundation, Belo Horizonte 30510-010, Brazil
| | - Eladio Flores Sanchez
- Network for Snake Venom Research and Drug Discovery, Av. Independencia 1027, Santiago 7810000, Chile
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Proteins from Animal Venoms, Research and Development Center, Ezequiel Dias Foundation, Belo Horizonte 30510-010, Brazil
| | - Armando Yarlequé
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Av. Venezuela Cdra 34 S/N, Ciudad Universitaria, Lima Cercado, Lima 15081, Peru
- Network for Snake Venom Research and Drug Discovery, Av. Independencia 1027, Santiago 7810000, Chile
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Proteins from Animal Venoms, Research and Development Center, Ezequiel Dias Foundation, Belo Horizonte 30510-010, Brazil
| | - Luciana Souza Oliveira
- Network for Snake Venom Research and Drug Discovery, Av. Independencia 1027, Santiago 7810000, Chile
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Proteins from Animal Venoms, Research and Development Center, Ezequiel Dias Foundation, Belo Horizonte 30510-010, Brazil
| | - Félix A Urra
- Network for Snake Venom Research and Drug Discovery, Av. Independencia 1027, Santiago 7810000, Chile
- MIBI: Interdisciplinary Group on Mitochondrial Targeting and Bioenergetics, Universidad de Talca, Talca 3460000, Chile
- Metabolic Plasticity and Bioenergetics Laboratory, Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology Program, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Av. Independencia 1027, Santiago 7810000, Chile
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Osipov A, Utkin Y. What Are the Neurotoxins in Hemotoxic Snake Venoms? Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24032919. [PMID: 36769242 PMCID: PMC9917609 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24032919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2022] [Revised: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Snake venoms as tools for hunting are primarily aimed at the most vital systems of the prey, especially the nervous and circulatory systems. In general, snakes of the Elapidae family produce neurotoxic venoms comprising of toxins targeting the nervous system, while snakes of the Viperidae family and most rear-fanged snakes produce hemotoxic venoms directed mainly on blood coagulation. However, it is not all so clear. Some bites by viperids results in neurotoxic signs and it is now known that hemotoxic venoms do contain neurotoxic components. For example, viperid phospholipases A2 may manifest pre- or/and postsynaptic activity and be involved in pain and analgesia. There are other neurotoxins belonging to diverse families ranging from large multi-subunit proteins (e.g., C-type lectin-like proteins) to short peptide neurotoxins (e.g., waglerins and azemiopsin), which are found in hemotoxic venoms. Other neurotoxins from hemotoxic venoms include baptides, crotamine, cysteine-rich secretory proteins, Kunitz-type protease inhibitors, sarafotoxins and three-finger toxins. Some of these toxins exhibit postsynaptic activity, while others affect the functioning of voltage-dependent ion channels. This review represents the first attempt to systematize data on the neurotoxins from "non-neurotoxic" snake venom. The structural and functional characteristic of these neurotoxins affecting diverse targets in the nervous system are considered.
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Secretory Phospholipases A2, from Snakebite Envenoming to a Myriad of Inflammation Associated Human Diseases-What Is the Secret of Their Activity? Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24021579. [PMID: 36675102 PMCID: PMC9863470 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24021579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2022] [Revised: 01/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Secreted phospholipases of type A2 (sPLA2s) are proteins of 14-16 kDa present in mammals in different forms and at different body sites. They are involved in lipid transformation processes, and consequently in various immune, inflammatory, and metabolic processes. sPLA2s are also major components of snake venoms, endowed with various toxic and pharmacological properties. The activity of sPLA2s is not limited to the enzymatic one but, through interaction with different types of molecules, they exert other activities that are still little known and explored, both outside and inside the cells, as they can be endocytosed. The aim of this review is to analyze three features of sPLA2s, yet under-explored, knowledge of which could be crucial to understanding the activity of these proteins. The first feature is their disulphide bridge pattern, which has always been considered immutable and necessary for their stability, but which might instead be modulable. The second characteristic is their ability to undergo various post-translational modifications that would control their interaction with other molecules. The third feature is their ability to participate in active molecular condensates both on the surface and within the cell. Finally, the implications of these features in the design of anti-inflammatory drugs are discussed.
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Ayvazyan N, Ghukasyan G, Ghulikyan L, Kirakosyan G, Sevoyan G, Voskanyan A, Karabekyan Z. The Contribution of Phospholipase A 2 and Metalloproteinases to the Synergistic Action of Viper Venom on the Bioenergetic Profile of Vero Cells. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14110724. [PMID: 36355974 PMCID: PMC9695613 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14110724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Revised: 10/02/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Increasing concern about the use of animal models has stimulated the development of in vitro cell culture models for analysis of the biological effects of snake venoms. However, the complexity of animal venoms and the extreme synergy of the venom components during envenomation calls for critical review and analysis. The epithelium is a primary target for injected viper venom's toxic substances, and therefore, is a focus in modern toxinology. We used the Vero epithelial cell line as a model to compare the actions of a crude Macrovipera lebetina obtusa (Levantine viper) venom with the actions of the same venom with two key enzymatic components inhibited (specifically, phospholipase A2 (PLA2) and metalloproteinases) in the bioenergetic cellular response, i.e., oxygen uptake and reactive oxygen species generation. In addition to the rate of free-radical oxidation and lipid peroxidation, we measured real-time mitochondrial respiration (based on the oxygen consumption rate) and glycolysis (based on the extracellular acidification rate) using a Seahorse analyzer. Our data show that viper venom drives an increase in both glycolysis and respiration in Vero cells, while the blockage of PLA2 or/and metalloproteinases affects only the rates of the oxidative phosphorylation. PLA2-blocking in venom also increases cytotoxic activity and the overproduction of reactive oxygen species. These data show that certain components of the venom may have a different effect within the venom cocktail other than the purified enzymes due to the synergy of the venom components.
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8
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Rat Group IIA Secreted Phospholipase A 2 Binds to Cytochrome c Oxidase and Inhibits Its Activity: A Possible Episode in the Development of Alzheimer's Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232012368. [PMID: 36293221 PMCID: PMC9604285 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232012368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2022] [Revised: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 10/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD), a progressive form of dementia, is characterized by the increased expression of secreted phospholipase A2 group IIA (GIIA) in the affected tissue and the dysfunction of neuronal mitochondria, similar to that induced by an orthologous GIIA from snake venom, β-neurotoxic ammodytoxin (Atx), in the motor neurons. To advance our knowledge about the role of GIIA in AD, we studied the effect of rat GIIA on the neuronal mitochondria and compared it with that of the Atx. We produced recombinant rat GIIA (rGIIA) and its enzymatically inactive mutant, rGIIA(D49S), and demonstrated that they interact with the subunit II of cytochrome c oxidase (CCOX-II) as Atx. rGIIA and rGIIA(D49S) bound to this essential constituent of the respiratory chain complex with an approximately 100-fold lower affinity than Atx; nevertheless, both rGIIA molecules potently inhibited the CCOX activity in the isolated rat mitochondria. Like Atx, rGIIA was able to reach the mitochondria in the PC12 cells from the extracellular space, independent of its enzymatic activity. Consistently, the inhibition of the CCOX activity in the intact PC12 cells and in the rat's brain tissue sections was clearly demonstrated using rGIIA(D49S). Our results show that the effects of mammalian and snake venom β-neurotoxic GIIA on the neuronal mitochondria have similar molecular backgrounds. They suggest that the elevated extracellular concentration of GIIA in the AD tissue drives the translocation of this enzyme into local neurons and their mitochondria to inhibit the activity of the CCOX in the respiratory chain. Consequently, the process of oxidative phosphorylation in the neurons is attenuated, eventually leading to their degeneration. Atx was thus revealed as a valuable molecular tool for further investigations of the role of GIIA in AD.
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9
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Murray TE, Richards CM, Robert-Gostlin VN, Bernath AK, Lindhout IA, Klegeris A. Potential neurotoxic activity of diverse molecules released by astrocytes. Brain Res Bull 2022; 189:80-101. [PMID: 35988785 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2022.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Revised: 07/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Astrocytes are the main support cells of the central nervous system. They also participate in neuroimmune reactions. In response to pathological and immune stimuli, astrocytes transform to reactive states characterized by increased release of inflammatory mediators. Some of these molecules are neuroprotective and inflammation resolving while others, including reactive oxygen species (ROS), nitric oxide (NO), matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)- 9, L-glutamate, and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF), are well-established toxins known to cause damage to surrounding cells and tissues. We hypothesized that similar to microglia, the brain immune cells, reactive astrocytes can release a broader set of diverse molecules that are potentially neurotoxic. A literature search was conducted to identify such molecules using the following two criteria: 1) evidence of their expression and secretion by astrocytes and 2) direct neurotoxic action. This review describes 14 structurally diverse molecules as less-established astrocyte neurotoxins, including C-X-C motif chemokine ligand (CXCL)10, CXCL12/CXCL12(5-67), FS-7-associated surface antigen ligand (FasL), macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)- 2α, TNF-related apoptosis inducing ligand (TRAIL), pro-nerve growth factor (proNGF), pro-brain-derived neurotrophic factor (proBDNF), chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs), cathepsin (Cat)B, group IIA secretory phospholipase A2 (sPLA2-IIA), amyloid beta peptides (Aβ), high mobility group box (HMGB)1, ceramides, and lipocalin (LCN)2. For some of these molecules, further studies are required to establish either their direct neurotoxic effects or the full spectrum of stimuli that induce their release by astrocytes. Only limited studies with human-derived astrocytes and neurons are available for most of these potential neurotoxins, which is a knowledge gap that should be addressed in the future. We also summarize available evidence of the role these molecules play in select neuropathologies where reactive astrocytes are a key feature. A comprehensive understanding of the full spectrum of neurotoxins released by reactive astrocytes is key to understanding neuroinflammatory diseases characterized by the adverse activation of these cells and may guide the development of novel treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taryn E Murray
- Department of Biology, University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, Kelowna, British Columbia V1V 1V7, Canada
| | - Christy M Richards
- Department of Biology, University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, Kelowna, British Columbia V1V 1V7, Canada
| | - Victoria N Robert-Gostlin
- Department of Biology, University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, Kelowna, British Columbia V1V 1V7, Canada
| | - Anna K Bernath
- Department of Biology, University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, Kelowna, British Columbia V1V 1V7, Canada
| | - Ivan A Lindhout
- Department of Biology, University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, Kelowna, British Columbia V1V 1V7, Canada
| | - Andis Klegeris
- Department of Biology, University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, Kelowna, British Columbia V1V 1V7, Canada.
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Urra FA, Vivas-Ruiz DE, Sanchez EF, Araya-Maturana R. An Emergent Role for Mitochondrial Bioenergetics in the Action of Snake Venom Toxins on Cancer Cells. Front Oncol 2022; 12:938749. [PMID: 35924151 PMCID: PMC9343075 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.938749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2022] [Accepted: 06/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Beyond the role of mitochondria in apoptosis initiation/execution, some mitochondrial adaptations support the metastasis and chemoresistance of cancer cells. This highlights mitochondria as a promising target for new anticancer strategies. Emergent evidence suggests that some snake venom toxins, both proteins with enzymatic and non-enzymatic activities, act on the mitochondrial metabolism of cancer cells, exhibiting unique and novel mechanisms that are not yet fully understood. Currently, six toxin classes (L-amino acid oxidases, thrombin-like enzymes, secreted phospholipases A2, three-finger toxins, cysteine-rich secreted proteins, and snake C-type lectin) that alter the mitochondrial bioenergetics have been described. These toxins act through Complex IV activity inhibition, OXPHOS uncoupling, ROS-mediated permeabilization of inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM), IMM reorganization by cardiolipin interaction, and mitochondrial fragmentation with selective migrastatic and cytotoxic effects on cancer cells. Notably, selective internalization and direct action of snake venom toxins on tumor mitochondria can be mediated by cell surface proteins overexpressed in cancer cells (e.g. nucleolin and heparan sulfate proteoglycans) or facilitated by the elevated Δψm of cancer cells compared to that non-tumor cells. In this latter case, selective mitochondrial accumulation, in a Δψm-dependent manner, of compounds linked to cationic snake peptides may be explored as a new anti-cancer drug delivery system. This review analyzes the effect of snake venom toxins on mitochondrial bioenergetics of cancer cells, whose mechanisms of action may offer the opportunity to develop new anticancer drugs based on toxin scaffolds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Félix A. Urra
- Laboratorio de Plasticidad Metabólica y Bioenergética, Programa de Farmacología Clínica y Molecular, Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Network for Snake Venom Research and Drug Discovery, Santiago, Chile
- Interdisciplinary Group on Mitochondrial Targeting and Bioenergetics (MIBI), Talca, Chile
- *Correspondence: Félix A. Urra,
| | - Dan E. Vivas-Ruiz
- Network for Snake Venom Research and Drug Discovery, Santiago, Chile
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Ciudad Universitaria, Lima, Peru
| | - Eladio Flores Sanchez
- Network for Snake Venom Research and Drug Discovery, Santiago, Chile
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Proteins from Animal Venoms, Research and Development Center, Ezequiel Dias Foundation, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Ramiro Araya-Maturana
- Network for Snake Venom Research and Drug Discovery, Santiago, Chile
- Interdisciplinary Group on Mitochondrial Targeting and Bioenergetics (MIBI), Talca, Chile
- Laboratorio de Productos Bioactivos, Instituto de Química de Recursos Naturales, Universidad de Talca, Talca, Chile
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11
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Oliveira AL, Viegas MF, da Silva SL, Soares AM, Ramos MJ, Fernandes PA. The chemistry of snake venom and its medicinal potential. Nat Rev Chem 2022; 6:451-469. [PMID: 37117308 PMCID: PMC9185726 DOI: 10.1038/s41570-022-00393-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The fascination and fear of snakes dates back to time immemorial, with the first scientific treatise on snakebite envenoming, the Brooklyn Medical Papyrus, dating from ancient Egypt. Owing to their lethality, snakes have often been associated with images of perfidy, treachery and death. However, snakes did not always have such negative connotations. The curative capacity of venom has been known since antiquity, also making the snake a symbol of pharmacy and medicine. Today, there is renewed interest in pursuing snake-venom-based therapies. This Review focuses on the chemistry of snake venom and the potential for venom to be exploited for medicinal purposes in the development of drugs. The mixture of toxins that constitute snake venom is examined, focusing on the molecular structure, chemical reactivity and target recognition of the most bioactive toxins, from which bioactive drugs might be developed. The design and working mechanisms of snake-venom-derived drugs are illustrated, and the strategies by which toxins are transformed into therapeutics are analysed. Finally, the challenges in realizing the immense curative potential of snake venom are discussed, and chemical strategies by which a plethora of new drugs could be derived from snake venom are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana L Oliveira
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,LAQV/Requimte, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Matilde F Viegas
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,LAQV/Requimte, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Saulo L da Silva
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,LAQV/Requimte, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Andreimar M Soares
- Biotechnology Laboratory for Proteins and Bioactive Compounds from the Western Amazon, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, National Institute of Epidemiology in the Western Amazon (INCT-EpiAmO), Porto Velho, Brazil.,Sao Lucas Universitary Center (UniSL), Porto Velho, Brazil
| | - Maria J Ramos
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,LAQV/Requimte, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Pedro A Fernandes
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,LAQV/Requimte, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
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12
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The Phospholipase Activity of Ammodytoxin, a Prototype Snake Venom β-Neurotoxin, Is Not Obligatory for Cell Internalisation and Translocation to Mitochondria. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14060375. [PMID: 35737036 PMCID: PMC9228470 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14060375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Revised: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
β-Neurotoxins are secreted phospholipase A2 molecules that inhibit transmission in neuromuscular synapses by poisoning the motor neurons. These toxins specifically and rapidly internalise into the nerve endings of motor neurons. Ammodytoxin (Atx) is a prototype β-neurotoxin from the venom of the nose-horned viper (Vipera ammodytes ammodytes). Here, we studied the relevance of the enzymatic activity of Atx in cell internalisation and subsequent intracellular movement using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). We prepared a recombinant, enzymatically inactive mutant of Atx, Atx(D49S), labelled with gold nanoparticles (GNP), and incubated this with PC12 cells, to analyse its localisation by TEM. Atx(D49S)-GNP internalised into the cells. Inside the cells, Atx(D49S)-GNP was detected in different vesicle-like structures, cytosol, endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria, where it was spotted in the intermembrane space and matrix. Co-localization of fluorescently labelled Atx(D49S) with mitochondria in PC12 cells by confocal fluorescence microscopy confirmed the reliability of results generated using Atx(D49S)-GNP and TEM and allowed us to conclude that the phospholipase activity of Atx is not obligatory for its cell internalisation and translocation into the mitochondrial intermembrane space and matrix.
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13
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Ivanušec A, Šribar J, Križaj I. Secreted Phospholipases A 2 - not just Enzymes: Revisited. Int J Biol Sci 2022; 18:873-888. [PMID: 35002531 PMCID: PMC8741859 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.68093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Secreted phospholipases A2 (sPLA2s) participate in a very broad spectrum of biological processes through their enzymatic activity and as ligands for membrane and soluble receptors. The physiological roles of sPLA2s as enzymes have been very well described, while their functions as ligands are still poorly known. Since the last overview of sPLA2-binding proteins (sPLA2-BPs) 10 years ago, several important discoveries have occurred in this area. New and more sensitive analytical tools have enabled the discovery of additional sPLA2-BPs, which are presented and critically discussed here. The structural diversity of sPLA2-BPs reveals sPLA2s as very promiscuous proteins, and we offer some structural explanations for this nature that makes these proteins evolutionarily highly advantageous. Three areas of physiological engagement of sPLA2-BPs have appeared most clearly: cellular transport and signalling, and regulation of the enzymatic activity of sPLA2s. Due to the multifunctionality of sPLA2s, they appear to be exceptional pharmacological targets. We reveal the potential to exploit interactions of sPLA2s with other proteins in medical terms, for the development of original diagnostic and therapeutic procedures. We conclude this survey by suggesting the priority questions that need to be answered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrijan Ivanušec
- Department of Molecular and Biomedical Sciences, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Vrazov trg 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Jernej Šribar
- Department of Molecular and Biomedical Sciences, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Igor Križaj
- Department of Molecular and Biomedical Sciences, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
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14
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Vargas-Valerio S, Robleto J, Chaves-Araya S, Monturiol-Gross L, Lomonte B, Tonello F, Fernández J. Localization of Myotoxin I and Myotoxin II from the venom of Bothrops asper in a murine model. Toxicon 2021; 197:48-54. [PMID: 33862027 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2021.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Revised: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Phospholipases A2 (PLA2s) and PLA2-like proteins are significant components of snake venoms. Some of these proteins act as potent toxins causing muscle necrosis, which may lead to amputation in severe envenomings. Fundamental aspects of the mechanism of action of these toxins are still not completely known. Myotoxin-I is a catalytically active Asp49 PLA2 from the venom of Bothrops asper, a medically relevant pit viper from Central America. Myotoxin-II is a catalytically inactive Lys49 PLA2-homolog also present in the venom of this snake. For the first time, the in vivo cellular localization of these myotoxins was studied in mouse skeletal muscle using immunofluorescence. Results showed that after 5 min of injection in the gastrocnemius muscle, both toxins initially interacted with the sarcolemma, and some colocalization with nuclei was already evident, especially for Mt-II. After 3 h of injection, a significant colocalization with the nuclei was observed for both toxins. These in vivo results confirm the importance of the initial interaction of these toxins with the sarcolemma and furthermore highlight the internalization and interaction of the toxins with nuclei during their pathophysiological activities, as observed in recent studies using cell culture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofía Vargas-Valerio
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Joby Robleto
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Stephanie Chaves-Araya
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Laura Monturiol-Gross
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Bruno Lomonte
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Fiorella Tonello
- Istituto di Neuroscienze, CNR, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131, Padova, Italy
| | - Julián Fernández
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica.
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15
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Short Linear Motifs Characterizing Snake Venom and Mammalian Phospholipases A2. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13040290. [PMID: 33923919 PMCID: PMC8073766 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13040290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Revised: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Snake venom phospholipases A2 (PLA2s) have sequences and structures very similar to those of mammalian group I and II secretory PLA2s, but they possess many toxic properties, ranging from the inhibition of coagulation to the blockage of nerve transmission, and the induction of muscle necrosis. The biological properties of these proteins are not only due to their enzymatic activity, but also to protein–protein interactions which are still unidentified. Here, we compare sequence alignments of snake venom and mammalian PLA2s, grouped according to their structure and biological activity, looking for differences that can justify their different behavior. This bioinformatics analysis has evidenced three distinct regions, two central and one C-terminal, having amino acid compositions that distinguish the different categories of PLA2s. In these regions, we identified short linear motifs (SLiMs), peptide modules involved in protein–protein interactions, conserved in mammalian and not in snake venom PLA2s, or vice versa. The different content in the SLiMs of snake venom with respect to mammalian PLA2s may result in the formation of protein membrane complexes having a toxic activity, or in the formation of complexes whose activity cannot be blocked due to the lack of switches in the toxic PLA2s, as the motif recognized by the prolyl isomerase Pin1.
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16
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Nemecz D, Ostrowski M, Ravatin M, Saul F, Faure G. Crystal Structure of Isoform CBd of the Basic Phospholipase A 2 Subunit of Crotoxin: Description of the Structural Framework of CB for Interaction with Protein Targets. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25225290. [PMID: 33202772 PMCID: PMC7696373 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25225290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Revised: 11/06/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Crotoxin, from the venom of the South American rattlesnake Crotalus durissus terrificus, is a potent heterodimeric presynaptic β-neurotoxin that exists in individual snake venom as a mixture of isoforms of a basic phospholipase A2 (PLA2) subunit (CBa2, CBb, CBc, and CBd) and acidic subunit (CA1-4). Specific natural mutations in CB isoforms are implicated in functional differences between crotoxin isoforms. The three-dimensional structure of two individual CB isoforms (CBa2, CBc), and one isoform in a crotoxin (CA2CBb) complex, have been previously reported. This study concerns CBd, which by interaction with various protein targets exhibits many physiological or pharmacological functions. It binds with high affinity to presynaptic receptors showing neurotoxicity, but also interacts with human coagulation factor Xa (hFXa), exhibiting anticoagulant effect, and acts as a positive allosteric modulator and corrector of mutated chloride channel, cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), implicated in cystic fibrosis. Thus, CBd represents a novel family of agents that have potential in identifying new drug leads related to anticoagulant and anti-cystic fibrosis function. We determined here the X-ray structure of CBd and compare it with the three other natural isoforms of CB. The structural role of specific amino acid variations between CB isoforms are analyzed and the structural framework of CB for interaction with protein targets is described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorota Nemecz
- Institut Pasteur, Récepteurs-Canaux, CNRS UMR 3571, Département de Neuroscience, 25, rue du Dr. Roux, F-75015 Paris, France; (D.N.); (M.O.); (M.R.)
- Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Biological and Veterinary Sciences, Nicolaus Copernicus University, 87-100 Torun, Poland
| | - Maciej Ostrowski
- Institut Pasteur, Récepteurs-Canaux, CNRS UMR 3571, Département de Neuroscience, 25, rue du Dr. Roux, F-75015 Paris, France; (D.N.); (M.O.); (M.R.)
- Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Biological and Veterinary Sciences, Nicolaus Copernicus University, 87-100 Torun, Poland
| | - Marc Ravatin
- Institut Pasteur, Récepteurs-Canaux, CNRS UMR 3571, Département de Neuroscience, 25, rue du Dr. Roux, F-75015 Paris, France; (D.N.); (M.O.); (M.R.)
- Sanofi R&D, Integrated Drug Discovery-High Content Biology, 94400 Vitry-sur-Seine, France
| | - Frederick Saul
- Institut Pasteur, Plateforme de Cristallographie-C2RT, CNRS UMR 3528, 75015 Paris, France;
| | - Grazyna Faure
- Institut Pasteur, Récepteurs-Canaux, CNRS UMR 3571, Département de Neuroscience, 25, rue du Dr. Roux, F-75015 Paris, France; (D.N.); (M.O.); (M.R.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +33-14-568-86-86; Fax: +33-14-568-88-36
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