Dauer life stage of Caenorhabditis elegans induces elevated levels of defense against the parasite Serratia marcescens

Microbes are potential key players in the evolution of life histories and aging in Caenorhabditis elegans

Microbes can have profound effects on host fitness and health and the appearance of late-onset diseases. Host-microbe interactions thus represent a major environmental context for healthy aging of the host and might also mediate trade-offs between life-history traits in the evolution of host senescence. Here, we have used the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans to study how host-microbe interactions may modulate the evolution of life histories and aging. We first characterized the effects of two non-pathogenic and one pathogenic Escherichia coli strains, together with the pathogenic Serratia marcescens DB11 strain, on population growth rates and survival of C. elegans from five different genetic backgrounds. We then focused on an outbred C. elegans population, to understand if microbe-specific effects on the reproductive schedule and in traits such as developmental rate and survival were also expressed in the presence of males and standing genetic variation, which could be relevant for the evolution of C. elegans and other nematode species in nature. Our results show that host-microbe interactions have a substantial host-genotype-dependent impact on the reproductive aging and survival of the nematode host. Although both pathogenic bacteria reduced host survival in comparison with benign strains, they differed in how they affected other host traits. Host fertility and population growth rate were affected by S. marcescens DB11 only during early adulthood, whereas this occurred at later ages with the pathogenic E. coli IAI1. In both cases, these effects were largely dependent on the host genotypes. Given such microbe-specific genotypic differences in host life history, we predict that the evolution of reproductive schedules and senescence might be critically contingent on host-microbe interactions in nature.

Evolution and Ecology of Parasite Avoidance

Parasite avoidance is a host defense that reduces the contact rate with parasites. We investigate avoidance as a primary driver of variation among individuals in the risk of parasitism and the evolution of host-parasite interactions. To bridge mechanistic and taxonomic divides, we define and categorize avoidance by its function and position in the sequence of host defenses. We also examine the role of avoidance in limiting epidemics and evaluate evidence for the processes that drive its evolution. Throughout, we highlight important directions to advance our conceptual and theoretical understanding of the role of avoidance in host-parasite interactions. We emphasize the need to test assumptions and quantify the effect of avoidance independent of other defenses. Importantly, many open questions may be most tractable in host systems that have not been the focus of traditional behavioral avoidance research, such as plants and invertebrates.

Developmental history modulates adult olfactory behavioral preferences via regulation of chemoreceptor expression in Caenorhabditiselegans

Developmental experiences play critical roles in shaping adult physiology and behavior. We and others previously showed that adult Caenorhabditiselegans which transiently experienced dauer arrest during development (postdauer) exhibit distinct gene expression profiles as compared to control adults which bypassed the dauer stage. In particular, the expression patterns of subsets of chemoreceptor genes are markedly altered in postdauer adults. Whether altered chemoreceptor levels drive behavioral plasticity in postdauer adults is unknown. Here, we show that postdauer adults exhibit enhanced attraction to a panel of food-related attractive volatile odorants including the bacterially produced chemical diacetyl. Diacetyl-evoked responses in the AWA olfactory neuron pair are increased in both dauer larvae and postdauer adults, and we find that these increased responses are correlated with upregulation of the diacetyl receptor ODR-10 in AWA likely via both transcriptional and posttranscriptional mechanisms. We show that transcriptional upregulation of odr-10 expression in dauer larvae is in part mediated by the DAF-16 FOXO transcription factor. Via transcriptional profiling of sorted populations of AWA neurons from control and postdauer animals, we further show that the expression of a subset of additional chemoreceptor genes in AWA is regulated similarly to odr-10 in postdauer animals. Our results suggest that developmental experiences may be encoded at the level of olfactory receptor regulation, and provide a simple mechanism by which C. elegans is able to precisely modulate its behavioral preferences as a function of its current and past experiences.

Microhabitat Governs the Microbiota of the Pinewood Nematode and Its Vector Beetle: Implication for the Prevalence of Pine Wilt Disease

Our understanding of environmental acquisition of microbes and migration-related alteration of microbiota across habitats has rapidly increased. However, in complex life cycles, such as for many parasites, exactly how these microbes are transmitted across multiple environments, such as hosts and habitats, is unknown. Pinewood nematode, the causal agent of the globally devastating pine wilt disease, provides an ideal model to study the role of microbiota in multispecies interactions because its successful host invasion depends on the interactions among its vector insects, pine hosts, and associated microbes. Here, we studied the role of bacterial and fungal communities involved in the nematode’s life cycle across different micro- (pupal chamber, vector beetle, and dispersal nematodes) and macrohabitats (geographical locations). We identified the potential sources, selection processes, and keystone taxa involved in the host pine-nematode-vector beetle microbiota interactions. Nearly 50% of the microbiota in vector beetle tracheae and ~60% that of third-stage dispersal juveniles were derived from the host pine (pupal chambers), whereas 90% of bacteria of fourth-stage dispersal juveniles originated from vector beetle tracheae. Our results also suggest that vector beetles’ tracheae selectively acquire some key taxa from the microbial community of the pupal chambers. These taxa will be then enriched in the dispersal nematodes traveling in the tracheae and hence likely transported to new host trees. Taken together, our findings contribute to the critical information toward a better understanding of the role of microbiota in pine wilt disease, therefore aiding the knowledge for the development of future biological control agents.

IMPORTANCE Our understanding of animal microbiota acquisition and dispersal-mediated variation has rapidly increased. In this study, using the model of host pine-pinewood nematode-vector beetle (Monochamus sp.) complex, we disentangled the routes of microbial community assembly and transmission mechanisms among these different participants responsible for highly destructive pine wilt disease. We provide evidence that the microhabitat is the driving force shaping the microbial community of these participants. The microbiota of third-stage dispersal juveniles (L_III) of the nematodes collected around pupal chambers and of vector beetles were mainly derived from the host pine (pupal chambers), whereas the vector-entering fourth-stage dispersal juveniles (L_IV) of the nematodes had the simplest microbiota community, not influencing vector’s microbiota. These findings enhanced our understanding of the variation in the microbiota of plants and animals and shed light on microbiota acquisition in complex life cycles.

An integrated view of innate immune mechanisms in C. elegans

The simple notion 'infection causes an immune response' is being progressively refined as it becomes clear that immune mechanisms cannot be understood in isolation, but need to be considered in a more global context with other cellular and physiological processes. In part, this reflects the deployment by pathogens of virulence factors that target diverse cellular processes, such as translation or mitochondrial respiration, often with great molecular specificity. It also reflects molecular cross-talk between a broad range of host signalling pathways. Studies with the model animal C. elegans have uncovered a range of examples wherein innate immune responses are intimately connected with different homeostatic mechanisms, and can influence reproduction, ageing and neurodegeneration, as well as various other aspects of its biology. Here we provide a short overview of a number of such connections, highlighting recent discoveries that further the construction of a fully integrated view of innate immunity.

Host genetic drift and adaptation in the evolution and maintenance of parasite resistance

Host-parasite interactions may often be subject to opposing evolutionary forces, which likely influence the evolutionary trajectories of both partners. Natural selection and genetic drift are two major evolutionary forces that act in host and parasite populations. Further, population size is a significant determinant of the relative strengths of these forces. In small populations, drift may undermine the persistence of beneficial alleles, potentially impeding host adaptation to parasites. Here, we investigate two questions: (a) can selection pressure for increased resistance in small, susceptible host populations overcome the effects of drift and (b) can resistance be maintained in small host populations? To answer these questions, we experimentally evolved the host Caenorhabditis elegans against its bacterial parasite, Serratia marcescens, for 13 host generations. We found that strong selection favouring increased host resistance was insufficient to counteract drift in small populations, resulting in persistently high host mortality. Additionally, in small populations of resistant hosts, we found that selection for the maintenance of resistance is not always sufficient to curb the loss of resistance. We compared these results with selection in large host populations. We found that initially resistant, large host populations were able to maintain high levels of resistance. Likewise, initially susceptible, large host populations were able to gain resistance to the parasite. These results show that strong selection pressure for survival is not always sufficient to counteract drift. In consideration of C. elegans natural population dynamics, we suggest that drift may often impede selection in nature.

[Genetics and evolution of developmental plasticity in the nematode C. elegans: Environmental induction of the dauer stage]

Adaptive developmental plasticity is a common phenomenon across diverse organisms and allows a single genotype to express multiple phenotypes in response to environmental signals. Developmental plasticity is thus thought to reflect a key adaptation to cope with heterogenous habitats. Adaptive plasticity often relies on highly regulated processes in which organisms sense environmental cues predictive of unfavourable environments. The integration of such cues may involve sophisticated neuro-endocrine signaling pathways to generate subtle or complete developmental shifts. A striking example of adaptive plasticity is found in the nematode C. elegans, which can undergo two different developmental trajectories depending on the environment. In favourable conditions, C. elegans develops through reproductive growth to become an adult in three days at 20 °C. In contrast, in unfavourable conditions (high population density, food scarcity, elevated temperature) larvae can adopt an alternative developmental stage, called dauer. dauer larvae are highly stress-resistant and exhibit specific anatomical, metabolic and behavioural features that allow them to survive and disperse. In C. elegans, the sensation of environmental cues is mediated by amphid ciliated sensory neurons by means of G-coupled protein receptors. In favourable environments, the perception of pro-reproductive cues, such as food and the absence of pro-dauer cues, upregulates insulin and TGF-β signaling in the nervous system. In unfavourable conditions, pro-dauer cues lead to the downregulation of insulin and TGF-β signaling. In favourable conditions, TGF-β and insulin act in parallel to promote synthesis of dafachronic acid (DA) in steroidogenic tissues. Synthetized DA binds to the DAF-12 nuclear receptor throughout the whole body. DA-bound DAF-12 positively regulates genes of reproductive development in all C. elegans tissues. In poor conditions, the inhibition of insulin and TGF-β signaling prevents DA synthesis, thus the unliganded DAF-12 and co-repressor DIN-1 repress genes of reproductive development and promote dauer formation. Wild C. elegans have often been isolated as dauer larvae suggesting that dauer formation is very common in nature. Natural populations of C. elegans have colonized a great variety of habitats across the planet, which may differ substantially in environmental conditions. Consistent with divergent adaptation to distinct ecological niches, wild isolates of C. elegans and other nematode species isolated from different locations show extensive variation in dauer induction. Quantitative genetic and population-genomic approaches have identified many quantitative trait loci (QTL) associated with differences in dauer induction as well as a few underlying causative molecular variants. In this review, we summarize how C. elegans dauer formation is genetically regulated and how this trait evolves- both within and between species.