Fatty Acid Inhibition Sensitizes Androgen-Dependent and -Independent Prostate Cancer to Radiotherapy via FASN/NF-κB Pathway

FASN inhibition shows the potential for enhancing radiotherapy outcomes by targeting glycolysis, AKT, and ERK pathways in breast cancer

PURPOSE

Breast cancer ranks as the most prevalent cancer in women, characterized by heightened fatty acid synthesis and glycolytic activity. Fatty acid synthase (FASN) is prominently expressed in breast cancer cells, regulating fatty acid synthesis, thereby enhancing tumor growth and migration, and leading to radioresistance. This study aims to investigate how FASN inhibition affects cell proliferation, migration, and radioresistance in breast cancer, as well as the mechanisms involved.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We used lentiviruses carrying shFASN to create FASN-knockdown cell lines called MCF-7-shFASN and MDA-MB-231-shFASN. We conducted Western blot analysis to determine the expression levels of FASN and other proteins of interest. Furthermore, we evaluated cellular glucose uptake and migration using the 18F-FDG assay, wound healing, and transwell assays. We also employed the MTT assay to assess the short-term survival of the negative control and FASN-knockdown cells after irradiation.

RESULTS

FASN knockdown led to a decrease in the expressions of proteins related to fatty acid synthesis and glycolysis in both MCF-7-shFASN and MDA-MB-231-shFASN cells when compared to their counterparts. Moreover, reduced 18F-FDG uptake and lactate production were also detected after FASN knockdown. FASN knockdown inhibited cell proliferation and survival by downregulating the AKT, ERK, and AMPK pathways and promoted apoptosis by increasing the BAX/p-Bcl-2 ratio. In addition, FASN knockdown impaired cell migration while enhancing radiosensitivity.

CONCLUSIONS

FASN knockdown disrupts fatty acid synthesis and glycolysis, inhibits cell proliferation and induces apoptosis. The increased radiosensitivity after FASN inhibition suggests that it could potentially complement radiotherapy in treating breast cancer.

Theoretical framework and emerging challenges of lipid metabolism in cancer

Elevated lipid metabolism is one of hallmarks of malignant tumors. Lipids not only serve as essential structural components of biological membranes but also provide energy and substrates for the proliferation of cancer cells and tumor growth. Cancer cells meet their lipid needs by coordinating the processes of lipid absorption, synthesis, transport, storage, and catabolism. As research in this area continues to deepen, numerous new discoveries have emerged, making it crucial for scientists to stay informed about the developments of cancer lipid metabolism. In this review, we first discuss relevant concepts and theories or assumptions that help us understand the lipid metabolism and -based cancer therapies. We then systematically summarize the latest advancements in lipid metabolism including new mechanisms, novel targets, and up-to-date pre-clinical and clinical investigations of anti-cancer treatment with lipid metabolism targeted drugs. Finally, we emphasize emerging research directions and therapeutic strategies, and discuss future prospective and emerging challenges. This review aims to provide the latest insights and guidance for research in the field of cancer lipid metabolism.

FASN contributes to ADM resistance of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma by inhibiting ferroptosis via nf-κB/STAT3/GPX4 axis

Drug resistance is a critical impediment to efficient therapy of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) patients. Recent studies have highlighted the association between ferroptosis and drug resistance that has been reported. Fatty acid synthase (FASN) is always related to a poor prognosis. In this study, we investigate the impact of FASN on drug resistance in DLBCL and explore its potential modulation of ferroptosis mechanisms. The clinical correlation of FASN mRNA expression was first analyzed to confirm the role of FASN on drug resistance in DLBCL based on the TCGA database. Next, the impact of FASN on ferroptosis was investigated in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, a combination of RNA-seq, western blot, luciferase reporter, and ChIP experiments was employed to elucidate the underlying mechanism. The prognosis for patients with DLBCL was worse when FASN was highly expressed, particularly in those undergoing chemotherapy for Adriamycin (ADM). FASN promoted tumor growth and resistance of DLBCL to ADM, both in vitro and in vivo. It is noteworthy that this effect was achieved by inhibiting ferroptosis, since Fer-1 (a ferroptosis inhibitor) treatment significantly recovered the effects of silencing FASN on inhibiting ferroptosis, while Erastin (a ferroptosis inducer) treatment attenuated the impact of overexpressing FASN. Mechanistically, FASN activated NF-κB/STAT3 signaling pathway through phosphorylating the upstream IKKα and IκBα, and the activated STAT3 promoted GPX4 expression by directly binding to GPX4 promoter. FASN inhibits ferroptosis in DLBCL via NF-κB/STAT3/GPX4 signaling pathway, indicating its critical role in mediating ADM resistance of DLBCL.

Metabolic adaptations in prostate cancer

Prostate cancer is one of the most commonly diagnosed cancers in men and is a major cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Among the molecular processes that contribute to this disease, the weight of metabolism has been placed under the limelight in recent years. Tumours exhibit metabolic adaptations to comply with their biosynthetic needs. However, metabolites also play an important role in supporting cell survival in challenging environments or remodelling the tumour microenvironment, thus being recognized as a hallmark in cancer. Prostate cancer is uniquely driven by androgen receptor signalling, and this knowledge has also influenced the paths of cancer metabolism research. This review provides a comprehensive perspective on the metabolic adaptations that support prostate cancer progression beyond androgen signalling, with a particular focus on tumour cell intrinsic and extrinsic pathways.

The role of protein post-translational modifications in prostate cancer

Involving addition of chemical groups or protein units to specific residues of the target protein, post-translational modifications (PTMs) alter the charge, hydrophobicity, and conformation of a protein, which in turn influences protein function, protein-protein interaction, and protein aggregation. These alterations, which include phosphorylation, glycosylation, ubiquitination, methylation, acetylation, lipidation, and lactylation, are significant biological events in the development of cancer, and play vital roles in numerous biological processes. The processes behind essential functions, the screening of clinical illness signs, and the identification of therapeutic targets all depend heavily on further research into the PTMs. This review outlines the influence of several PTM types on prostate cancer (PCa) diagnosis, therapy, and prognosis in an effort to shed fresh light on the molecular causes and progression of the disease.

Versatile function of NF-ĸB in inflammation and cancer

Nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-ĸB) plays a crucial role in both innate and adaptive immune systems, significantly influencing various physiological processes such as cell proliferation, migration, differentiation, survival, and stemness. The function of NF-ĸB in cancer progression and response to chemotherapy has gained increasing attention. This review highlights the role of NF-ĸB in inflammation control, biological mechanisms, and therapeutic implications in cancer treatment. NF-ĸB is instrumental in altering the release of inflammatory factors such as TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β, which are key in the regulation of carcinogenesis. Specifically, in conditions including colitis, NF-ĸB upregulation can intensify inflammation, potentially leading to the development of colorectal cancer. Its pivotal role extends to regulating the tumor microenvironment, impacting components such as macrophages, fibroblasts, T cells, and natural killer cells. This regulation influences tumorigenesis and can dampen anti-tumor immune responses. Additionally, NF-ĸB modulates cell death mechanisms, notably by inhibiting apoptosis and ferroptosis. It also has a dual role in stimulating or suppressing autophagy in various cancers. Beyond these functions, NF-ĸB plays a role in controlling cancer stem cells, fostering angiogenesis, increasing metastatic potential through EMT induction, and reducing tumor cell sensitivity to chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Given its oncogenic capabilities, research has focused on natural products and small molecule compounds that can suppress NF-ĸB, offering promising avenues for cancer therapy.

Unraveling the intricate relationship between lipid metabolism and oncogenic signaling pathways

Lipids, the primary constituents of the cell membrane, play essential roles in nearly all cellular functions, such as cell-cell recognition, signaling transduction, and energy provision. Lipid metabolism is necessary for the maintenance of life since it regulates the balance between the processes of synthesis and breakdown. Increasing evidence suggests that cancer cells exhibit abnormal lipid metabolism, significantly affecting their malignant characteristics, including self-renewal, differentiation, invasion, metastasis, and drug sensitivity and resistance. Prominent oncogenic signaling pathways that modulate metabolic gene expression and elevate metabolic enzyme activity include phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT, MAPK, NF-kB, Wnt, Notch, and Hippo pathway. Conversely, when metabolic processes are not regulated, they can lead to malfunctions in cellular signal transduction pathways. This, in turn, enables uncontrolled cancer cell growth by providing the necessary energy, building blocks, and redox potentials. Therefore, targeting lipid metabolism-associated oncogenic signaling pathways could be an effective therapeutic approach to decrease cancer incidence and promote survival. This review sheds light on the interactions between lipid reprogramming and signaling pathways in cancer. Exploring lipid metabolism as a target could provide a promising approach for creating anticancer treatments by identifying metabolic inhibitors. Additionally, we have also provided an overview of the drugs targeting lipid metabolism in cancer in this review.

Targeting Dysregulated Lipid Metabolism in Cancer with Pharmacological Inhibitors

Metabolic plasticity is recognised as a hallmark of cancer cells, enabling adaptation to microenvironmental changes throughout tumour progression. A dysregulated lipid metabolism plays a pivotal role in promoting oncogenesis. Oncogenic signalling pathways, such as PI3K/AKT/mTOR, JAK/STAT, Hippo, and NF-kB, intersect with the lipid metabolism to drive tumour progression. Furthermore, altered lipid signalling in the tumour microenvironment contributes to immune dysfunction, exacerbating oncogenesis. This review examines the role of lipid metabolism in tumour initiation, invasion, metastasis, and cancer stem cell maintenance. We highlight cybernetic networks in lipid metabolism to uncover avenues for cancer diagnostics, prognostics, and therapeutics.

Compound Taxus exerts marked anti-tumor activity and radiosensitization effect on hepatocellular carcinoma cells

Background

Compound Taxus capsule, as an antineoplastic Chinese patent drug, has been increasingly applied as an adjunctive treatment for the management of non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and some other malignancies, but research about its antitumor activity and radiosensitization effect on hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells is very rare.

Purpose

To investigate the antitumor activity and radiosensitization effect of Compound Taxus on HCC cells and to preliminarily explore the possible molecule mechanisms involved.

Methods

Cell viability, cell cycle distribution, apoptosis, DNA damage repair and protein expression levels were detected by CCK-8 assay, flow cytometry, immunofluorescence staining, western blotting analysis and immunohistochemical staining, respectively. The migration and invasion activities and vasculogenic mimicry (VM) formation and angiogenesis were evaluated by tube formation and VM formation assay. Radiation survival curves were obtained from the colony formation assay in human HCC cell lines, Smmc7721 and Bel7402 cells, pretreated with or without Compound Taxus before receiving X-ray irradiation. A Bel7402 tumor-bearing mouse model was established and the radiosensitization effect of Compound Taxus in vivo was evaluated by analyzing tumor volume and tumor weight in different groups receiving different treatments.

Results

Compound Taxus decreased viability, induced G2/M arrest, promoted apoptosis, suppressed migration and invasion, and inhibited VM formation and angiogenesis in Smmc7721 and Bel7402 cells. Furthermore, Compound Taxus inhibited irradiation-induced DNA damage repair, enhanced the radiosensitivity of Smmc7721 and Bel7402 cells and improved the anti-tumor therapeutic efficacy of irradiation in Bel7402 tumor-bearing mice. Radiotherapy in combination with Compound Taxus showed the best tumor inhibition compared to that of Compound Taxus alone or irradiation alone. In addition, Compound Taxus significantly down-regulated NF-κB p65, p-NF-κB p65 and Bcl-2, and up-regulated Bax in vitro and in vivo, yet NF-κB p65 overexpression reversed the proapoptotic effect of Taxus on HCC cells, indicating that the NF-κB signaling pathway might be an important signal mediator in the Compound-Taxus-modulated biological responses.

Conclusion

Our findings suggest that Compound Taxus shows marked antitumor activity and significant radiosensitization effect on HCC cells, making it possible for Compound Taxus to become a promising auxiliary modality for HCC management and a potential radiosensitizer of HCC in the future.

Identification of New Modulators and Inhibitors of Palmitoyl-Protein Thioesterase 1 for CLN1 Batten Disease and Cancer

Palmitoyl-protein thioesterase 1 (PPT1) is an understudied enzyme that is gaining attention due to its role in the depalmitoylation of several proteins involved in neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. PPT1 is overexpressed in several cancers, specifically cholangiocarcinoma and esophageal cancers. Inhibitors of PPT1 lead to cell death and have been shown to enhance the killing of tumor cells alongside known chemotherapeutics. PPT1 is hence a viable target for anticancer drug development. Furthermore, mutations in PPT1 cause a lysosomal storage disorder called infantile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (CLN1 disease). Molecules that can inhibit, stabilize, or modulate the activity of this target are needed to address these diseases. We used PPT1 enzymatic assays to identify molecules that were subsequently tested by using differential scanning fluorimetry and microscale thermophoresis. Selected compounds were also tested in neuroblastoma cell lines. The resulting PPT1 screening data was used for building machine learning models to help select additional compounds for testing. We discovered two of the most potent PPT1 inhibitors reported to date, orlistat (IC50 178.8 nM) and palmostatin B (IC50 11.8 nM). When tested in HepG2 cells, it was found that these molecules had decreased activity, indicating that they were likely not penetrating the cells. The combination of in vitro enzymatic and biophysical assays enabled the identification of several molecules that can bind or inhibit PPT1 and may aid in the discovery of modulators or chaperones. The molecules identified could be used as a starting point for further optimization as treatments for other potential therapeutic applications outside CLN1 disease, such as cancer and neurological diseases.

Lipid metabolism, amino acid metabolism, and prostate cancer: a crucial metabolic journey

Prostate cancer (PCa) is one of the most common malignancies in males worldwide, and its development and progression involve the regulation of multiple metabolic pathways. Alterations in lipid metabolism affect the proliferation and metastatic capabilities of PCa cells. Cancer cells increase lipid synthesis and regulate fatty acid oxidation to meet their growth and energy demands. Similarly, changes occur in amino acid metabolism in PCa. Cancer cells exhibit an increased demand for specific amino acids, and they regulate amino acid transport and metabolic pathways to fulfill their proliferation and survival requirements. These changes are closely associated with disease progression and treatment response in PCa cells. Therefore, a comprehensive investigation of the metabolic characteristics of PCa is expected to offer novel insights and approaches for the early diagnosis and treatment of this disease.

PITPNC1 Suppress CD8+ T cell immune function and promote radioresistance in rectal cancer by modulating FASN/CD155

BACKGROUND

Radioresistance is a primary factor contributing to the failure of rectal cancer treatment. Immune suppression plays a significant role in the development of radioresistance. We have investigated the potential role of phosphatidylinositol transfer protein cytoplasmic 1 (PITPNC1) in regulating immune suppression associated with radioresistance.

METHODS

To elucidate the mechanisms by which PITPNC1 influences radioresistance, we established HT29, SW480, and MC38 radioresistant cell lines. The relationship between radioresistance and changes in the proportion of immune cells was verified through subcutaneous tumor models and flow cytometry. Changes in the expression levels of PITPNC1, FASN, and CD155 were determined using immunohistochemistry and western blotting techniques. The interplay between these proteins was investigated using immunofluorescence co-localization and immunoprecipitation assays. Additionally, siRNA and lentivirus-mediated gene knockdown or overexpression, as well as co-culture of tumor cells with PBMCs or CD8+ T cells and establishment of stable transgenic cell lines in vivo, were employed to validate the impact of the PITPNC1/FASN/CD155 pathway on CD8+ T cell immune function.

RESULTS

Under irradiation, the apoptosis rate and expression of apoptosis-related proteins in radioresistant colorectal cancer cell lines were significantly decreased, while the cell proliferation rate increased. In radioresistant tumor-bearing mice, the proportion of CD8+ T cells and IFN-γ production within immune cells decreased. Immunohistochemical analysis of human and animal tissue specimens resistant to radiotherapy showed a significant increase in the expression levels of PITPNC1, FASN, and CD155. Gene knockdown and rescue experiments demonstrated that PITPNC1 can regulate the expression of CD155 on the surface of tumor cells through FASN. In addition, co-culture experiments and in vivo tumor-bearing experiments have shown that silencing PITPNC1 can inhibit FASN/CD155, enhance CD8+ T cell immune function, promote colorectal cancer cell death, and ultimately reduce radioresistance in tumor-bearing models.

CONCLUSIONS

PITPNC1 regulates the expression of CD155 through FASN, inhibits CD8+ T cell immune function, and promotes radioresistance in rectal cancer.

Role of long non-coding RNAs in metabolic reprogramming of gastrointestinal cancer cells

Metabolic reprogramming, which is recognized as a hallmark of cancer, refers to the phenomenon by which cancer cells change their metabolism to support their increased biosynthetic demands. Tumor cells undergo substantial alterations in metabolic pathways, such as glycolysis, oxidative phosphorylation, pentose phosphate pathway, tricarboxylic acid cycle, fatty acid metabolism, and amino acid metabolism. Latest studies have revealed that long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), a group of non-coding RNAs over 200 nucleotides long, mediate metabolic reprogramming in tumor cells by regulating the transcription, translation and post-translational modification of metabolic-related signaling pathways and metabolism-related enzymes through transcriptional, translational, and post-translational modifications of genes. In addition, lncRNAs are closely related to the tumor microenvironment, and they directly or indirectly affect the proliferation and migration of tumor cells, drug resistance and other processes. Here, we review the mechanisms of lncRNA-mediated regulation of glucose, lipid, amino acid metabolism and tumor immunity in gastrointestinal tumors, aiming to provide more information on effective therapeutic targets and drug molecules for gastrointestinal tumors.

Lipid metabolic reprogramming in tumor microenvironment: from mechanisms to therapeutics

Lipid metabolic reprogramming is an emerging hallmark of cancer. In order to sustain uncontrolled proliferation and survive in unfavorable environments that lack oxygen and nutrients, tumor cells undergo metabolic transformations to exploit various ways of acquiring lipid and increasing lipid oxidation. In addition, stromal cells and immune cells in the tumor microenvironment also undergo lipid metabolic reprogramming, which further affects tumor functional phenotypes and immune responses. Given that lipid metabolism plays a critical role in supporting cancer progression and remodeling the tumor microenvironment, targeting the lipid metabolism pathway could provide a novel approach to cancer treatment. This review seeks to: (1) clarify the overall landscape and mechanisms of lipid metabolic reprogramming in cancer, (2) summarize the lipid metabolic landscapes within stromal cells and immune cells in the tumor microenvironment, and clarify their roles in tumor progression, and (3) summarize potential therapeutic targets for lipid metabolism, and highlight the potential for combining such approaches with other anti-tumor therapies to provide new therapeutic opportunities for cancer patients.

Pharmacological effect and mechanism of orlistat in anti-tumor therapy: A review

Research has demonstrated that obesity is an important risk factor for cancer progression. Orlistat is a lipase inhibitor with promising therapeutic effects on obesity. In addition to being regarded as a slimming drug, a growing number of studies in recent years have suggested that orlistat has anti-tumor activities, while the underlying mechanism is still not well elucidated. This paper reviewed recent pharmacological effects and mechanisms of orlistat against tumors and found that orlistat can target cancer cells through activation or suppression of multiple signaling pathways. It can induce tumor cells apoptosis or death, interfere with tumor cells' cycles controlling, suppress fatty acid synthase activity, increase ferroptosis, inhibit tumor angiogenesis, and improve tumor cells glycolytic. Thus, this review may shed new light on anti-tumor mechanism and drug repurposing of orlistat, and anti-tumor drug development.

Malignant function of nuclear factor-kappaB axis in prostate cancer: Molecular interactions and regulation by non-coding RNAs

Prostate carcinoma is a malignant situation that arises from genomic alterations in the prostate, leading to changes in tumorigenesis. The NF-κB pathway modulates various biological mechanisms, including inflammation and immune responses. Dysregulation of NF-κB promotes carcinogenesis, including increased proliferation, invasion, and therapy resistance. As an incurable disease globally, prostate cancer is a significant health concern, and research into genetic mutations and NF-κB function has the efficacy to facilitate the introduction of novel therapies. NF-κB upregulation is observed during prostate cancer progression, resulting in increased cell cycle progression and proliferation rates. Additionally, NF-κB endorses resistance to cell death and enhances the capacity for metastasis, particularly bone metastasis. Overexpression of NF-κB triggers chemoresistance and radio-resistance, and inhibition of NF-κB by anti-tumor compounds can reduce cancer progression. Interestingly, non-coding RNA transcripts can regulate NF-κB level and its nuclear transfer, offering a potential avenue for modulating prostate cancer progression.

The role of lipid metabolism in cancer radioresistance

Radiotherapy is one of the main therapies for cancer. The process leading to radioresistance is still not fully understood. Cancer radiosensitivity is related to the DNA reparation of cancer cells and the tumor microenvironment (TME), which supports cancer cell survival. Factors that affect DNA reparation and the TME can directly or indirectly affect the radiosensitivity of cancer. Recent studies have shown that lipid metabolism in cancer cells, which is involved in the stability of cell membrane structure, energy supply and signal transduction of cancer cells, can also affect the phenotype and function of immune cells and stromal cells in the TME. In this review, we discussed the effects of lipid metabolism on the radiobiological characteristics of cancer cells and the TME. We also summarized recent advances in targeted lipid metabolism as a radiosensitizer and discussed how these scientific findings could be translated into clinical practice to improve the radiosensitivity of cancer.

Fatty acid metabolism and radiation-induced anti-tumor immunity

Fatty acid metabolic reprogramming has emerged as a major regulator of anti-tumor immune responses with large body of evidence that demonstrate its ability to impact the differentiation and function of immune cells. Therefore, depending on the metabolic cues that stem in the tumor microenvironment, the tumor fatty acid metabolism can tilt the balance of inflammatory signals to either promote or impair anti-tumor immune responses. Oxidative stressors such as reactive oxygen species generated from radiation therapy can rewire the tumor energy supply, suggesting that radiation therapy can further perturb the energy metabolism of a tumor by promoting fatty acid production. In this review, we critically discuss the network of fatty acid metabolism and how it regulates immune response especially in the context of radiation therapy.

Novel insight into metabolic reprogrammming in cancer radioresistance: A promising therapeutic target in radiotherapy

Currently, cancer treatment mainly consists of surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and molecular targeted therapy, of which radiotherapy is one of the major pillars. However, the occurrence of radioresistance largely limits its therapeutic effect. Metabolic reprogramming is an important hallmark in cancer progression and treatment resistance. In radiotherapy, DNA breakage is the major mechanism of cell damage, and in turn, cancer cells are prone to increase the metabolic flux of glucose, glutamine, serine, arginine, fatty acids etc., thus providing sufficient substrates and energy for DNA damage repair. Therefore, studying the linkage between metabolic reprogramming and cancer radioresistance may provide new ideas for improving the efficacy of tumor therapy. This review mainly focuses on the role of metabolic alterations, including glucose, amino acid, lipid, nucleotide and other ion metabolism, in radioresistance, and proposes possible therapeutic targets to improve the efficacy of cancer radiotherapy.

Recent progress of the tumor microenvironmental metabolism in cervical cancer radioresistance

Radiotherapy is widely used as an indispensable treatment option for cervical cancer patients. However, radioresistance always occurs and has become a big obstacle to treatment efficacy. The reason for radioresistance is mainly attributed to the high repair ability of tumor cells that overcome the DNA damage caused by radiotherapy, and the increased self-healing ability of cancer stem cells (CSCs). Accumulating findings have demonstrated that the tumor microenvironment (TME) is closely related to cervical cancer radioresistance in many aspects, especially in the metabolic processes. In this review, we discuss radiotherapy in cervical cancer radioresistance, and focus on recent research progress of the TME metabolism that affects radioresistance in cervical cancer. Understanding the mechanism of metabolism in cervical cancer radioresistance may help identify useful therapeutic targets for developing novel therapy, overcome radioresistance and improve the efficacy of radiotherapy in clinics and quality of life of patients.

Histone lysine demethylase inhibition reprograms prostate cancer metabolism and mechanics

Objective

Methods

Results

Conclusions

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KDMs inhibition promotes increases H3K4me2 and H3K27me3 in PCa and CRPC, which causes cancer selective pro-apoptotic pathways.

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KDMs regulate AR expression in PCa and CRPC, reducing ATP production, mitochondrial respiration and intermediate metabolites availability.

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Epigenetic controls metabolic pathways and redirects lipid metabolic cascade.

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KDMs inhibition alters lipid distribution and composition, impacting on physical and mechanical properties of PCa and CRPC.

Radiotherapy-induced metabolic hallmarks in the tumor microenvironment

Radiation is frequently administered for cancer treatment, but resistance or remission remains common. Cancer cells alter their metabolism after radiotherapy to reduce its cytotoxic effects. The influence of altered cancer metabolism extends to the tumor microenvironment (TME), where components of the TME exchange metabolites to support tumor growth. Combining radiotherapy with metabolic targets in the TME can improve therapy response. We review the metabolic rewiring of cancer cells following radiotherapy and put these observations in the context of the TME to describe the metabolic hallmarks of radiotherapy in the TME.

Orlistat Resensitizes Sorafenib-Resistance in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells through Modulating Metabolism

Sorafenib is one of the options for advanced hepatocellular carcinoma treatment and has been shown to extend median overall survival. However, sorafenib resistance often develops a few months after treatment. Hence, developing various strategies to overcome sorafenib resistance and understand the possible mechanisms is urgently needed. We first established sorafenib-resistant hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells. Then, we found that sorafenib-resistant Huh7 cells (Huh7/SR) exhibit higher glucose uptakes and express elevated fatty acid synthesis and glucose metabolism-related proteins than their parental counterparts (Huh7). The current study investigated whether sorafenib resistance could be reversed by suppressing fatty acid synthesis, using a fatty acid synthase (FASN) inhibitor, orlistat, in HCC cells. FASN inhibition-caused changes in protein expressions and cell cycle distribution were analyzed by Western blot and flow cytometry, and changes in glucose uptakes were also evaluated by ¹⁸F-FDG uptake. Orlistat remarkably enhanced the cytotoxicity of sorafenib in both Huh7 and Huh7/SR cells, and flow cytometry showed that combination treatment significantly increased the sub-G1 population in both cell lines. Western blot revealed that the combination treatment effectively increased the ratio of Bax/Bcl-2 and decreased expressions of pERK; additionally, the combination treatment also strongly suppressed fatty acid synthesis-related proteins (e.g., FASN and SCD) in both cell lines. Lastly, the ¹⁸F-FDG uptake was repressed by the combination treatment in both cell lines. Our results indicated that orlistat-mediated FASN inhibition could overcome sorafenib resistance and enhance cell killing in HCC by changing cell metabolism.

Targeting Energy Metabolism in Cancer Treatment

Cancer is the second most common cause of death worldwide after cardiovascular diseases. The development of molecular and biochemical techniques has expanded the knowledge of changes occurring in specific metabolic pathways of cancer cells. Increased aerobic glycolysis, the promotion of anaplerotic responses, and especially the dependence of cells on glutamine and fatty acid metabolism have become subjects of study. Despite many cancer treatment strategies, many patients with neoplastic diseases cannot be completely cured due to the development of resistance in cancer cells to currently used therapeutic approaches. It is now becoming a priority to develop new treatment strategies that are highly effective and have few side effects. In this review, we present the current knowledge of the enzymes involved in the different steps of glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the pentose phosphate pathway, and possible targeted therapies. The review also focuses on presenting the differences between cancer cells and normal cells in terms of metabolic phenotype. Knowledge of cancer cell metabolism is constantly evolving, and further research is needed to develop new strategies for anti-cancer therapies.

Fatty Acid Synthase Is the Key Regulator of Fatty Acid Metabolism and Is Related to Immunotherapy in Bladder Cancer

Fatty acid metabolism (FAM) genes are potentially useful for predicting prognosis and immunotherapy response in bladder cancer (BC). To examine this, we constructed a prognostic model and identified key FAM genes in BC. Using transcriptional expression profiles and clinical data of BC patients from public datasets and Changhai (CH) hospital, we built and validated a risk-score model based on 13 prognostic FAM genes. Differential gene expression identified fatty acid synthase (FASN) as central to fatty acid metabolism in BC. FASN was differentially expressed between normal and tumor tissue, and was related to survival. In the CH dataset, FASN independently predicted muscle-invasive BC. FASN differential expression was significantly related to immune-cell infiltration and patients with low FASN expression responded better to immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) treatment. SREBF1 was predicted as the most significant transcription factor for FASN. Competing endogenous RNA network analysis suggested that lncRNA AC107027.3 may upregulate FASN by competitively binding miR-27A-3p, thereby regulating the immunotherapy response in BC. Dasatinib and temsirolimus are potential FASN-targeting drugs. Our model efficiently predicted prognosis in BC. FASN is central to fatty acid metabolism, and a potential indicator and regulator of ICI treatment.

Metabolic response to radiation therapy in cancer

Tumor metabolism has emerged as a hallmark of cancer and is involved in carcinogenesis and tumor growth. Reprogramming of tumor metabolism is necessary for cancer cells to sustain high proliferation rates and enhanced demands for nutrients. Recent studies suggest that metabolic plasticity in cancer cells can decrease the efficacy of anticancer therapies by enhancing antioxidant defenses and DNA repair mechanisms. Studying radiation-induced metabolic changes will lead to a better understanding of radiation response mechanisms as well as the identification of new therapeutic targets, but there are few robust studies characterizing the metabolic changes induced by radiation therapy in cancer. In this review, we will highlight studies that provide information on the metabolic changes induced by radiation and oxidative stress in cancer cells and the associated underlying mechanisms.

Novel Strategy of Proxalutamide for the Treatment of Prostate Cancer through Coordinated Blockade of Lipogenesis and Androgen Receptor Axis

Objective: Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most common malignant tumor diagnosed in men in developed countries. In developing countries, the PCa morbidity and mortality rates are also increasing rapidly. Since androgen receptor (AR) is a key driver and plays a critical role in the regulation of PCa development, AR-targeted agents provide a key component of current therapy regimens. However, even new-generation AR antagonists are prone to drug resistance, and there is currently no effective strategy for overcoming advanced PCa aggressiveness, including drug-resistance progression. The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential efficacy and novel therapy strategy of proxalutamide (a newly developed AR antagonist) in PCa. Methods: Four PCa cell lines with various biological heterogeneities were utilized in this study, namely, androgen-sensitive/-insensitive with/without AR expression. Proliferation, migration and apoptosis assays in PCa cells were used to evaluate the effective therapeutic activity of proxalutamide. The changes in lipid droplet accumulation and lipidomic profiles were analyzed to determine the influence of proxalutamide on lipogenesis in PCa cells. The molecular basis of the effects of proxalutamide on lipogenesis and the AR axis was then further investigated. Results: Proxalutamide significantly inhibited the proliferation and migration of PCa cells, and its inhibitory effect was superior to that of enzalutamide (Enz, second-generation AR antagonist). Proxalutamide induced the caspase-dependent apoptosis of PCa cells. Proxalutamide significantly diminished the level of lipid droplets in PCa cells, changed the lipid profile of PCa cells and reduced the content of most lipids (especially triglycerides) in PCa cells. Proxalutamide attenuated de novo lipogenesis by inhibiting the expression of ATP citrate lyase (ACL), acetyl CoA carboxylase (ACC), fatty acid synthase (FASN) and sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1 (SREBP-1). Moreover, proxalutamide also decreased AR expression in PCa cells, and its inhibitory effect on lipogenesis did not depend on its ability to down-regulate AR expression. However, Enz had no effect on AR expression, lipid accumulation or lipid de novo synthesis in PCa cells. Conclusions: By co-targeting the AR axis and endogenous adipogenesis, a novel and promising strategy was established for proxalutamide to combat the progress of PCa. The unique effect of proxalutamide on the metabolic reprogramming of PCa provides a potential solution to overcome the resistance of current AR-targeted therapy, which will help to effectively prolong its clinical service life.

Epicatechin gallate prevents the de novo synthesis of fatty acid and the migration of prostate cancer cells

Lipid metabolism disorder caused by the upregulation of lipogenic genes is a typical feature of prostate cancer. The synthesis of fatty acids is enhanced to accelerate the development of prostate cancer and is considered as a potential therapeutic target. Epicatechin gallate, an active compound of green tea, has been reported to modulate lipid metabolism. In this research, the potential role of epicatechin gallate in prostate cancer cells was evaluated. The results indicated that epicatechin gallate downregulates the expression of acetyl-CoA carboxylase, ATP citrate lyase, and fatty acid synthase in prostate cancer cells and prostate xenograft tissues, suggesting that epicatechin gallate can inhibit de novo fatty acid synthesis. Moreover, epicatechin gallate significantly restrains the migration rather than the viability of prostate cancer cells. PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway, which exhibits regulatory effect on lipogenesis, is also inhibited under epicatechin gallate treatment, while pretreatment with AKT activator SC79 or mTOR activator MHY1485 blocks the inhibitory effect of epicatechin gallate on the expression of lipogenic genes and the migration of prostate cancer cells. In conclusion, this study revealed that epicatechin gallate impairs the synthesis of fatty acids via inhibition PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway and then attenuates the migration of prostate cancer cells.

Tumour fatty acid metabolism in the context of therapy resistance and obesity

Fatty acid metabolism is known to support tumorigenesis and disease progression as well as treatment resistance through enhanced lipid synthesis, storage and catabolism. More recently, the role of membrane fatty acid composition, for example, ratios of saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, in promoting cell survival while limiting lipotoxicity and ferroptosis has been increasingly appreciated. Alongside these insights, it has become clear that tumour cells exhibit plasticity with respect to fatty acid metabolism, responding to extratumoural and systemic metabolic signals, such as obesity and cancer therapeutics, to promote the development of aggressive, treatment-resistant disease. Here, we describe cellular fatty acid metabolic changes that are connected to therapy resistance and contextualize obesity-associated changes in host fatty acid metabolism that likely influence the local tumour microenvironment to further modify cancer cell behaviour while simultaneously creating potential new vulnerabilities.

Exploration of Redox-Related Molecular Patterns and the Redox Score for Prostate Cancer

Redox homeostasis is the key to cell survival, and its imbalance can promote the occurrence and progression of tumors. However, it remains unclear whether these redox-related genes (RRGs) have potential roles in the tumor microenvironment, immunotherapy, and drug sensitivity. Here, we performed a systematic and comprehensive analysis of 489 prostate cancer (PC) samples from The Cancer Genome Atlas database and 214 PC samples from 8 datasets in the Gene Expression Omnibus database to determine redox modification patterns and the redox scoring system for PC. We identified two modification patterns (Redox_A and Redox_B) in PC using unsupervised consensus clustering based on 1410 differential expression RRGs. We then compared the prognostic value, tumor microenvironment characteristics, immune cell infiltration, and molecular characteristics of the two patterns. The Redox_A pattern was significantly enriched in the carcinogenic activation signaling pathways and had a poor prognosis, while the Redox_B pattern was mainly enriched in a variety of metabolic and redox pathways and had a good prognosis. Next, redox-related characteristic genes were extracted from these two patterns, and a scoring system (Redox_score) was constructed to evaluate PC patients. Further analysis indicated that lower Redox_score patients had a better prognosis, while higher Redox_score patients had a higher tumor mutation burden, driver gene mutation rate, and immune checkpoint inhibitor gene expression. We also found that higher Redox_score patients were more responsive to anti-PD-1 immunotherapy. Moreover, Redox_score was determined to be significantly correlated with anticancer drug sensitivity and resistance. Our study provides a comprehensive analysis of redox modifications in PC and reveals new patterns of PC based on RRGs, which will provide insights into the complex mechanisms of PC and develop more effective individualized therapeutic strategies.

Radioresistance of Human Cancers: Clinical Implications of Genetic Expression Signatures

Although radiotherapy is given to more than 50% of cancer patients, little progress has been made in identifying optimal radiotherapy - drug combinations to improve treatment efficacy. Using molecular data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), we extracted a total of 1016 cancer patients that received radiotherapy. The patients were diagnosed with head-and-neck (HNSC - 294 patients), cervical (CESC - 166 patients) and breast (BRCA - 549 patients) cancer. We analyzed mRNA expression patterns of 50 hallmark gene sets of the MSigDB collection, which we divided in eight categories based on a shared biological or functional process. Tumor samples were split into upregulated, neutral or downregulated mRNA expression for all gene sets using a gene set analysis (GSEA) pre-ranked analysis and assessed for their clinical relevance. We found a prognostic association between three of the eight gene set categories (Radiobiological, Metabolism and Proliferation) and overall survival in all three cancer types. Furthermore, multiple single associations were revealed in the other categories considered. To the best of our knowledge, our study is the first report suggesting clinical relevance of molecular characterization based on hallmark gene sets to refine radiation strategies.

Knockdown of PGM1 enhances anticancer effects of orlistat in gastric cancer under glucose deprivation

Background

Phosphoglucomutase 1 (PGM1) acts as an important regulator in glucose metabolism. However, the role of PGM1 in gastric cancer (GC) remains unclear. This study aims to investigate the role of PGM1 and develop novel regimens based on metabolic reprogramming in GC.

Methods

Correlation and enrichment analyses of PGM1 were conducted based on The Cancer Genome Atlas database. Data derived from the Kaplan–Meier Plotter database were analyzed to evaluate correlations between PGM1 expression and survival time of GC patients. Cell counting kit-8, 5-Ethynyl-2-deoxyuridine, flow cytometry assays, generation of subcutaneous tumor and lung metastasis mouse models were used to determine growth and metastasis in vitro and in vivo. Cell glycolysis was detected by a battery of glycolytic indicators, including lactate, pyruvic acid, ATP production and glucose uptake. Fatty Acid Synthase (FASN) activity and expression levels of lipid enzymes were determined to reflect on lipid metabolism.

Results

Correlation and enrichment analyses suggested that PGM1 was closely associated with cell viability, proliferation and metabolism. PGM1 was overexpressed in GC tissues and cell lines. High PGM1 expression served as an indicator of shorter survival for specific subpopulation of GC patients. It was also correlated with pathological tumor stage and pathological tumor node metastasis stage of GC. Under the glucose deprivation condition, knockdown of PGM1 significantly suppressed cell viability, proliferation and glycolysis, whereas lipid metabolism was enhanced. Orlistat, as a drug that was designed to inhibit FASN activity, effectively induced apoptosis and suppressed lipid metabolism in GC. However, orlistat conversely increased glycolytic levels. Orlistat exhibited more significant inhibitive effects on GC progression after knockdown of PGM1 under glucose deprivation due to combination of glycolysis and lipid metabolism both in vitro and in vivo.

Conclusions

Downregulation of PGM1 expression under glucose deprivation enhanced anti-cancer effects of orlistat. This combination application may serve as a novel strategy for GC treatment.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12935-021-02193-3.

Anti-Obesity Drug Orlistat Alleviates Western-Diet-Driven Colitis-Associated Colon Cancer via Inhibition of STAT3 and NF-κB-Mediated Signaling

Many researchers have argued that Western diet (WD)-induced obesity accelerates inflammation and that inflammation is a link between obesity and colorectal cancer (CRC). This study investigated the effect of WDs on the development and progression of colitis-associated colon cancer (CAC) and the efficacy of the anti-obesity agent orlistat on WD-driven CAC in mice. The results revealed that the WD exacerbated CAC in azoxymethane (AOM)/dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced mice, which showed increased mortality, tumor formation, and aggravation of tumor progression. Furthermore, WD feeding also upregulated inflammation, hyperplasia, and tumorigenicity levels through the activation of STAT3 and NF-κB signaling in an AOM/DSS-induced mouse model. In contrast, treatment with orlistat increased the survival rate and alleviated the symptoms of CAC, including a recovery in colon length and tumor production decreases in WD-driven AOM/DSS-induced mice. Additionally, orlistat inhibited the extent of inflammation, hyperplasia, and tumor progression via the inhibition of STAT3 and NF-κB activation. Treatment with orlistat also suppressed the β-catenin, slug, XIAP, Cdk4, cyclin D, and Bcl-2 protein levels in WD-driven AOM/DSS-induced mice. The results of this study indicate that orlistat alleviates colon cancer promotion in WD-driven CAC mice by suppressing inflammation, especially by inhibiting STAT3 and NF-κB activation.

Prostate Cancer Progression: as a Matter of Fats

Advanced prostate cancer (PCa) represents the fifth cause of cancer death worldwide. Although survival has improved with second-generation androgen signaling and Parp inhibitors, the benefits are not long-lasting, and new therapeutic approaches are sorely needed. Lipids and their metabolism have recently reached the spotlight with accumulating evidence for their role as promoters of PCa development, progression, and metastasis. As a result, interest in targeting enzymes/transporters involved in lipid metabolism is rapidly growing. Moreover, the use of lipogenic signatures to predict prognosis and resistance to therapy has been recently explored with promising results. Despite the well-known association between obesity with PCa lethality, the underlying mechanistic role of diet/obesity-derived metabolites has only lately been unveiled. Furthermore, the role of lipids as energy source, building blocks, and signaling molecules in cancer cells has now been revisited and expanded in the context of the tumor microenvironment (TME), which is heavily influenced by the external environment and nutrient availability. Here, we describe how lipids, their enzymes, transporters, and modulators can promote PCa development and progression, and we emphasize the role of lipids in shaping TME. In a therapeutic perspective, we describe the ongoing efforts in targeting lipogenic hubs. Finally, we highlight studies supporting dietary modulation in the adjuvant setting with the purpose of achieving greater efficacy of the standard of care and of synthetic lethality. PCa progression is "a matter of fats", and the more we understand about the role of lipids as key players in this process, the better we can develop approaches to counteract their tumor promoter activity while preserving their beneficial properties.

Differential but Concerted Expression of HSD17B2, HSD17B3, SHBG and SRD5A1 Testosterone Tetrad Modulate Therapy Response and Susceptibility to Disease Relapse in Patients with Prostate Cancer

Simple Summary

Over the last two decades, our improved understanding of the pathobiology of androgen-addicted prostate cancer (PCa), and documented therapeutic advances/breakthroughs have not translated into any substantial or sustained curative benefit for patients treated with traditional ADT or novel immune checkpoint blockade therapeutics. This is invariably connected with the peculiar biology and intratumoral heterogeneity of PCa. Castration-resistant PCa, constituting ~30% of all PCa, remains a clinically enigmatic and therapeutically challenging disease sub-type, that is therapy-refractory and characterized by high risk for recurrence after initial response. Our findings highlight the role and exploitability of testosterone metabolic reprogramming in prostate TME for patient stratification and personalized/precision medicine based on the differential but concerted expression of molecular components of the proposed testosterone tetrad in patients with therapy-refractory, locally advanced, or recurrent PCa. The therapeutic exploitability and clinical feasibility of our proposed approach is suggested by our preclinical findings.

Abstract

Background: Testosterone plays a critical role in prostate development and pathology. However, the impact of the molecular interplay between testosterone-associated genes on therapy response and susceptibility to disease relapse in PCa patients remains underexplored. Objective: This study investigated the role of dysregulated or aberrantly expressed testosterone-associated genes in the enhanced dissemination, phenoconversion, and therapy response of treatment-resistant advanced or recurrent PCa. Methods: Employing a combination of multi-omics big data analyses, in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo assays, we assessed the probable roles of HSD17B2, HSD17B3, SHBG, and SRD5A1-mediated testosterone metabolism in the progression, therapy response, and prognosis of advanced or castration-resistant PCa (CRPC). Results: Our bioinformatics-aided gene expression profiling and immunohistochemical staining showed that the aberrant expression of the HSD17B2, HSD17B3, SHBG, and SRD5A1 testosterone metabolic tetrad characterize androgen-driven PCa and is associated with disease progression. Reanalysis of the TCGA PRAD cohort (n = 497) showed that patients with SRD5A1-dominant high expression of the tetrad exhibited worse mid-term to long-term (≥5 years) overall survival, with a profoundly shorter time to recurrence, compared to those with low expression. More so, we observed a strong association between enhanced HSD17B2/SRD5A1 signaling and metastasis to distant lymph nodes (M1a) and bones (M1b), while upregulated HSD17B3/SHBG signaling correlated more with negative metastasis (M0) status. Interestingly, increased SHBG/SRD5A1 ratio was associated with metastasis to distant organs (M1c), while elevated SRD5A1/SHBG ratio was associated with positive biochemical recurrence (BCR) status, and shorter time to BCR. Molecular enrichment and protein–protein connectivity network analyses showed that the androgenic tetrad regulates testosterone metabolism and cross-talks with modulators of drug response, effectors of cell cycle progression, proliferation or cell motility, and activators/mediators of cancer stemness. Moreover, of clinical relevance, SHBG ectopic expression (SHBG_OE) or SRD5A1 knockout (sgSRD5A1) induced the acquisition of spindle fibroblastoid morphology by the round/polygonal metastatic PC-3 and LNCaP cells, attenuated their migration and invasion capability, and significantly suppressed their ability to form primary or secondary tumorspheres, with concomitant downregulation of stemness KLF4, OCT3/4, and drug resistance ABCC1, ABCB1 proteins expression levels. We also showed that metronomic dutasteride synergistically enhanced the anticancer effect of low-dose docetaxel, in vitro, and in vivo. Conclusion: These data provide proof of concept that re-reprogramming of testosterone metabolism through “SRD5A1 withdrawal” or “SHBG induction” is a workable therapeutic strategy for shutting down androgen-driven oncogenic signals, reversing treatment resistance, and repressing the metastatic/recurrent phenotypes of patients with PCa.

Fatty Acids Metabolism: The Bridge Between Ferroptosis and Ionizing Radiation

Exposure of tumor cells to ionizing radiation (IR) alters the microenvironment, particularly the fatty acid (FA) profile and activity. Moreover, abnormal FA metabolism, either catabolism or anabolism, is essential for synthesizing biological membranes and delivering molecular signals to induce ferroptotic cell death. The current review focuses on the bistable regulation characteristics of FA metabolism and explains how FA catabolism and anabolism pathway crosstalk harmonize different ionizing radiation-regulated ferroptosis responses, resulting in pivotal cell fate decisions. In summary, targeting key molecules involved in lipid metabolism and ferroptosis may amplify the tumor response to IR.

Pyruvate carboxylase promotes thyroid cancer aggressiveness through fatty acid synthesis

Background

Pyruvate carboxylase (PC) is an important anaplerotic enzyme in the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) in cancer cells. Although PC overexpression has been observed in thyroid cancer (TC), the mechanisms involved in the carcinogenic effects of PC are still unclear.

Methods

Bioinformatics analysis and clinical specimens were used to analyze the relationship of PC expression with clinicopathological variables in TC. Fatty acid synthesis was monitored by LC/MS, Nile red staining, and triglyceride analysis. Mitochondrial oxygen consumption was evaluated by the Seahorse XF Mito Cell Stress Test. The correlation of PC with FASN and SREBP1c was assessed by qRT-PCR and IHC in 38 human TC tissues. Western blotting was used to evaluate the protein expression of PC, FASN, and SREBP1c and members of the AKT/mTOR and EMT pathways in TC cell lines. Wound-healing, CCK-8, and Transwell assays and a nude mouse xenograft model were used to verify the regulatory effects of PC and SREBP1c on thyroid tumor cell proliferation, migration and invasion.

Results

We demonstrated that PC increased fatty acid synthesis, which then promoted TC progression and metastasis. Analysis of GEO data showed that the overexpression of PC in papillary thyroid cancer (PTC) was associated with PTC invasion and the fatty acid synthesis pathway. Analysis of clinical tissue specimens from PTC patients revealed that PC was more highly expressed in specimens from PTC patients with lymph node metastasis than in those from patients without metastasis. Multiple genes in the fatty acid synthesis signaling pathway, including FASN and SREBP1c, were downregulated in PC-knockdown TC cells compared to control cells. Lipid levels were also decreased in the PC-knockdown TC cells. Moreover, the ability of cells to grow, invade, and metastasize was also suppressed upon PC knockdown, suggesting that PC-mediated lipogenesis activation increases the aggressiveness of TC cells. In addition, PC was found to activate the AKT/mTOR pathway, thus improving FASN-mediated de novo lipogenesis in TC cells by upregulating SREBP1c expression. Studies in a nude mouse xenograft model showed that PC knockdown decreased tumor weight, but this effect was attenuated by forced expression of SREBP1c.

Conclusions

Our results demonstrate that PC is strongly involved in the tumor aggressiveness of TC via its stimulation of fatty acid synthesis.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12885-021-08499-9.

Effects of orlistat combined with enzalutamide and castration through inhibition of fatty acid synthase in a PC3 tumor-bearing mouse model

Androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) is one of the typical treatments used for patients with prostate cancer (PCa). ADT, however, may fail when PCa develops castration-resistance. Fatty acid synthase (FASN), a critical enzyme involved in fatty acid synthesis, is found to be up-regulated in PCa. Since enzalutamide and ADT are frequently used for the treatment of PCa, the present study aimed to unravel the underlying mechanism of combination of orlistat, an FASN inhibitor, and enzalutamide using PC3 cell line; and orlistat and castration in PC3 tumor-bearing animal model. Cytotoxicity was determined by AlamarBlue assay. Drug effects on the cell cycle and protein expressions were assayed by the flow cytometry and Western blot. Electromobility shift assay was used to evaluate the NF-κB activity. The tumor growth delay, expressions of the signaling-related proteins, and histopathology post treatments of orlistat and castration were evaluated in PC3 tumor-bearing mouse model. The results showed that orlistat arrested the PC3 cells at the G₁ phase of the cell cycle and enhanced the cytotoxic effects of enzalutamide synergistically. Pretreatment with orlistat combined with castration inhibited the tumor growth significantly compared with those of castration and orlistat treatments alone in PC3 tumor-bearing mice. Combination treatment reduced both FASN and NF-κB activities and their downstream effector proteins. The present study demonstrated the synergistic effects of orlistat combined with enzalutamide in vitro and castration in vivo on human PCa.

Metabolic Rewiring in Radiation Oncology Toward Improving the Therapeutic Ratio

To meet the anabolic demands of the proliferative potential of tumor cells, malignant cells tend to rewire their metabolic pathways. Although different types of malignant cells share this phenomenon, there is a large intracellular variability how these metabolic patterns are altered. Fortunately, differences in metabolic patterns between normal tissue and malignant cells can be exploited to increase the therapeutic ratio. Modulation of cellular metabolism to improve treatment outcome is an emerging field proposing a variety of promising strategies in primary tumor and metastatic lesion treatment. These strategies, capable of either sensitizing or protecting tissues, target either tumor or normal tissue and are often focused on modulating of tissue oxygenation, hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) stabilization, glucose metabolism, mitochondrial function and the redox balance. Several compounds or therapies are still in under (pre-)clinical development, while others are already used in clinical practice. Here, we describe different strategies from bench to bedside to optimize the therapeutic ratio through modulation of the cellular metabolism. This review gives an overview of the current state on development and the mechanism of action of modulators affecting cellular metabolism with the aim to improve the radiotherapy response on tumors or to protect the normal tissue and therefore contribute to an improved therapeutic ratio.

iTRAQ-based proteomic analysis of the molecular mechanisms and downstream effects of fatty acid synthase in osteosarcoma cells

Background

Fatty acid synthase (FASN) is a lipogenic enzyme that participates in tumor progression. We previously showed that FASN is dysregulated in OS malignancy, but the molecular mechanism(s) of these effects remained unclear.

Methods

We examined differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) in FASN‐silenced osteosarcoma 143B cells and their parental cells by isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ). Differentially expressed proteins were classified using GO and KEGG analysis. The association between FASN and heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A1 (HNRNPA1) was confirmed using qPCR, Western blot, and immunohistochemistry. The function of HNRNPA1 in osteosarcoma was determined using CCK‐8, colony formation, wound healing, transwell migration, and invasion assays.

Results

Among the 4971 identified proteins, 567 DEPs (325 upregulated and 242 downregulated) were identified. The top 10 upregulated proteins comprised HIST1H2AB, INA, INTS5, MTCH2, EIF1, MAPK1IP1L, PXK, RPS27, PM20D2, and ZNF800, while the top 10 downregulated proteins comprised NDRG1, CNTLN, STON2, GDF7, HECTD3, HBB, TPM1, PPP4R4, PTTG1IP, and PLCB3. Bioinformatic analysis indicated that the DEPs were related to cellular processes, metabolic processes, biological regulation, binding, and catalytic activity. HNRNPA1 was dysregulated in FASN‐silenced 143B and HOS cells. qPCR, Western blot, and immunohistochemistry showed that FASN expression positively correlates with HNRNPA1 expression. Further studies indicated that HNRNPA1 correlates with OS diagnosis and prognosis. And HNRNPA1 silence inhibits the proliferation, migration, and invasion in OS cells.

Conclusion

HNRNPA1 acts as targets downstream of FASN and potential biomarker and oncogene in OS.

Cytotoxicity and Radiosensitizing Activity of the Fatty Acid Synthase Inhibitor C75 Is Enhanced by Blocking Fatty Acid Uptake in Prostate Cancer Cells

Prostate cancers, like many other types of cancer, express elevated levels of fatty acid synthase (FASN) to make more fatty acids, which are required for energy, signaling, and proliferation. Because inhibition of FASN has been shown to sensitize tumors to chemotherapy and radiation, we studied the effect of C75, a radiosensitizing FASN inhibitor, and compared its single agent and radiosensitizing activities in 2 prostate cancer cell lines, PC3 and LNCaP, with alternative FASN inhibitors that have progressed into clinical trials. We also investigated the effect of serum and fatty acid supplementation on responses to FASN inhibitors, probing expression of key proteins related to fatty acid uptake in response to FASN inhibition, irradiation, and serum lipid concentration and how this may be modulated to increase the potency of C75. We demonstrated that C75 was the only FASN inhibitor to sensitize cells to ionizing radiation; no sensitization was apparent with FASN inhibitors TVB-3166 or Orlistat. The prostate cancer cell lines were able to take up fatty acids from the culture medium, and the availability of fatty acids affected sensitivity of these cells to C75 but not the other FASN inhibitors tested. C75 also increased expression of fatty acid transporter proteins FATP1 and CD36. Furthermore, blocking CD36 with antibody increased the sensitivity of cells to C75. We suggest that the potency of C75 is affected by fatty acid availability and that the effectiveness of FASN inhibitors in combination with ionizing radiation can be further enhanced by regulating fatty acid uptake.

Fatty Acid Synthase: An Emerging Target in Cancer

In recent years, lipid metabolism has garnered significant attention as it provides the necessary building blocks required to sustain tumor growth and serves as an alternative fuel source for ATP generation. Fatty acid synthase (FASN) functions as a central regulator of lipid metabolism and plays a critical role in the growth and survival of tumors with lipogenic phenotypes. Accumulating evidence has shown that it is capable of rewiring tumor cells for greater energy flexibility to attain their high energy requirements. This multi-enzyme protein is capable of modulating the function of subcellular organelles for optimal function under different conditions. Apart from lipid metabolism, FASN has functional roles in other cellular processes such as glycolysis and amino acid metabolism. These pivotal roles of FASN in lipid metabolism make it an attractive target in the clinic with several new inhibitors currently being tested in early clinical trials. This article aims to present the current evidence on the emergence of FASN as a target in human malignancies.

Targeting fatty acid synthase sensitizes human nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells to radiation via downregulating frizzled class receptor 10

Objective: Our aim was to test the hypothesis that fatty acid synthase (FASN) expression contributes to radioresistance of nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) cells and that inhibiting FASN enhances radiosensitivity. Methods: Targeting FASN using epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) or RNA interference in NPC cell lines that overexpress endogenous FASN was performed to determine their effects on cellular response to radiation in vitro using MTT and colony formation assays, and in vivo using xenograft animal models. Western blot, immunohistochemistry, real-time PCR arrays, and real-time RT-PCR were used to determine the relationship between FASN and frizzled class receptor 10 (FZD10) expression. FZD10 knockdown and overexpression were used to determine its role in mediating FASN function in cellular response to radiation. Immunohistochemical staining was used to determine FASN and FZD10 expressions in human NPC tissues, followed by analysis of their association with the overall survival of patients. Results: FASN knockdown or inhibition significantly enhanced radiosensitivity of NPC cells, both in vitro and in vivo. There was a positive association between FASN and FZD10 expression in NPC cell lines grown as monolayers or xenografts, as well as human tissues. FASN knockdown reduced FZD10 expression, and rescue of FZD10 expression abolished FASN knockdown-induced enhancement of radiosensitivity. FASN and FZD10 were both negatively associated with overall survival of NPC patients. Conclusions: FASN contributes to radioresistance, possibly via FZD10 in NPC cells. Both FZD10 and FASN expressions were associated with poor outcomes of NPC patients. EGCG may sensitize radioresistance by inhibiting FASN and may possibly be developed as a radiosensitizer for better treatment of NPCs.

Lipids in the tumor microenvironment: From cancer progression to treatment

Over the past decade, the study of metabolic abnormalities in cancer cells has risen dramatically. Cancer cells can thrive in challenging environments, be it the hypoxic and nutrient-deplete tumor microenvironment or a distant tissue following metastasis. The ways in which cancer cells utilize lipids are often influenced by the complex interactions within the tumor microenvironment and adjacent stroma. Adipocytes can be activated by cancer cells to lipolyze their triglyceride stores, delivering secreted fatty acids to cancer cells for uptake through numerous fatty acid transporters. Cancer-associated fibroblasts are also implicated in lipid secretion for cancer cell catabolism and lipid signaling leading to activation of mitogenic and migratory pathways. As these cancer-stromal interactions are exacerbated during tumor progression, fatty acids secreted into the microenvironment can impact infiltrating immune cell function and phenotype. Lipid metabolic abnormalities such as increased fatty acid oxidation and de novo lipid synthesis can provide survival advantages for the tumor to resist chemotherapeutic and radiation treatments and alleviate cellular stresses involved in the metastatic cascade. In this review, we highlight recent literature that demonstrates how lipids can shape each part of the cancer lifecycle and show that there is significant potential for therapeutic intervention surrounding lipid metabolic and signaling pathways.

Lipids and cancer: Emerging roles in pathogenesis, diagnosis and therapeutic intervention

With the advent of effective tools to study lipids, including mass spectrometry-based lipidomics, lipids are emerging as central players in cancer biology. Lipids function as essential building blocks for membranes, serve as fuel to drive energy-demanding processes and play a key role as signaling molecules and as regulators of numerous cellular functions. Not unexpectedly, cancer cells, as well as other cell types in the tumor microenvironment, exploit various ways to acquire lipids and extensively rewire their metabolism as part of a plastic and context-dependent metabolic reprogramming that is driven by both oncogenic and environmental cues. The resulting changes in the fate and composition of lipids help cancer cells to thrive in a changing microenvironment by supporting key oncogenic functions and cancer hallmarks, including cellular energetics, promoting feedforward oncogenic signaling, resisting oxidative and other stresses, regulating intercellular communication and immune responses. Supported by the close connection between altered lipid metabolism and the pathogenic process, specific lipid profiles are emerging as unique disease biomarkers, with diagnostic, prognostic and predictive potential. Multiple preclinical studies illustrate the translational promise of exploiting lipid metabolism in cancer, and critically, have shown context dependent actionable vulnerabilities that can be rationally targeted, particularly in combinatorial approaches. Moreover, lipids themselves can be used as membrane disrupting agents or as key components of nanocarriers of various therapeutics. With a number of preclinical compounds and strategies that are approaching clinical trials, we are at the doorstep of exploiting a hitherto underappreciated hallmark of cancer and promising target in the oncologist's strategy to combat cancer.

Metformin: (future) best friend of the radiation oncologist?

Several molecules are being investigated for their ability to enhance the anti-tumor effect of radiotherapy. The widely prescribed antidiabetic drug metformin has been suggested to possess anti-cancer activity; data indicate that metformin could also enhance radiation sensitivity. The purpose of this review is to summarize current knowledge on the specific effect of metformin in the field of RT, while also discussing the many unknowns that persist. Preclinical models point to multiple mechanisms involved in the radiosensitizing effects of metformin that are mainly linked to mitochondrial complex I inhibition and AMP-activated protein kinase. Transposition of results from bench to bedside will be discussed through the lens of the drug concentration, its potential limits in human settings, and possible alternatives. Clinical data suggest metformin improves progression-free and overall survival in patients for many different cancers treated with RT; nevertheless, the results are not always consistent. The main limitations of the reviewed literature are the retrospective nature of studies, and most of the time, a lack of information on MTF treatment duration and the administered dosages. Despite these limitations, the possible mechanisms of the role of metformin and its utility in enhancing radiotherapy treatments are analyzed. Ongoing clinical trials are also discussed.

Differentially Expressed MicroRNAs in Radioresistant and Radiosensitive Atypical Meningioma: A Clinical Study in Chinese Patients

Background: For atypical meningiomas (AMs), the combination of gross total resection (GTR) and adjuvant radiotherapy (ART) is still a controversial therapeutic strategy to improve prognosis. This study analyzed the factors influencing the prognosis on AM patients treated with GTR + ART by investigating both clinical characteristics and the change in microRNA (miRNA) expression.

Materials and Methods: Adult AM patients who were admitted to the Tiantan hospital from 2008 to 2015 and underwent GTR + ART were included. Patients who suffered recurrence within 3 years after operation were considered radioresistant, while the others were considered radiosensitive. Clinical characterizations were compared between these two groups. The microRNA (miRNA) expression was detected via miRNA microarray in 10 patients, five from the radiosensitive group and from the radioresistant group.

Results: A total of 55 cases were included in this study. No significant difference was found in the clinical characteristics (gender, age, tumor location, tumor size, peritumoral brain edema, and Ki-67 index) between radiosensitive and radioresistant patients. We found seven significantly upregulated miRNAs (miR-4286, miR-4695-5p, miR-6732-5p, miR-6855-5p, miR-7977, miR-6765-3p, miR-6787-5p) and seven significantly downregulated miRNAs (miR-1275, miR-30c-1-3p, miR-4449, miR-4539, miR-4684-3p, miR-6129, miR-6891-5p) in patients resistant to radiotherapy. The differentially expressed miRNAs were enriched mostly in the fatty acid metabolic pathways (hsa00061, hsa01212) and transforming growth factor beta signaling pathway (hsa04350).

Conclusion: For AM patients treated with GTR + ART, the changes in miRNA expression discovered in this study may be a potential predictor of individual sensitivity to adjuvant radiotherapy. Further research is needed regarding the predictive power and mechanism by which these miRNAs influence prognosis.

Redox Homeostasis and Metabolism in Cancer: A Complex Mechanism and Potential Targeted Therapeutics

Reactive Oxygen Species or "ROS" encompass several molecules derived from oxygen that can oxidize other molecules and subsequently transition rapidly between species. The key roles of ROS in biological processes are cell signaling, biosynthetic processes, and host defense. In cancer cells, increased ROS production and oxidative stress are instigated by carcinogens, oncogenic mutations, and importantly, metabolic reprograming of the rapidly proliferating cancer cells. Increased ROS production activates myriad downstream survival pathways that further cancer progression and metastasis. In this review, we highlight the relation between ROS, the metabolic programing of cancer, and stromal and immune cells with emphasis on and the transcription machinery involved in redox homeostasis, metabolic programing and malignant phenotype. We also shed light on the therapeutic targeting of metabolic pathways generating ROS as we investigate: Orlistat, Biguandes, AICAR, 2 Deoxyglucose, CPI-613, and Etomoxir.

Evaluation of FASN inhibitors by a versatile toolkit reveals differences in pharmacology between human and rodent FASN preparations and in antiproliferative efficacy in vitro vs. in situ in human cancer cells

De novo synthesis of fatty acids is essential to maintain intensive proliferation of cancer cells. Unlike normal cells that utilize food-derived circulating lipids for their fuel, cancer cells rely on heightened lipogenesis irrespective of exogenous lipid availability. Overexpression and activity of the multidomain enzyme fatty acid synthase (FASN) is crucial in supplying palmitate for protumorigenic activity. Therefore, FASN has been proposed as an attractive target for drug development. As an effort to set up an effective toolkit to study FASN inhibitors in human and rodent tissues, we validated activity-based protein profiling (ABPP) as a viable approach to unveil inhibitors targeting FASN thioesterase domain (FASN-TE). ABPP was combined with multi-well plate-assays designed for classical substrate-based FASN activity analysis together with powerful monitoring of cancer cell proliferation using IncuCyte® Live Cell Analyzing System. FASN-TE inhibitors were identified by competitive ABPP using HEK293 cell lysates in a screen of in-house compounds (200+) designed to target serine hydrolase (SH) family. The identified compounds were tested for their inhibitor potencies in vitro using a substrate-based activity assay monitoring FASN-dependent NADPH consumption in LNCaP prostate cancer cell preparation, in parallel with selected reference inhibitors, including orlistat (THL), GSK2194069, GSK837149A, platensimycin and BI-99179. LNCaP lysate supernatant was validated as a reliable native preparation to monitor FASN-dependent NADPH consumption as opposed to human glioma GAMG cells, whereas FASN enrichment was a prerequisite for accurate assays. While inhibitor pharmacology was identical between human prostate and glioma cancer cell FASN preparations, notable differences were revealed between human and rodent FASN preparations, especially for inhibitors targeting FASN-TE. ABPP combined with substrate-based assays facilitated identification of pan thiol-reactive inhibitor scaffolds, exemplified by the 1,2,4-thiadiazole moiety. Finally, selected compounds were evaluated for their antiproliferative efficacy in situ using GAMG cells. These studies revealed that while the tested compounds acted as potent FASN inhibitors in vitro, only a few showed antiproliferative efficacy in situ. To conclude, we describe a versatile toolkit to study FASN inhibitors in vitro and in situ using human cancer cells and reveal dramatic pharmacological differences between human and rodent FASN preparations.

Anticancer properties of the fatty acid synthase inhibitor TVB-3166 on oral squamous cell carcinoma cell lines

OBJECTIVE

Fatty acid synthase (FASN) is overexpressed in several human cancers, including oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). TVB-3166 is a recently described FASN inhibitor with antitumor effects and potential clinical relevance. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of TVB-3166 on OSCC cell lines.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The OSCC cell line SCC-9 modified to express ZsGreen (ZsG) (SCC-9 ZsG) and its in vivo selected metastatic derivative LN-1A were used to evaluate anticancer properties of TVB-3166. Cell viability was determined using MTT assays and proliferation determined by cell counting in a Neubauer chamber. Cell death and cell cycle progression were analyzed by Annexin V-PE/7-ADD-PerCP labeling and PI staining, respectively. Cell migration was assayed by scratch assays and cell adhesion using myogel. Production of FASN, p-AKT, CPT1-α, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers were examined by Western blotting.

RESULTS

TVB-3166 significantly reduced cell viability and proliferation, promoted cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, and increased adhesion to myogel in both OSCC cell lines. Finally, the drug reduced SCC-9 ZsG migration.

CONCLUSION

Our results demonstrated that TVB-3166 has anticancer effects on both SCC-9 ZsG and its metastatic version LN-1A, which are worthy of investigation in preclinical models for OSCC.