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Lee J, Weerasinghe-Mudiyanselage PDE, Kim B, Kang S, Kim JS, Moon C. Particulate matter exposure and neurodegenerative diseases: A comprehensive update on toxicity and mechanisms. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2023; 266:115565. [PMID: 37832485 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.115565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2023] [Revised: 09/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/08/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to particulate matter (PM) has been associated with a range of health impacts, including neurological abnormalities that affect neurodevelopment, neuroplasticity, and behavior. Recently, there has been growing interest in investigating the possible relationship between PM exposure and the onset and progression of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and multiple sclerosis. However, the precise mechanism by which PM affects neurodegeneration is still unclear, even though several epidemiological and animal model studies have provided mechanistic insights. This article presents a review of the current research on the neurotoxicity of PM and its impact on neurodegenerative diseases. This review summarizes findings from epidemiological and animal model studies collected through searches in Google Scholar, PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus. This review paper also discusses the reported effects of PM exposure on the central nervous system and highlights research gaps and future directions. The information presented in this review may inform public health policies aimed at reducing PM exposure and may contribute to the development of new treatments for neurodegenerative diseases. Further mechanistic and therapeutic research will be needed to fully understand the relationship between PM exposure and neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeongmin Lee
- Department of Veterinary Anatomy and Animal Behavior, College of Veterinary Medicine and BK21 FOUR program, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 61186, South Korea
| | - Poornima D E Weerasinghe-Mudiyanselage
- Department of Veterinary Anatomy and Animal Behavior, College of Veterinary Medicine and BK21 FOUR program, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 61186, South Korea
| | - Bohye Kim
- Department of Veterinary Anatomy and Animal Behavior, College of Veterinary Medicine and BK21 FOUR program, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 61186, South Korea
| | - Sohi Kang
- Department of Veterinary Anatomy and Animal Behavior, College of Veterinary Medicine and BK21 FOUR program, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 61186, South Korea
| | - Joong-Sun Kim
- Department of Veterinary Anatomy and Animal Behavior, College of Veterinary Medicine and BK21 FOUR program, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 61186, South Korea
| | - Changjong Moon
- Department of Veterinary Anatomy and Animal Behavior, College of Veterinary Medicine and BK21 FOUR program, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 61186, South Korea.
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Zundel CG, Ryan P, Brokamp C, Heeter A, Huang Y, Strawn JR, Marusak HA. Air pollution, depressive and anxiety disorders, and brain effects: A systematic review. Neurotoxicology 2022; 93:272-300. [PMID: 36280190 PMCID: PMC10015654 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2022.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Revised: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Accumulating data suggest that air pollution increases the risk of internalizing psychopathology, including anxiety and depressive disorders. Moreover, the link between air pollution and poor mental health may relate to neurostructural and neurofunctional changes. We systematically reviewed the MEDLINE database in September 2021 for original articles reporting effects of air pollution on 1) internalizing symptoms and behaviors (anxiety or depression) and 2) frontolimbic brain regions (i.e., hippocampus, amygdala, prefrontal cortex). One hundred and eleven articles on mental health (76% human, 24% animals) and 92 on brain structure and function (11% human, 86% animals) were identified. For literature search 1, the most common pollutants examined were PM2.5 (64.9%), NO2 (37.8%), and PM10 (33.3%). For literature search 2, the most common pollutants examined were PM2.5 (32.6%), O3 (26.1%) and Diesel Exhaust Particles (DEP) (26.1%). The majority of studies (73%) reported higher internalizing symptoms and behaviors with higher air pollution exposure. Air pollution was consistently associated (95% of articles reported significant findings) with neurostructural and neurofunctional effects (e.g., increased inflammation and oxidative stress, changes to neurotransmitters and neuromodulators and their metabolites) within multiple brain regions (24% of articles), or within the hippocampus (66%), PFC (7%), and amygdala (1%). For both literature searches, the most studied exposure time frames were adulthood (48% and 59% for literature searches 1 and 2, respectively) and the prenatal period (26% and 27% for literature searches 1 and 2, respectively). Forty-three percent and 29% of studies assessed more than one exposure window in literature search 1 and 2, respectively. The extant literature suggests that air pollution is associated with increased depressive and anxiety symptoms and behaviors, and alterations in brain regions implicated in risk of psychopathology. However, there are several gaps in the literature, including: limited studies examining the neural consequences of air pollution in humans. Further, a comprehensive developmental approach is needed to examine windows of susceptibility to exposure and track the emergence of psychopathology following air pollution exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara G Zundel
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA.
| | - Patrick Ryan
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, USA; Division of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA.
| | - Cole Brokamp
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, USA; Division of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA.
| | - Autumm Heeter
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA.
| | - Yaoxian Huang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Wayne State University, 5050 Anthony Wayne Drive, Detroit, MI, USA.
| | - Jeffrey R Strawn
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, USA; Anxiety Disorders Research Program, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA.
| | - Hilary A Marusak
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA; Merrill Palmer Skillman Institute for Child and Family Development, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA; Translational Neuroscience Program, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA.
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Park S, Ku J, Lee SM, Hwang H, Lee N, Kim H, Yoon KJ, Kim Y, Choi SQ. Potential toxicity of inorganic ions in particulate matter: Ion permeation in lung and disruption of cell metabolism. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 824:153818. [PMID: 35157864 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Revised: 02/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to ambient particulate matter (PM) is associated with adverse health effects. Yet, due to the complexity of its chemical composition, the molecular effects of PM exposure and the mechanism of PM-mediated toxicity remain largely unknown. Here, we show that water-soluble inorganics such as nitrate and sulfate ions, rather than PM itself, rapidly penetrate the lung surfactant barrier to the alveolar region and perturb gene expression in the lungs. Through high-throughput sequencing of lung adenocarcinoma cells, we find that exposure to nitrate and sulfate ions activates the cholesterol biosynthetic metabolism and induces the expression of genes related to tumorigenesis. Transcriptome analysis of mouse lungs exposed to nitrate/sulfate aerosols reveals interferon gamma-associated immune response. Interestingly, we find that exposure to a nitrate/sulfate mixture leads to a unique gene expression pattern that is not observed when nitrate or sulfate is treated alone. Our work suggests that the water-soluble ions are a potential source of PM-mediated toxicity and provides a roadmap to unveil the molecular mechanism of health hazards from PM exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sujin Park
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, South Korea; KAIST Institute for the NanoCentury, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, South Korea
| | - Jayoung Ku
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, South Korea; KAIST Institute for Health Science and Technology (KIHST), Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, South Korea
| | - Sung-Min Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, South Korea
| | - Huiseon Hwang
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, South Korea
| | - Namseok Lee
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, South Korea; KAIST Institute for Health Science and Technology (KIHST), Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, South Korea
| | - Hanul Kim
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, South Korea; KAIST Institute for the NanoCentury, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, South Korea
| | - Ki-Jun Yoon
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, South Korea
| | - Yoosik Kim
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, South Korea; KAIST Institute for Health Science and Technology (KIHST), Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, South Korea.
| | - Siyoung Q Choi
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, South Korea; KAIST Institute for the NanoCentury, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, South Korea.
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Park M, Han J, Park J, Jang MJ, Park MK. Particular matter influences the incidence of acute otitis media in children. Sci Rep 2021; 11:19730. [PMID: 34611241 PMCID: PMC8492675 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-99247-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Particulate matter (PM) is the main component of air pollution. Children are vulnerable to PM and acute otitis media (AOM), which is one of the most common diseases in children. However, studies on the relationship between AOM in children and PM are rare and their results are inconsistent. The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of PM on AOM in children on the basis of the Korea National Health Insurance service (NHIS) claims data. NHIS claim data from 2008 to 2015 was used to identify outpatient visits, antibiotic use to treat AOM, and demographic data. This data was combined with the data on PM2.5 (≤ 2.5 μm) and PM10 (≤ 10 μm according to its aerodynamic diameter) level extracted from air pollution data from Korean National Institute of Environmental Research for 16 administrative regions. The children with AOM were divided into three age groups (< 2, 2–4, 5–10 years). Generalized linear Poisson regression model was used to estimate the association between AOM and PM using daily counts of AOM and daily mean PM concentrations. It was adjusted to temperature, wind, humidity, season, year, age, and region. With an increase in PM2.5 of 10 μg/m3, the relative risk of OM increased by 4.5% in children under 2 years of age. The effect of PM2.5 was strongest influence on the day of exposure. The exposure to PM10 was related to the incidence of AOM on the day of exposure and the following seven days in all three age groups. The PM concentrations did not strongly affect either AOM duration or the use of antibiotics to cure AOM. The RR in the each lag day after exposure to PM10 was diverse according to the age groups. Regardless of PM size and children’s age, the PM levels are positively related to the incidence of AOM. Both PM2.5 and PM10 have the most adverse effects on children under 2 years of age and on the day of exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mina Park
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Seoul Medical Center, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Jiyeon Han
- Medical Research Collaborating Center, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Jiwon Park
- Medical Research Collaborating Center, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Myoung-Jin Jang
- Medical Research Collaborating Center, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Moo Kyun Park
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Sensory Organ Research Institute, Seoul National University Medical Research Center, Seoul National University College of Medicine, 101 Daehangno, Jongno-gu, Seoul, South Korea.
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Kim SY, Kim KW, Lee SM, Park S, Kim BG, Choi EK, Son BS, Park MK. Effects of intranasal instillation of nanoparticulate matter in the olfactory bulb. Sci Rep 2021; 11:16997. [PMID: 34417533 PMCID: PMC8379193 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-96593-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Nanoparticulate matter activates the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) pathway in the respiratory system in a process involving the AhR nuclear translocator (ARNT) and cytochrome P450 family 1, member A1 (CYP1A1). We examined changes in AhR-related pathways following intranasal instillation of nanoparticulate matter in the olfactory bulb and cerebral cortex. Twice a day for 5 days per week for 1 week or 2 weeks, 8-week-old Sprague-Dawley rats were intranasally instilled with 10 µL nanoparticulate matter (nano group; n = 36). An equal volume of saline was intranasally instilled in control rats (n = 36). One week after intranasal instillation, olfactory function and Y-maze tests were performed. The expression levels of AhR in the olfactory bulb and temporal cortex were analyzed using western blotting and immunofluorescence assays. The expression levels of AhR, CYP1A1, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and five genes encoding cation transporters (ARNT, ATP7B, ATPB1, OCT1, and OCT2) in the olfactory bulb were analyzed using quantitative reverse transcription. The olfactory discrimination capability was reduced in the nano group compared with the control group. Proportional changes in the Y-maze test were not significantly different between the nano and control groups. AhR mRNA and protein expression in the olfactory bulb increased 1.71-fold (P < 0.001) and 1.60-fold (P = 0.008), respectively. However, no significant changes were observed in the temporal cortex. In the olfactory bulb, the expression of ARNT, ATP7B, ATPB1, and OCT2 was downregulated. CYP1A1 and iNOS expression in the olfactory bulb was upregulated compared with that in the temporal cortex. The intranasal instillation of nanoparticulate matter decreased the olfactory discrimination ability, which was accompanied by upregulation of AhR expression and downregulation of cation transporters in the olfactory bulb.
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Affiliation(s)
- So Young Kim
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, College of Medicine, CHA University, Seongnam, South Korea
| | - Kyung Woon Kim
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, College of Medicine, CHA University, Seongnam, South Korea
| | - So Min Lee
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, College of Medicine, CHA University, Seongnam, South Korea
| | - Sohyeon Park
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Byeong-Gon Kim
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Eun-Kyung Choi
- Electron Microscope Lab, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Bu Soon Son
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, SoonChunHyang University, Asan, Chungnam, Republic of Korea
| | - Moo Kyun Park
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea.
- Sensory Organ Research Institute, Medical Research Center, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea.
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Lee CH, Kim KW, Lee DH, Lee SM, Kim SY. Overexpression of the receptor for advanced glycation end-products in the auditory cortex of rats with noise-induced hearing loss. BMC Neurosci 2021; 22:38. [PMID: 34020590 PMCID: PMC8139161 DOI: 10.1186/s12868-021-00642-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The receptor for advanced glycation end-products (RAGE) is involved in neuroinflammation. This study investigated the changes in RAGE expression following noise-induced hearing loss. METHODS Three-week-old female Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to 115 dB SPL white noise for 4 h daily for 3 d (noise group, n = 16). In parallel, age and sex-matched control rats were raised under standard conditions without noise exposure (control group, n = 16). After 2 h (noise immediate, n = 8) and 4 wk (noise 4-week, n = 8) of noise exposure, the auditory cortex was harvested and cytoplasmic and nuclear fractions were isolated. The gene expression levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin 6 (IL6), interleukin 1 beta (IL1β), nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), and RAGE were evaluated using real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. The protein expression levels of nuclear RAGE and cytosolic RAGE were evaluated using western blotting. Additionally, matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9) was pharmacologically inhibited in the noise immediate group, and then nuclear and cytosolic RAGE expression levels were evaluated. RESULTS The noise immediate and noise 4-week groups exhibited increased auditory thresholds at 4, 8, 16, and 32 kHz frequencies. The genes encoding the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL6, IL1β, and NF- κB were increased 3.74, 1.63, 6.42, and 6.23-fold in the noise immediate group, respectively (P = 0.047, 0.043, 0.044, and 0.041). RAGE mRNA expression was elevated 1.42-fold in the noise 4-week group (P = 0.032). Cytosolic RAGE expression was increased 1.76 and 6.99-fold in the noise immediate and noise 4-week groups, respectively (P = 0.04 and 0.03). Nuclear RAGE expression was comparable between the noise and control groups. matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9) inhibition reduced cytosolic RAGE expression in the noise immediate group (P = 0.004). CONCLUSIONS Noise exposure increased the expression of cytosolic RAGE in the auditory cortex and upregulated pro-inflammatory genes, but this response could be alleviated by MMP9 inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang Ho Lee
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, CHA University College of Medicine, 59, Yatap-ro, Bundang-gu, Seongnam, 13496, Gyeonggi-do, Korea
| | - Kyung Woon Kim
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, CHA University College of Medicine, 59, Yatap-ro, Bundang-gu, Seongnam, 13496, Gyeonggi-do, Korea
| | - Da-Hye Lee
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, CHA University College of Medicine, 59, Yatap-ro, Bundang-gu, Seongnam, 13496, Gyeonggi-do, Korea
| | - So Min Lee
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, CHA University College of Medicine, 59, Yatap-ro, Bundang-gu, Seongnam, 13496, Gyeonggi-do, Korea
| | - So Young Kim
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, CHA University College of Medicine, 59, Yatap-ro, Bundang-gu, Seongnam, 13496, Gyeonggi-do, Korea.
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Overexpression of the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor (Ahr) Mediates an Oxidative Stress Response following Injection of Fine Particulate Matter in the Temporal Cortex. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2021; 2020:6879738. [PMID: 33488929 PMCID: PMC7803159 DOI: 10.1155/2020/6879738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Revised: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Studies have shown that particulate matter (PM) induces the expression of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (Ahr) leading to the activation of the oxidative stress response. This study is aimed at characterizing the specific impact of fine PM on the expression profile of the Ahr and oxidative stress response in the primary auditory cortex. PM2.5 (<1.8 μm)-loaded filters were suspended in sterile saline to 102.6-111.82 μg/ml. Next, 10 μl of PM2.5 or an equal volume of saline was administered intracranially into the temporal cortex of two groups of rats (PM2.5 and control; n = 14 per group), respectively. One week after intracranial injection, the temporal cortex was harvested. Transmission electron microscopy was performed to evaluate the distribution of PM2.5 within the temporal cortex. Additionally, the mRNA and protein expression levels of cytochrome P450 1A1 (CYP1A1), CYP1B1, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), Ahr, and brevican mRNA and protein were measured using quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) or western blotting, respectively. Finally, the protein expression levels of the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) were estimated using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). PM2.5 was observed in intracellular vesicles within the temporal cortex following intracranial injection. Levels of oxidative stress molecules (i.e., CYP1A1, CYP1B1, and iNOS), Ahr, Brevican, and RAGE were higher in the PM2.5 group compared with the control group. Intracranial administration of PM2.5 led to increased levels of Ahr and markers of an oxidative stress response in the temporal cortex. The oxidative stress response-mediated increases in the levels of brevican and RAGE.
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Genomic approach to explore altered signaling networks of olfaction in response to diesel exhaust particles in mice. Sci Rep 2020; 10:16972. [PMID: 33046809 PMCID: PMC7550584 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-74109-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2020] [Accepted: 09/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Airborne pollutants have detrimental effect on the human body and the environment. Diesel exhaust particles (DEPs) are known to be major component of particulate matter (PM) and cause respiratory diseases and neurotoxicity. However, the effects of air pollutants on the sensory nervous system, especially on the olfactory sense, have not been well studied. Herein, we aimed to explore DEP-induced changes in the olfactory perception process. Olfactory sensitivity test was performed after DEP inhalation in mice. Microarray was conducted to determine the differentially expressed genes, which were then utilized to build a network focused on neurotoxicity. Exposure to DEPs significantly reduced sniffing in mice, indicating a disturbance in the olfactory perception process. Through network analysis, we proposed five genes (Cfap69, Cyp26b1, Il1b, Il6, and Synpr) as biomarker candidates for DEP-mediated olfactory dysfunction. Changes in their expression might provoke malfunction of sensory transduction by inhibiting olfactory receptors, neurite outgrowth, and axonal guidance as well as lead to failure of recovery from neuroinflammatory damage through inhibition of nerve regeneration. Thus, we suggest the potential mechanism underlying DEPs-mediated olfactory disorders using genomic approach. Our study will be helpful to future researchers to assess an individual’s olfactory vulnerability following exposure to inhalational environmental hazards.
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