Altered diversity and composition of gut microbiota in Wilson's disease

Copper impairs the intestinal barrier integrity in Wilson disease

In Wilson disease (WD), liver copper (Cu) excess, caused by mutations in the ATPase Cu transporting beta (ATP7B), has been extensively studied. In contrast, in the gastrointestinal tract, responsible for dietary Cu uptake, ATP7B malfunction is poorly explored. We therefore investigated gut biopsies from WD patients and compared intestines from two rodent WD models and from human ATP7B knock-out intestinal cells to their respective wild-type controls. We observed gastrointestinal (GI) inflammation in patients, rats and mice lacking ATP7B. Mitochondrial alterations and increased intestinal leakage were observed in WD rats, Atp7b-/- mice and human ATP7B KO Caco-2 cells. Proteome analyses of intestinal WD homogenates revealed profound alterations of energy and lipid metabolism. The intestinal damage in WD animals and human ATP7B KO cells did not correlate with absolute Cu elevations, but likely reflects intracellular Cu mislocalization. Importantly, Cu depletion by the high-affinity Cu chelator methanobactin (MB) restored enterocyte mitochondria, epithelial integrity, and resolved gut inflammation in WD rats and human WD enterocytes, plausibly via autophagy-related mechanisms. Thus, we report here before largely unrecognized intestinal damage in WD, occurring early on and comprising metabolic and structural tissue damage, mitochondrial dysfunction, and compromised intestinal barrier integrity and inflammation, that can be resolved by high-affinity Cu chelation treatment.

Exploring the impact of gut microbiota on liver health in mice and patients with Wilson disease

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Distinctive gut microbial profiles have been observed between patients with Wilson disease (WD) and healthy individuals. Despite this, the exact relationship and influence of gut microbiota on the advancement of WD-related liver damage remain ambiguous. This research seeks to clarify the gut microbiota characteristics in both human patients and mouse models of WD, as well as their impact on liver injury.

METHODS

Gut microbial features in healthy individuals, patients with WD, healthy mice and mice with early- and late-stage WD were analysed using 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Additionally, WD-afflicted mice underwent treatment with either an antibiotic cocktail (with normal saline as a control) or healthy microbiota (using disease microbiota as a control). The study assessed gut microbiota composition, hepatic transcriptome profiles, liver copper concentrations and hepatic pathological injuries.

RESULTS

Patients with hepatic WD and mice with WD-related liver injury displayed altered gut microbiota composition, notably with a significant reduction in Lactobacillus abundance. Additionally, the abundances of several gut genera, including Lactobacillus, Veillonella and Eubacterium coprostanoligenes, showed significant correlations with the severity of liver injury in patients with WD. In WD mice, antibiotic treatment or transplantation of healthy microbiota altered the gut microbial structure, increased Lactobacillus abundance and modified the hepatic transcriptional profile. These interventions resulted in reduced hepatic copper concentration and alleviation of WD-related liver injury.

CONCLUSIONS

Individuals and mice with pronounced WD-related liver injury exhibited shifts in gut microbial composition. Regulating gut microbiota through healthy microbiota transplantation emerges as a promising therapeutic approach for treating WD-related liver injury.

Copper, Iron, Cadmium, and Arsenic, All Generated in the Universe: Elucidating Their Environmental Impact Risk on Human Health Including Clinical Liver Injury

Humans are continuously exposed to various heavy metals including copper, iron, cadmium, and arsenic, which were specifically selected for the current analysis because they are among the most frequently encountered environmental mankind and industrial pollutants potentially causing human health hazards and liver injury. So far, these issues were poorly assessed and remained a matter of debate, also due to inconsistent results. The aim of the actual report is to thoroughly analyze the positive as well as negative effects of these four heavy metals on human health. Copper and iron are correctly viewed as pollutant elements essential for maintaining human health because they are part of important enzymes and metabolic pathways. Healthy individuals are prepared through various genetically based mechanisms to maintain cellular copper and iron homeostasis, thereby circumventing or reducing hazardous liver and organ injury due to excessive amounts of these metals continuously entering the human body. In a few humans with gene aberration, however, liver and organ injury may develop because excessively accumulated copper can lead to Wilson disease and substantial iron deposition to hemochromatosis. At the molecular level, toxicities of some heavy metals are traced back to the Haber Weiss and Fenton reactions involving reactive oxygen species formed in the course of oxidative stress. On the other hand, cellular homeostasis for cadmium and arsenic cannot be provided, causing their life-long excessive deposition in the liver and other organs. Consequently, cadmium and arsenic represent health hazards leading to higher disability-adjusted life years and increased mortality rates due to cancer and non-cancer diseases. For unknown reasons, however, liver injury in humans exposed to cadmium and arsenic is rarely observed. In sum, copper and iron are good for the human health of most individuals except for those with Wilson disease or hemochromatosis at risk of liver injury through radical formation, while cadmium and arsenic lack any beneficial effects but rather are potentially hazardous to human health with a focus on increased disability potential and risk for cancer. Primary efforts should focus on reducing the industrial emission of hazardous heavy metals.

Comparison of gut toxicity and microbiome effects in zebrafish exposed to polypropylene microplastics: Interesting effects of UV-weathering on microbiome

Weathered microplastics (MPs) exhibit different physicochemical properties compared to pristine MPs, thus, their effects on the environment and living organisms may also differ. In the present study, we investigated the gut-toxic effects of virgin polypropylene MPs (PP) and UV-weathered PP MPs (UV-PP) on zebrafish. The zebrafish were exposed to the two types of PP MPs at a concentration of 50 mg/L each for 14 days. After exposure, MPs accumulated primarily within the gastrointestinal tract, with UV-PP exhibiting a higher accumulation than PP. The ingestion of PP and UV-PP induced gut damage in zebrafish and increased the gene expression and levels of enzymes related to oxidative stress and inflammation, with no significant differences between the two MPs. Analysis of the microbial community confirmed alterations in the abundance and diversity of zebrafish gut microorganisms in the PP and UV-PP groups, with more pronounced changes in the PP-exposed group. Moreover, the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway analysis confirmed the association between changes in the gut microorganisms at the phylum and genus levels with cellular responses, such as oxidative stress, inflammation, and tissue damage. This study provides valuable insights regarding the environmental impact of MPs on organisms.

Wilson Disease: Copper-Mediated Cuproptosis, Iron-Related Ferroptosis, and Clinical Highlights, with Comprehensive and Critical Analysis Update

Wilson disease is a genetic disorder of the liver characterized by excess accumulation of copper, which is found ubiquitously on earth and normally enters the human body in small amounts via the food chain. Many interesting disease details were published on the mechanistic steps, such as the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cuproptosis causing a copper dependent cell death. In the liver of patients with Wilson disease, also, increased iron deposits were found that may lead to iron-related ferroptosis responsible for phospholipid peroxidation within membranes of subcellular organelles. All topics are covered in this review article, in addition to the diagnostic and therapeutic issues of Wilson disease. Excess Cu2+ primarily leads to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), as evidenced by early experimental studies exemplified with the detection of hydroxyl radical formation using the electron spin resonance (ESR) spin-trapping method. The generation of ROS products follows the principles of the Haber-Weiss reaction and the subsequent Fenton reaction leading to copper-related cuproptosis, and is thereby closely connected with ROS. Copper accumulation in the liver is due to impaired biliary excretion of copper caused by the inheritable malfunctioning or missing ATP7B protein. As a result, disturbed cellular homeostasis of copper prevails within the liver. Released from the liver cells due to limited storage capacity, the toxic copper enters the circulation and arrives at other organs, causing local accumulation and cell injury. This explains why copper injures not only the liver, but also the brain, kidneys, eyes, heart, muscles, and bones, explaining the multifaceted clinical features of Wilson disease. Among these are depression, psychosis, dysarthria, ataxia, writing problems, dysphagia, renal tubular dysfunction, Kayser-Fleischer corneal rings, cardiomyopathy, cardiac arrhythmias, rhabdomyolysis, osteoporosis, osteomalacia, arthritis, and arthralgia. In addition, Coombs-negative hemolytic anemia is a key feature of Wilson disease with undetectable serum haptoglobin. The modified Leipzig Scoring System helps diagnose Wilson disease. Patients with Wilson disease are well-treated first-line with copper chelators like D-penicillamine that facilitate the removal of circulating copper bound to albumin and increase in urinary copper excretion. Early chelation therapy improves prognosis. Liver transplantation is an option viewed as ultima ratio in end-stage liver disease with untreatable complications or acute liver failure. Liver transplantation finally may thus be a life-saving approach and curative treatment of the disease by replacing the hepatic gene mutation. In conclusion, Wilson disease is a multifaceted genetic disease representing a molecular and clinical challenge.

Metagenomics reveals the variations in functional metabolism associated with greenhouse gas emissions during legume-vegetable rotation process

Legume-based rotation is commonly recognized for its mitigation efficiency of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. However, variations in GHG emission-associated metabolic functions during the legume-vegetable rotation process remain largely uncharacterized. Accordingly, a soybean-radish rotation field experiment was designed to clarify the responses of microbial communities and their GHG emission-associated functional metabolism through metagenomics. The results showed that the contents of soil organic carbon and total phosphorus significantly decreased during the soybean-radish process (P < 0.05), while soil total potassium content and bacterial richness and diversity significantly increased (P < 0.05). Moreover, the predominant bacterial phyla varied, with a decrease in the relative abundance of Proteobacteria and an increase in the relative abundance of Acidobacteria, Gemmatimonadetes, and Chloroflexi. Metagenomics clarified that bacterial carbohydrate metabolism substantially increased during the rotation process, whereas formaldehyde assimilation, methanogenesis, nitrification, and dissimilatory nitrate reduction decreased (P < 0.05). Specifically, the expression of phosphate acetyltransferase (functional methanogenesis gene, pta) and nitrate reductase gamma subunit (functional dissimilatory nitrate reduction gene, narI) was inhibited, indicating of low methane production and nitrogen metabolism. Additionally, the partial least squares path model revealed that the Shannon diversity index was negatively correlated with methane and nitrogen metabolism (P < 0.01), further demonstrating that the response of the soil bacterial microbiome responses are closely linked with GHG-associated metabolism during the soybean-radish rotation process. Collectively, our findings shed light on the responses of soil microbial communities to functional metabolism associated with GHG emissions and provide important insights to mitigate GHG emissions during the rotational cropping of legumes and vegetables.

A Mendelian Randomization Study: Roles of Gut Microbiota in Sepsis - Who is the Angle?

Gut microbiota (GM) is a crucial underlying player during sepsis pathogenesis. However, the causal relationship is unclear and remains to be determined. A two-sample Mendelian randomization study was implemented. The statistical data about sepsis together with GM summarized from genome-wide association studies were evaluated. Instrumental variables were defined as single-nucleotide polymorphisms with prominent correlations with exposure. The inverse-variance-weighted test was employed as a major approach of Mendelian randomization analysis to estimate of causal relationships. The inverse-variance-weighted analysis results demonstrated that at different taxa levels, Actinobacteria and Bifidobacteriaceae influence sepsis. Actinobacteria had negative relationships to sepsis risk at the phylum (β = -0.34, SE = 0.10, p = 0.0008) and class (β = -0.23, SE = 0.07, p = 0.0011) levels in outcome coded ieu-b-69. Actinobacteria at the phylum level (β = -0.22, SE = 0.10, p = 0.027) was also negatively associated with sepsis in outcome coded ieu-b-4980. Bifidobacteriaceae at the order (β = -0.20, SE = 0.06, p = 0.0021), family (β = -0.20, SE = 0.06, p = 0.0021), and genus (β = -0.20, SE = 0.06, p = 0.0007) levels were all negatively correlated with the risk of sepsis in outcome coded ieu-b-69. The results of the Wald ratio model showed that Tyzzerella genus (OR (95%CI) = 0.6902[0.4907,0.9708], p = 0.0331) and Gastranaerophilales order (OR (95%CI) = 0.5907[0.3516,0.9926], p = 0.0468) were negatively connected with sepsis. This study implied at different taxa levels Actinobacteria and Bifidobacteriaceae, Tyzzerella genus, and Gastranaerophilales order have a causal relationship with sepsis, indicating that they are protective factors for the incidence of sepsis.

Towards personalized genome-scale modeling of inborn errors of metabolism for systems medicine applications

Inborn errors of metabolism (IEMs) are a group of more than 1000 inherited diseases that are individually rare but have a cumulative global prevalence of 50 per 100,000 births. Recently, it has been recognized that like common diseases, patients with rare diseases can greatly vary in the manifestation and severity of symptoms. Here, we review omics-driven approaches that enable an integrated, holistic view of metabolic phenotypes in IEM patients. We focus on applications of Constraint-based Reconstruction and Analysis (COBRA), a widely used mechanistic systems biology approach, to model the effects of inherited diseases. Moreover, we review evidence that the gut microbiome is also altered in rare diseases. Finally, we outline an approach using personalized metabolic models of IEM patients for the prediction of biomarkers and tailored therapeutic or dietary interventions. Such applications could pave the way towards personalized medicine not just for common, but also for rare diseases.

Gut microbiota bridges dietary nutrients and host immunity

Dietary nutrients and the gut microbiota are increasingly recognized to cross-regulate and entrain each other, and thus affect host health and immune-mediated diseases. Here, we systematically review the current understanding linking dietary nutrients to gut microbiota-host immune interactions, emphasizing how this axis might influence host immunity in health and diseases. Of relevance, we highlight that the implications of gut microbiota-targeted dietary intervention could be harnessed in orchestrating a spectrum of immune-associated diseases.

The role of intestine in metabolic dysregulation in murine Wilson disease

BACKGROUND

The clinical manifestations of Wilson disease (WD) are related to copper accumulation in the liver and the brain, but little is known about other tissue involvement regarding metabolic changes in WD. In vitro studies suggested that the loss of intestinal ATP7B affects metabolic dysregulation in WD. We tested this hypothesis by evaluating the gut microbiota and lipidome in 2 mouse models of WD and by characterizing a new mouse model with a targeted deletion of Atp7b in the intestine.

METHODS

Cecal content 16S sequencing and untargeted hepatic and plasma lipidome analyses in the Jackson Laboratory toxic-milk and the Atp7b null global knockout mouse models of WD were profiled and integrated. Intestine-specific Atp7b knockout mice (Atp7bΔIEC) were generated and characterized using targeted lipidome analysis following a high-fat diet challenge.

RESULTS

Gut microbiota diversity was reduced in animal models of WD. Comparative prediction analysis revealed amino acid, carbohydrate, and lipid metabolism functions to be dysregulated in the WD gut microbial metagenome. Liver and plasma lipidomic profiles showed dysregulated triglyceride and diglyceride, phospholipid, and sphingolipid metabolism in WD models. However, Atp7bΔIEC mice did not show gut microbiome differences compared to wild type. When challenged with a high-fat diet, Atp7bΔIEC mice exhibited profound alterations to fatty acid desaturation and sphingolipid metabolism pathways as well as altered APOB48 distribution in intestinal epithelial cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Gut microbiome and lipidome underlie systemic metabolic manifestations in murine WD. Intestine-specific ATP7B deficiency affected both intestinal and systemic response to a high-fat challenge but not the microbiome profile, at least at early stages. WD is a systemic disease in which intestinal-specific ATP7B loss and diet influence the phenotype and the lipidome profile.

Dysbiosis of the gut microbiome in elderly patients with hepatocellular carcinoma

Fecal samples from participants aged 60-80 were collected and sequenced by a high-throughput second-generation sequencer to explore the structural composition of gut microbiota in elderly patients with hepatocellular carcinoma(HCC). Comparison of gut microbiota between patients with hepatocellular carcinoma and healthy controls, α diversity and β diversity were statistically different. At the genus level, compared with the normal group, the abundance of A Blautia, Fusicatenibacter, Anaerostipes, Lachnospiraceae_ND3007_group, CAG-56, Eggerthella, Lachnospiraceae_FCS020_group and Olsenella were decreased significantly in the LC group. In contrast, the abundance of Escherichia-Shigella, Fusobacterium, Megasphaera, Veillonella, Tyzzerella_4, Prevotella_2 and Cronobacter increased significantly. The KEGG and COG pathway analyses showed that the dysbiosis of gut bacteria in primary liver carcinoma is associated with several pathways, including amino acid metabolism, replication and repair, nucleotide metabolism, cell motility, cell growth and death, and transcription. Age is negatively associated with the abundance of Bifidobacterium. Lachnospiraceae_ ND3007_ group, [Eubacterium]_hallii_group, Blautia, Fuscatenibacter and Anaerostipes are negatively correlated with ALT, AST and GGT levels (p < 0.05), respectively. Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) is positively associated with the abundance of Erysipelatoclostridium, Magasphaera, Prevotella 2, Escherichia-Shigella, Streptococcus and [Eubacterium]_eligens_group (p < 0.05), respectively. A random forest model showed that the genera Eggerthella, Anaerostipes, and Lachnospiraceae_ ND3007_ group demonstrated the best predictive capacity. The area under the Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve of Eggerthella, Anaerostipes and Lachnospiraceae_ ND3007_ group are 0.791, 0.766 and 0.730, respectively. These data are derived from the first known gut microbiome study in elderly patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Potentially, specific microbiota can be used as a characteristic index for screening, diagnosis, and prognosis of gut microbiota changes in elderly patients with hepatocellular carcinoma and even as a therapeutic clinical target.

The Gut-Liver Axis in Pediatric Liver Health and Disease

There has been growing interest in the complex host-microbe interactions within the human gut and the role these interactions play in systemic health and disease. As an essential metabolic organ, the liver is intimately coupled to the intestinal microbial environment via the portal venous system. Our understanding of the gut-liver axis comes almost exclusively from studies of adults; the gut-liver axis in children, who have unique physiology and differing gut microbial communities, remains poorly understood. Here, we provide a comprehensive overview of common pediatric hepatobiliary conditions and recent studies exploring the contributions of the gut microbiota to these conditions or changes of the gut microbiota due to these conditions. We examine the current literature regarding the microbial alterations that take place in biliary atresia, pediatric non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, Wilson's disease, cystic fibrosis, inflammatory bowel disease, and viral hepatitis. Finally, we propose potential therapeutic approaches involving modulation of the gut microbiota and the gut-liver axis to mitigate the progression of pediatric liver disease.

The role of intestine in metabolic dysregulation in murine Wilson disease

Background and aims

Major clinical manifestations of Wilson disease (WD) are related to copper accumulation in the liver and the brain, and little is known about other tissues involvement in metabolic changes in WD. In vitro studies suggested that the loss of intestinal ATP7B could contribute to metabolic dysregulation in WD. We tested this hypothesis by evaluating gut microbiota and lipidome in two mouse models of WD and by characterizing a new mouse model with a targeted deletion of Atp7b in intestine.

Methods

Cecal content 16S sequencing and untargeted hepatic and plasma lipidome analyses in the Jackson Laboratory toxic-milk and the Atp7b null global knockout mouse models of WD were profiled and integrated. Intestine-specific Atp7b knockout mice ( Atp7b ΔIEC ) was generated using B6.Cg-Tg(Vil1-cre)997Gum/J mice and Atp7b Lox/Lox mice, and characterized using targeted lipidome analysis following a high-fat diet challenge.

Results

Gut microbiota diversity was reduced in animal models of WD. Comparative prediction analysis revealed amino acid, carbohydrate, and lipid metabolism functions to be dysregulated in the WD gut microbial metagenome. Liver and plasma lipidomic profiles showed dysregulated tri- and diglyceride, phospholipid, and sphingolipid metabolism in WD models. When challenged with a high-fat diet, Atp7b ΔIEC mice exhibited profound alterations to fatty acid desaturation and sphingolipid metabolism pathways as well as altered APOB48 distribution in intestinal epithelial cells.

Conclusion

Coordinated changes of gut microbiome and lipidome analyses underlie systemic metabolic manifestations in murine WD. Intestine-specific ATP7B deficiency affected both intestinal and systemic response to a high-fat challenge. WD is a systemic disease in which intestinal-specific ATP7B loss and diet influence phenotypic presentations.

Movement Disorders and the Gut: A Review

There is a close link between multiple movement disorders and gastrointestinal dysfunction. Gastrointestinal symptoms may precede the development of the neurologic syndrome or may arise following the neurologic presentation. This review will provide an overview of gastrointestinal accompaniments to several well-known as well as lesser known movement disorders. It will also highlight several disorders which may not be considered primary movement disorders but have an overlapping presentation of both gastrointestinal and movement abnormalities.

Non-Photosynthetic Melainabacteria (Cyanobacteria) in Human Gut: Characteristics and Association with Health

Gut microorganisms are comprised of thousands of species and play an important role in the host’s metabolism, overall health status, and risk of disease. Recently, the discovery of non-photosynthetic cyanobacteria (class “Melainabacteria”) in the human and animal gut triggered a broad interest in studying cyanobacteria’s evolution, physiology, and ecological relevance of the Melainabacteria members. In the present paper, we review the general characteristics of Melainabacteria, their phylogeny, distribution, and ecology. The potential link between these microorganisms and human health is also discussed based on available human-microbiome studies. Their abundance tends to increase in patients with selected neurodegenerative, gastrointestinal, hepatic, metabolic, and respiratory diseases. However, the available evidence is correlative and requires further longitudinal studies. Although the research on Melainabacteria in the human gut is still in its infancy, elucidation of their role appears important in better understanding microbiome–human health interactions. Further studies aiming to identify particular gut cyanobacteria species, culture them in vitro, and characterize them on the molecular, biochemical, and physiological levels are encouraged.

Correlation among gut microbiota, fecal metabolites and autism-like behavior in an adolescent valproic acid-induced rat autism model

This study aims to understand the relationship between fecal metabolites and gut microbiota in an adolescent valproic acid-induced rat autism model (VPA-exposed offspring). We analyzed the fecal samples of VPA-exposed offspring using 16S rRNA gene sequencing and untargeted metabolomics. Autism-like behavior was evaluated by a three-chamber sociability test and a self-grooming test. Based on these data, we analyzed the association among fecal metabolites, gut microbiota and autism-like behavior. Behavioral tests showed that VPA-exposed offspring displayed typical autism-like behavior. Forty-nine named differential fecal metabolites and 14 enriched KEGG pathways were identified between the VPA and control groups. Five fecal metabolites may be used as characteristic metabolites. The richness and diversity of gut microbiota did not differ between the two groups, while the overall composition of gut microbiota was significantly different. Candidatus_Saccharimonas, Desulfovibrio, [Eubacterium]_xylanophilum_group and Ruminococcus_2 were the characteristic genera of VPA-exposed offspring. Correlation analysis revealed a tight relationship among gut microbiota, fecal metabolites and autistic behavior in VPA-exposed offspring. This study illustrates that specific alterations in gut microbiota and fecal metabolites may be regarded as characteristics of VPA-exposed offspring. The characteristic gut microbiota and fecal metabolites as well as their relationship may play a crucial role in autism-like behavior caused by prenatal exposure to VPA.

Probiotics in hepatology: An update

The gut–liver axis plays an important role in the pathogenesis of various liver diseases. Probiotics are living bacteria that may be used to correct disorders of this axis. Notable progress has been made in the study of probiotic drugs for the treatment of various liver diseases in the last decade. It has been proven that probiotics are useful for hepatic encephalopathy, but their effects on other symptoms and syndromes of cirrhosis are poorly studied. Their effectiveness in the treatment of metabolic associated fatty liver disease has been shown both in experimental models and in clinical trials, but their effect on the prognosis of this disease has not been described. The beneficial effects of probiotics in alcoholic liver disease have been shown in many experimental studies, but there are very few clinical trials to support these findings. The effects of probiotics on the course of other liver diseases are either poorly studied (such as primary sclerosing cholangitis, chronic hepatitis B and C, and autoimmune hepatitis) or not studied at all (such as primary biliary cholangitis, hepatitis A and E, Wilson's disease, hemochromatosis, storage diseases, and vascular liver diseases). Thus, despite the progress in the study of probiotics in hepatology over the past decade, there are many unexplored and unclear questions surrounding this topic.

Wilson's Disease: Facing the Challenge of Diagnosing a Rare Disease

Wilson disease (WD) is a rare disorder caused by mutations in ATP7B, which leads to the defective biliary excretion of copper. The subsequent gradual accumulation of copper in different organs produces an extremely variable clinical picture, which comprises hepatic, neurological psychiatric, ophthalmological, and other disturbances. WD has a specific treatment, so that early diagnosis is crucial to avoid disease progression and its devastating consequences. The clinical diagnosis is based on the Leipzig score, which considers clinical, histological, biochemical, and genetic data. However, even patients with an initial WD diagnosis based on a high Leipzig score may harbor other conditions that mimic the WD's phenotype (Wilson-like). Many patients are diagnosed using current available methods, but others remain in an uncertain area because of bordering ceruloplasmin levels, inconclusive genetic findings and unclear phenotypes. Currently, the available biomarkers for WD are ceruloplasmin and copper in the liver or in 24 h urine, but they are not solid enough. Therefore, the characterization of biomarkers that allow us to anticipate the evolution of the disease and the monitoring of new drugs is essential to improve its diagnosis and prognosis.

Abundance of Lactobacillus in porcine gut microbiota is closely related to immune response following PRRSV immunization

Increasing evidence shows that gut microbiota plays a critical role in host immune system development and immune regulation, thus the composition of gut microbiota may affect how individuals respond to immunizations. Currently, little evidence is available on the correlation between porcine gut microbiota and vaccine immune response. Here, we investigated the influence of gut microbiota on immune response in pigs to porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) vaccine. Based on the antibody levels for PRRSV, the immunized pigs were divided into three groups (high, low, and others), and followed by virulent PRRSV challenge. The comprehensive analysis of microbial composition revealed that gut microbiota was similar in the richness and diversity among different groups before immunization. After immunization, the richness and diversity of gut microbial community in the high group were still similar to the low group, although there was a decrease in community diversity overtime. Interestingly, the antibody titer was positively correlated with the abundance of Lactobacillus in gut microbiota in immunized pigs. Further analysis indicated that gut microbial composition might be correlated to the clinical parameters such as body weight and rectal temperature after virus challenge. Taken together, our findings suggest that certain specific members of gut microbiota, such as Lactobacillus may serve as a mechanism for regulating the immune response following immunization in pigs.