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Sisler J, Thureja P, Grajower MY, Sokhoyan R, Huang I, Atwater HA. Electrically tunable space-time metasurfaces at optical frequencies. NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY 2024:10.1038/s41565-024-01728-9. [PMID: 39048705 DOI: 10.1038/s41565-024-01728-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2023] [Accepted: 06/23/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024]
Abstract
Active metasurfaces enable dynamic manipulation of the scattered electromagnetic wavefront by spatially varying the phase and amplitude across arrays of subwavelength scatterers, imparting momentum to outgoing light. Similarly, periodic temporal modulation of active metasurfaces allows for manipulation of the output frequency of light. Here we combine spatial and temporal modulation in electrically modulated reflective metasurfaces operating at 1,530 nm to generate and diffract a spectrum of sidebands at megahertz frequencies. Temporal modulation with tailored waveforms enables the design of a spectrum of sidebands. By impressing a spatial phase gradient on the metasurface, we can diffract selected combinations of sideband frequencies. Combining active temporal and spatial variation can enable unique optical functions, such as frequency mixing, harmonic beam steering or shaping, and breaking of Lorentz reciprocity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jared Sisler
- Thomas J. Watson Laboratories of Applied Physics, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Prachi Thureja
- Thomas J. Watson Laboratories of Applied Physics, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Meir Y Grajower
- Thomas J. Watson Laboratories of Applied Physics, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Ruzan Sokhoyan
- Thomas J. Watson Laboratories of Applied Physics, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Ivy Huang
- Thomas J. Watson Laboratories of Applied Physics, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Harry A Atwater
- Thomas J. Watson Laboratories of Applied Physics, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA.
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Chew SX, Wang J, Song S, Nguyen L, Yi X. Tailorable ITO thin films for tunable microwave photonic applications. OPTICS EXPRESS 2024; 32:18480-18492. [PMID: 38859002 DOI: 10.1364/oe.519196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/12/2024]
Abstract
Tunability is a fundamental prerequisite for functional devices and forms the backbone of reconfigurable microwave photonic (MWP) signal processors. In this paper, we explore the use of indium tin oxide (ITO) thin films, notable for their combination of optical transparency and electrical conductivity, to provide tunability for integrated MWP devices. We study the impacts of post-thermal annealing on the structural, electrical, and optical properties of ITO films. The annealed ITO microheater maintains a low total insertion loss of just 0.1 dB while facilitating the tunability of the microring across the entire free spectral range (FSR) using less than half the voltage required by its non-annealed counterpart. Furthermore, the post-annealed ITO film exhibits a 30% improvement in response time, enhancing its performance as an active voltage-controlled microheater. Leveraging this advantage, we employed the post-annealed device to demonstrate continuous tunable radio frequency (RF) phase shifts from 0-330° across a frequency range spanning 15 GHz to 40 GHz with only 5.58 mW of power. The flexibility in modifying the ITO thin film properties effectively bridges the gap between achieving low-loss and high-speed thermo-optic based microheaters.
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Shen C, Ye J, Peserico N, Gui Y, Dong C, Kang H, Movahhed Nouri B, Wang H, Heidari E, Sorger VJ, Dalir H. Enhancing Focusing and Defocusing Capabilities with a Dynamically Reconfigurable Metalens Utilizing Sb 2Se 3 Phase-Change Material. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 13:2106. [PMID: 37513117 PMCID: PMC10384522 DOI: 10.3390/nano13142106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2023] [Revised: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023]
Abstract
Metalenses are emerging as an alternative to digital micromirror devices (DMDs), with the advantages of compactness and flexibility. The exploration of metalenses has ignited enthusiasm among optical engineers, positioning them as the forthcoming frontier in technology. In this paper, we advocate for the implementation of the phase-change material, Sb2Se3, capable of providing swift, reversible, non-volatile focusing and defocusing within the 1550 nm telecom spectrum. The lens, equipped with a robust ITO microheater, offers unparalleled functionality and constitutes a significant step toward dynamic metalenses that can be integrated with beamforming applications. After a meticulously conducted microfabrication process, we showcase a device capable of rapid tuning (0.1 MHz level) for metalens focusing and defocusing at C band communication, achieved by alternating the PCM state between the amorphous and crystalline states. The findings from the experiment show that the device has a high contrast ratio for switching of 28.7 dB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Shen
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA
| | - Jiachi Ye
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Nicola Peserico
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
- Florida Semiconductor Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA
| | - Yaliang Gui
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA
| | - Chaobo Dong
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA
| | - Haoyan Kang
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
- Florida Semiconductor Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA
| | - Behrouz Movahhed Nouri
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA
| | - Hao Wang
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
- Florida Semiconductor Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA
| | - Elham Heidari
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
- Florida Semiconductor Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA
| | - Volker J Sorger
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
- Florida Semiconductor Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA
| | - Hamed Dalir
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
- Florida Semiconductor Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA
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Dhingra N, Mehrvar H, Berini P. High-speed polarization-independent plasmonic modulator on a silicon waveguide. OPTICS EXPRESS 2023; 31:22481-22496. [PMID: 37475358 DOI: 10.1364/oe.489902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 07/22/2023]
Abstract
The electrical bandwidth of an electro-optic modulator plays a vital role in determining the throughput of an optical communications link. We propose a broadband plasmonic electro-optic modulator operating at telecommunications wavelengths (λ0 ∼ 1550 nm), based on free carrier dispersion in indium tin oxide (ITO). The ITO is driven through its epsilon-near-zero point within the accumulation layers of metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) structures. The MOS structures are integrated into a pair of coupled metal-insulator-metal (MIM) waveguides aligned on a planarized silicon waveguide. The coupled MIM waveguides support symmetric and asymmetric plasmonic supermodes, excited adiabatically using mode transformation tapers, by the fundamental TM0 and TE0 modes of the underlying silicon waveguide, respectively, such that the modulator can operate in either mode as selected by the input polarisation to the silicon waveguide. The modulator has an active section 1.5 to 2 µm long, enabling the modulator to operate as a lumped element to bandwidths exceeding 200 GHz (3 dB electrical, RC-limited). The modulators produce an extinction ratio in the range of 3.5 to 6 dB, and an insertion loss in the range of 4 to 7.5 dB including input/output mode conversion losses. The AC drive voltage is ±1.75 V. The devices comprise only inorganic materials and are realisable using standard deposition, etching and nanolithography techniques.
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Zhao Y, Dong B, Benkstein KD, Chen L, Steffens KL, Semancik S. Deep Learning Image Analysis of Nanoplasmonic Sensors: Toward Medical Breath Monitoring. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2022; 14:54411-54422. [PMID: 36418023 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.2c11153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Sensing biomarkers in exhaled breath offers a potentially portable, cost-effective, and noninvasive strategy for disease diagnosis screening and monitoring, while high sensitivity, wide sensing range, and target specificity are critical challenges. We demonstrate a deep learning-assisted plasmonic sensing platform that can detect and quantify gas-phase biomarkers in breath-related backgrounds of varying complexity. The sensing interface consisted of Au/SiO2 nanopillars covered with a 15 nm metal-organic framework. A small camera was utilized to capture the plasmonic sensing responses as images, which were subjected to deep learning signal processing. The approach has been demonstrated at a classification accuracy of 95 to 98% for the diabetic ketosis marker acetone within a concentration range of 0.5-80 μmol/mol. The reported work provides a thorough exploration of single-sensor capabilities and sets the basis for more advanced utilization of artificial intelligence in sensing applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yangyang Zhao
- Biomolecular Measurement Division, Material Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Gaithersburg, Maryland20899, United States
- Sensing Labs, Inc., Rockville, Maryland20850, United States
| | - Boqun Dong
- Sensing Labs, Inc., Rockville, Maryland20850, United States
| | - Kurt D Benkstein
- Biomolecular Measurement Division, Material Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Gaithersburg, Maryland20899, United States
| | - Lei Chen
- Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology, Physical Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Gaithersburg, Maryland20899, United States
| | - Kristen L Steffens
- Biomolecular Measurement Division, Material Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Gaithersburg, Maryland20899, United States
| | - Steve Semancik
- Biomolecular Measurement Division, Material Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Gaithersburg, Maryland20899, United States
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High-performance Mach-Zehnder modulator using tailored plasma dispersion effects in an ITO/graphene-based waveguide. Sci Rep 2022; 12:12738. [PMID: 35882945 PMCID: PMC9325717 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-17125-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
A high-performance electro-optic Mach–Zehnder modulator (MZM) with outstanding characteristics is proposed. The MZM is in a push-pull configuration that is constructed using an ITO/graphene-based silicon waveguide. A novel idea for engineering of the plasma dispersion effect in an ITO/graphene-based waveguide is proposed so that the modulation characteristics of the MZM are highly improved. Plasma dispersion effects of ITO and graphene layers are tailored in such a way that a large difference between real parts of guided mode effective index of the two arms is achieved while their corresponding imaginary parts are equal. As a result, a very low \documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$$10 \, \hbox {V} \upmu \hbox {m}$$\end{document}10Vμm is achieved. To the best of our knowledge, this is one of the lowest \documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$${{\mathrm {V}}}_{\pi }L_{\pi }$$\end{document}VπLπ reported for an electro-optic modulator. In addition, the proposed modulator exhibits a very high extinction ratio of more than 30 dB, low insertion loss of 2.8 dB and energy consumption of as low as 10 fJ/bit, which are all promising for optical communication and processing systems.
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A CMOS-Compatible Carrier-Injection Plasmonic Micro-Ring Modulator with Resonance Tuning by Carrier Concentration. PHOTONICS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/photonics9050272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS)-compatible carrier-injection plasmonic micro-ring modulator (CIPMRM) is designed and analyzed theoretically. The CIPMRM has a compacted footprint of 49.3 μm2 (R = 2 μm), a bit rate of 36.5 Gbps, insertion loss of −9.8 dB, a static extinction ratio of 21.7 dB, and energy consumption of 4.40 pJ/bit as 2.2 V peak-to-peak voltage is applied at 1550 nm. Besides, the method of resonance tuning by carrier concentration is proposed to compensate for the wavelength mismatch between the CIPMRM resonance and the laser, resulting from temperature and line width variation of the CIPMRM. This method has a faster response time and a greater ability to shift the resonant wavelength compared with the method of thermo-optic resonance tuning. The proposed scheme provides a route for realizing the compacted size modulator for optoelectronic integration.
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Lotkov ES, Baburin AS, Ryzhikov IA, Sorokina OS, Ivanov AI, Zverev AV, Ryzhkov VV, Bykov IV, Baryshev AV, Panfilov YV, Rodionov IA. ITO film stack engineering for low-loss silicon optical modulators. Sci Rep 2022; 12:6321. [PMID: 35428848 PMCID: PMC9012746 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-09973-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) platform is one of the promising solutions for state-of-the-art integrated optical modulators towards low-loss silicon photonics applications. One of the key challenges on this way is to optimize ITO-based thin films stacks for electro-optic modulators with both high extinction ratio and low insertion loss. In this paper we demonstrate the e-beam evaporation technology of 20 nm-thick ITO films with low extinction coefficient of 0.14 (Nc = 3.7·1020 cm−3) at 1550 nm wavelength and wide range of carrier concentrations (from 1 to 10 × 1020 cm−3). We investigate ITO films with amorphous, heterogeneously crystalline, homogeneously crystalline with hidden coarse grains and pronounced coarsely crystalline structure to achieve the desired optical and electrical parameters. Here we report the mechanism of oxygen migration in ITO film crystallization based on observed morphological features under low-energy growth conditions. Finally, we experimentally compare the current–voltage and optical characteristics of three electro-optic active elements based on ITO film stacks and reach strong ITO dielectric permittivity variation induced by charge accumulation/depletion (Δn = 0.199, Δk = 0.240 at λ = 1550 nm under ± 16 V). Our simulations and experimental results demonstrate the unique potential to create integrated GHz-range electro-optical modulators with sub-dB losses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evgeniy S Lotkov
- FMN Laboratory, Bauman Moscow State Technical University, Moscow, 105005, Russia. .,Dukhov Automatics Research Institute, (VNIIA), Moscow, 127055, Russia.
| | - Aleksandr S Baburin
- FMN Laboratory, Bauman Moscow State Technical University, Moscow, 105005, Russia.,Dukhov Automatics Research Institute, (VNIIA), Moscow, 127055, Russia
| | - Ilya A Ryzhikov
- FMN Laboratory, Bauman Moscow State Technical University, Moscow, 105005, Russia.,Institute for Theoretical and Applied Electromagnetics RAS, Moscow, 125412, Russia
| | - Olga S Sorokina
- FMN Laboratory, Bauman Moscow State Technical University, Moscow, 105005, Russia.,Dukhov Automatics Research Institute, (VNIIA), Moscow, 127055, Russia
| | - Anton I Ivanov
- FMN Laboratory, Bauman Moscow State Technical University, Moscow, 105005, Russia.,Dukhov Automatics Research Institute, (VNIIA), Moscow, 127055, Russia
| | - Alexander V Zverev
- FMN Laboratory, Bauman Moscow State Technical University, Moscow, 105005, Russia.,Dukhov Automatics Research Institute, (VNIIA), Moscow, 127055, Russia
| | - Vitaly V Ryzhkov
- FMN Laboratory, Bauman Moscow State Technical University, Moscow, 105005, Russia
| | - Igor V Bykov
- Institute for Theoretical and Applied Electromagnetics RAS, Moscow, 125412, Russia
| | | | - Yuri V Panfilov
- FMN Laboratory, Bauman Moscow State Technical University, Moscow, 105005, Russia
| | - Ilya A Rodionov
- FMN Laboratory, Bauman Moscow State Technical University, Moscow, 105005, Russia.,Dukhov Automatics Research Institute, (VNIIA), Moscow, 127055, Russia
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