Assessment of four organophosphorus pesticides as inhibitors of human acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase

Catalytic strategies for detoxifying phosphorus(V) biocides

Organophosphorus substances are employed in several industrial segments, albeit they may feature high toxicity levels depending on their structures. Based on previous extensive investigations of structure-reactivity patterns, researchers have been working on the development of catalysts as a means to detoxify phosphorus(V) organic compounds rapidly and safely through specific reaction pathways. This highlight reviews some recent advances in the utilization of catalytic systems for the decomposition of organophosphorus(V) compounds, in most cases using simulants of nerve agents. The nature of the catalysts is wide, including heterogeneous, colloidal and supramolecular systems, and although not all cases may be practical for the detoxification of phosphorus(V) organic structures, they are certainly useful for future research on this theme.

Larvicidal activity of terpenes and their derivatives against Aedes aegypti: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) is the primary arthropod vector responsible for the transmission of dengue, which is present in more than one hundred countries. The application of synthetic larvicides is one of the most common strategies used for dengue control, but their prolonged use can cause larvicide resistance or tolerance, environmental damage, and have toxic effects on human and animal health. Thus, faced with this problem, there have been increasing efforts to find alternative larvicides against Ae. Aegypti. This search has been mainly focused on naturally occurring chemical compounds, driven by the evidence of their potential effectiveness, and by a desire to find more sustainable, environmentally friendly, and safe alternatives to synthetic larvicides. Thus, the present study aimed to review the effects of terpenes and their derivatives on mortality of the Ae. aegypti larvae, focusing mainly on a lethal concentration of 50% (LC50), in addition to summarizing information on its mechanisms of action and effects on non-target organisms. We searched the main databases for studies published up to April 2024 using relevant keywords, and data were extracted and analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively. Twenty-one articles describing 69 different terpenes and derivatives met the criteria of the review and meta-analysis. Among them, 76.8% were terpenoids and 23.2% terpenes. The LC50 ranged from 0.4 to 1628.2 ppm. The present review and meta-analysis showed that the terpenes and terpenoids can be promising chemical templates for use in eco-friendly larvicides against Ae. aegypti.

Biomarkers of Pesticide Exposure in a Traditional Brazilian Amazon Community

In 2008, Brazil became the country with the highest pesticide use in the world, with over one billion liters of pesticides applied to crops in 2009. The impacts of these products on public health are wide-ranging. Vast territories are affected, involving different population groups, such as workers in various fields of activity, the population that consumes contaminated food, and people living around factories, such as traditional communities. This study aimed to assess human exposure to pesticides through epidemiological and laboratory data of residents of the Santo Antônio quilombola community in Concórdia do Pará, Amazon region, Brazil. Epidemiological data were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire, which included factors such as sex, age, length of residence, and level of exposure to pesticides. The modified Ellman method was used to assess the activity of cholinesterases, and flow cytometry was performed for cytokine analysis. Analysis of collected blood samples showed that, in most cases, there was no significant reduction in the activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) compared to other studies in the scientific literature. Meanwhile, there was an increase in the levels of IFN-γ cytokines, especially IL-6, in all groups. The findings of this study highlight the urgent need for a comprehensive monitoring program, considering that some conditions other than pesticide exposure can alter the activities of the biomarkers used in this study.

The ameliorative effect of Naringenin on fenamiphos induced hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity in a rat model: Oxidative stress, inflammatory markers, biochemical, histopathological, immunohistochemical and electron microscopy study

Fenamiphos (FNP) is an organophospate pesticide that causes many potential toxicities in non-target organisms. Naringenin (NAR) has protective properties against oxidative stress. In this study, FNP (0.76 mg/kg bw) toxicity and the effect of NAR (50 mg/kg bw) on the liver and kidney of rats were investigated via biochemical, oxidative stress, immunohistochemical, cytopathological and histopathologically. As a result of biochemical studies, FNP caused oxidative stress in tissues with a change in total antioxidant/oxidant status. After treatment with FNP, hepatic and renal levels of AChE were significantly reduced while 8-OHdG and IL-17 levels, caspase-3 and TNF-α immunoreactivity increased compared to the control group. It also changed in serum biochemical markers such as ALT, AST, BUN, creatinine. Exposure to FNP significantly induced cytopathological, histopathological and immunohistochemical changes through tissue damage. NAR treatment restored biochemical parameters, renal/hepatic AChE, ultrastructural, histopathological and immunohistochemical changes modulated and blocked the increasing effect of FNP on tissues caspase-3 and TNF-α expressions, 8-OHdG and IL-17 levels. In electron microscopy studies, swelling was observed in the mitochondria of the cells in both tissues of the FNP-treated rats, while less ultrastructural changes in the FNP plus NAR-treated rats.

Molecular interaction mechanisms on (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate improving activities of inhibited acetylcholinesterase by selected organophosphorus pesticides in vitro & vivo

(-)-Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) is reported to have benefits for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease by binding with acetylcholinesterase (AChE) to enhance the cholinergic neurotransmission. Organophosphorus pesticides (OPs) inhibited AChE and damaged the nervous system. This study investigated the combined effects of EGCG and OPs on AChE activities in vitro & vivo. The results indicated that EGCG significantly reversed the inhibition of AChE caused by OPs. In vitro, EGCG reactived AChE in three group tubes incubated for 110 min, and in vivo, it increased the relative activities of AChE from less than 20% to over 70% in brain and vertebral of zebrafish during the exposure of 34 h. The study also proposed the molecular interaction mechanisms through the reactive kinetics and computational analyses of density functional theory, molecular docking, and dynamic modeling. These analyses suggested that EGCG occupied the key residues, preventing OPs from binding to the catalytic center of AChE, and interfering with the initial affinity of OPs to the central active site. Hydrogen bonding, conjugation, and steric interactions were identified as playing important roles in the molecular interactions. The work suggests that EGCG antagonized the inhibitions of OPs on AChE activities and potentially offered the neuroprotection against the induced damage.

Brominated oxime nucleophiles are efficiently reactivating cholinesterases inhibited by nerve agents

Six novel brominated bis-pyridinium oximes were designed and synthesized to increase their nucleophilicity and reactivation ability of phosphorylated acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE). Their pKa was valuably found lower to parent non-halogenated oximes. Stability tests showed that novel brominated oximes were stable in water, but the stability of di-brominated oximes was decreased in buffer solution and their degradation products were prepared and characterized. The reactivation screening of brominated oximes was tested on AChE and BChE inhibited by organophosphorus surrogates. Two mono-brominated oximes reactivated AChE comparably to non-halogenated analogues, which was further confirmed by reactivation kinetics. The acute toxicity of two selected brominated oximes was similar to commercially available oxime reactivators and the most promising brominated oxime was tested in vivo on sarin- and VX-poisoned rats. This brominated oxime showed interesting CNS distribution and significant reactivation effectiveness in blood. The same oxime resulted with the best protective index for VX-poisoned rats.

Time-series variation in the locomotor behavior and vocal traits of Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) acutely exposed to organophosphorus pesticide chlorpyrifos

Organophosphorus pesticides (OPs), such as chlorpyrifos (CPF), are the most commonly used pesticides worldwide. Considering that OPs will eventually enter aquatic ecosystems due to runoff from agricultural lands, accidental leakage, and other unforeseen emergencies, monitoring water pollution of those substances is crucial for environmental protection and public health. In this study, Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) were exposed to CPF (0.03, 0.06, and 0.12 mg/L) for 6 h, and the time-series variations in their locomotor behavior and vocal traits were investigated. Compared with that measured before exposure, significantly changed locomotor behavior and vocal traits in Japanese medaka exposed to CPF could be observed at 4 h after exposure and thereafter, and the pattern of behavioral changes depends on the CPF concentrations. Exposure to CPF also changed the frequency-sound pressure level curve of Japanese medaka at 6 h after exposure, especially at 0.12 mg/L. Moreover, CPF exposure could significantly inhibit the acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in the brains and eyes of medaka, which exhibited significant correlations with the variation of locomotor behavioral and vocal traits. Considering that inhibiting the AChE activity is the primary mechanism underlying the neurobehavioral toxicity of all OPs, our finding suggested that simultaneously monitoring changes in the locomotor behavioral and vocal traits has a high potential to reflect the pollution of organophosphorus substances.

Evaluation of genotoxic effects in workers and residents of rural areas exposed to pesticides in Brazil

Brazil is one of the world's largest consumers of pesticides. This intense use impacts the environment and exposes a wide range of individuals to pesticides, including rural workers who are occupationally exposed and rural residents who are environmentally exposed. We aimed to evaluate the effects of occupational exposure to pesticides on the health of rural workers and rural residents. We conducted an epidemiological study with 104 farmers and 23 rural residents of Casimiro de Abreu (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil). A comparison group (urban residents) comprised 103 residents of the urban area of the same city. We determined the activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) using a modified version of Ellman's method to evaluate exposure. In addition, we performed genotoxic and mutagenic analyses with the comet assay and the cytokinesis-block micronucleus (CBMN) assay. There was a reduction in cholinesterase activity, mainly BChE, in rural workers and rural residents compared with urban residents (p = 0.002). There was an increase in genotoxic effects in rural workers compared with urban residents (comet assay, p < 0.001; CBMN assay, p < 0.001). In addition, there was a greater chance of genotoxic changes in rural workers exposed to pesticides based on the comet assay (odds ratio [OR] 7.6, 95 % confidence interval [CI] 6.6-15.9) and the CBMN assay (OR 22.7, 95 % CI 10.3-49.9). We found that individuals occupationally exposed to pesticides are more likely to have genotoxic effects. These findings are useful for the development of programs to monitor populations exposed to genotoxic substances and allow the development of strategies for the prevention, control, and surveillance of effects that result from occupational and environmental exposures to pesticides.

New Heterostilbene and Triazole Oximes as Potential CNS-Active and Cholinesterase-Targeted Therapeutics

New furan, thiophene, and triazole oximes were synthesized through several-step reaction paths to investigate their potential for the development of central nervous systems (CNS)-active and cholinesterase-targeted therapeutics in organophosphorus compound (OP) poisonings. Treating patients with acute OP poisoning is still a challenge despite the development of a large number of oxime compounds that should have the capacity to reactivate acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE). The activity of these two enzymes, crucial for neurotransmission, is blocked by OP, which has the consequence of disturbing normal cholinergic nerve signal transduction in the peripheral and CNS, leading to a cholinergic crisis. The oximes in use have one or two pyridinium rings and cross the brain-blood barrier poorly due to the quaternary nitrogen. Following our recent study on 2-thienostilbene oximes, in this paper, we described the synthesis of 63 heterostilbene derivatives, of which 26 oximes were tested as inhibitors and reactivators of AChE and BChE inhibited by OP nerve agents-sarin and cyclosarin. While the majority of oximes were potent inhibitors of both enzymes in the micromolar range, we identified several oximes as BChE or AChE selective inhibitors with the potential for drug development. Furthermore, the oximes were poor reactivators of AChE; four heterocyclic derivatives reactivated cyclosarin-inhibited BChE up to 70%, and cis,trans-5 [2-((Z)-2-(5-((E)-(hydroxyimino)methyl)thiophen-2-yl)vinyl)benzonitrile] had a reactivation efficacy comparable to the standard oxime HI-6. In silico analysis and molecular docking studies, including molecular dynamics simulation, connected kinetic data to the structural features of these oximes and confirmed their productive interactions with the active site of cyclosarin-inhibited BChE. Based on inhibition and reactivation and their ADMET properties regarding lipophilicity, CNS activity, and hepatotoxicity, these compounds could be considered for further development of CNS-active reactivators in OP poisoning as well as cholinesterase-targeted therapeutics in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's.

Evaluation of Anticholinesterase Activity of the Fungicides Mefentrifluconazole and Pyraclostrobin

Triazoles are compounds with various biological activities, including fungicidal action. They became popular through cholinesterase studies after the successful synthesis of the dual binding femtomolar triazole inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase (AChE, EC 3.1.1.7) by Sharpless et al. via in situ click chemistry. Here, we evaluate the anticholinesterase effect of the first isopropanol triazole fungicide mefentrifluconazole (Ravystar®), developed to overcome fungus resistance in plant disease management. Mefentrifluconazole is commercially available individually or in a binary fungicidal mixture, i.e., with pyraclostrobin (Ravycare®). Pyraclostrobin is a carbamate that contains a pyrazole ring. Carbamates are known inhibitors of cholinesterases and the carbamate rivastigmine is already in use for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. We tested the type and potency of anticholinesterase activity of mefentrifluconazole and pyraclostrobin. Mefentrifluconazole reversibly inhibited human AChE and BChE with a seven-fold higher potency toward AChE (Ki = 101 ± 19 μM). Pyraclostrobin (50 μM) inhibited AChE and BChE progressively with rate constants of (t1/2 = 2.1 min; ki = 6.6 × 103 M-1 min-1) and (t1/2 = 1.5 min; ki = 9.2 × 103 M-1 min-1), respectively. A molecular docking study indicated key interactions between the tested fungicides and residues of the lipophilic active site of AChE and BChE. Additionally, the physicochemical properties of the tested fungicides were compared to values for CNS-active drugs to estimate the blood-brain barrier permeability. Our results can be applied in the design of new molecules with a lesser impact on humans and the environment.

Rationally Designed Functionalization of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes for Real-Time Monitoring of Cholinesterase Activity and Inhibition in Plasma

Enzymes play a pivotal role in regulating numerous bodily functions. Thus, there is a growing need for developing sensors enabling real-time monitoring of enzymatic activity and inhibition. The activity and inhibition of cholinesterase (CHE) enzymes in blood plasma are fluorometrically monitored using near-infrared (NIR) fluorescent single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) as probes, strategically functionalized with myristoylcholine (MC)- the substrate of CHE. A significant decrease in the fluorescence intensity of MC-suspended SWCNTs upon interaction with CHE is observed, attributed to the hydrolysis of the MC corona phase of the SWCNTs by CHE. Complementary measurements for quantifying choline, the product of MC hydrolysis, reveal a correlation between the fluorescence intensity decrease and the amount of released choline, rendering the SWCNTs optical sensors with real-time feedback in the NIR biologically transparent spectral range. Moreover, when synthetic and naturally abundant inhibitors inhibit the CHE enzymes present in blood plasma, no significant modulations of the MC-SWCNT fluorescence are observed, allowing effective detection of CHE inhibition. The rationally designed SWCNT sensors platform for monitoring of enzymatic activity and inhibition in clinically relevant samples is envisioned to not only advance the field of clinical diagnostics but also deepen further understanding of enzyme-related processes in complex biological fluids.

Cholesterol Oxime Olesoxime Assessed as a Potential Ligand of Human Cholinesterases

Olesoxime, a cholesterol derivative with an oxime group, possesses the ability to cross the blood-brain barrier, and has demonstrated excellent safety and tolerability properties in clinical research. These characteristics indicate it may serve as a centrally active ligand of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), whose disruption of activity with organophosphate compounds (OP) leads to uncontrolled excitation and potentially life-threatening symptoms. To evaluate olesoxime as a binding ligand and reactivator of human AChE and BChE, we conducted in vitro kinetic studies with the active metabolite of insecticide parathion, paraoxon, and the warfare nerve agents sarin, cyclosarin, tabun, and VX. Our results showed that both enzymes possessed a binding affinity for olesoxime in the mid-micromolar range, higher than the antidotes in use (i.e., 2-PAM, HI-6, etc.). While olesoxime showed a weak ability to reactivate AChE, cyclosarin-inhibited BChE was reactivated with an overall reactivation rate constant comparable to that of standard oxime HI-6. Moreover, in combination with the oxime 2-PAM, the reactivation maximum increased by 10-30% for cyclosarin- and sarin-inhibited BChE. Molecular modeling revealed productive interactions between olesoxime and BChE, highlighting olesoxime as a potentially BChE-targeted therapy. Moreover, it might be added to OP poisoning treatment to increase the efficacy of BChE reactivation, and its cholesterol scaffold could provide a basis for the development of novel oxime antidotes.

Using heat shock protein (HSP) inducers as an approach to increase the viability of sterlet (Pisces; Acipenseridae; Acipenser ruthenus) cells against environmental diazinon toxicity

Diazinon (DZN) is an organophosphate pesticide frequently used in agriculture and released into aquatic environments. In this study, sterlet sturgeon cells were exposed to DZN to investigate possible defense mechanisms via HSP induction (HSPi). Liver, kidney, and gill cells of Acipenser ruthenus were isolated and cultured and then treated with HSPi (Pro-Tex®, amygdalin, and a novel pirano-piranazole-based synthesized compound: SZ) in the presence and absence of DZN. MTT assays were used to evaluate the effects of different HSPis and their combinations with DZN. Western blotting analysis was conducted to evaluate HSP27, HSP70, and HSP90 expression patterns in each group. The highest rates of caspase-3 and caspase-8 activities were found in the DZN group, whereas HSPi treatment resulted in the lowest rates. The combination of HSPi+DZN resulted in increased HSP levels and antioxidant parameters but decreased cortisol, immune parameters, and metabolic enzymes. Many of the studied parameters (caspases, acetylcholinesterase, antioxidant, immune, and metabolic parameters) showed significant correlations with HSP expression, indicating that HSPs may be associated with markers of sterlet cell health. The results of this study demonstrate that using HSP inducers may be a powerful and reliable way to increase A. ruthenus resistance prior to exposure to DZN.

Environmental exposure to glyphosate does not inhibit human acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase

Glyphosate has remained the leading herbicide on the global market to date, despite the continuous debate between consumers, scientific community, and regulatory agencies over its carcinogenicity, genotoxicity, environmental persistence, and the role in the development of neurodegenerative disorders. Chemically, glyphosate belongs to a large family of organophosphorus pesticides, which exert a neurotoxic effect by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), enzymes of the cholinergic system essential for maintaining neurotransmission. Although research shows that glyphosate is a weak cholinesterase inhibitor in fish and mammals compared to other OP compounds, no conclusive data exist concerning the inhibition of human AChE and BChE. In our study we analysed its inhibitory potency on human AChE and BChE, by establishing its IC50 and reversible inhibition in terms of dissociation inhibition constants. Glyphosate concentration of 40 mmol/L caused near total inhibition of enzyme activity (approx. 10 % activity remaining). Inhibition dissociation constants (K i) of glyphosate-AChE and -BChE complexes were 28.4±2.7 mmol/L and 19.3±1.8 mmol/L, respectively. In conclusion, glyphosate shows a slight binding preference for BChE but exhibits inhibition only in a high concentration range. Our results are in line with studies reporting that its neurotoxic effect is not primarily linked to the cholinergic system.

Global classification models for predicting acute toxicity of chemicals towards Daphnia magna

Molecular descriptors reflecting structural information on hydrophobicity, reactivity, polarizability, hydrogen bond and charged groups, were used to predict the toxicity (pLC50) of chemicals towards Daphnia magna with global quantitative structure-activity/toxicity relationship (QSAR/QSTR) models. A sufficiently large dataset including 1517 chemical toxicity to Daphnia magna was divided into a training set (758 pLC50) and a test set (759 pLC50). By applying random forest algorithm, two classification models, Class Model A and Class Model B were developed, having prediction accuracy, sensitivity and specificity above 85% for Class 1 (with pLC50 ≤ 4.48) and Class 2 (with pLC50 > 4.48). The Class Model A was based on nine molecular descriptors and RF parameters of nodesize = 1, ntree = 80 and mtry = 2, and yielded accuracy of 92.3% (training set), 85.6% (test set) and 88.9% (total data set). Class Model B was based on ten descriptors and parameters, nodesize = 1, ntree = 90 and mtry = 2, produced accuracy of 88.3% (training set), 86.8% (test set) and 87.5% (total data set). The two classification models were satisfactory compared with other classification model reported in the literature, although classification models in this work dealt with more samples. Thus, the two classification models with a larger applicability domain provided efficient tools for assessing chemical aquatic toxicity towards Daphnia magna.

Follicular DNA Damage and Pesticide Exposure Among Latinx Children in Rural and Urban Communities

The intersectional risks of children in United States immigrant communities include environmental exposures. Pesticide exposures and their biological outcomes are not well characterized in this population group. We assessed pesticide exposure and related these exposures to DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) in Latinx children from rural, farmworker families (FW; N = 30) and from urban, non-farmworker families (NFW; N = 15) living in North Carolina. DSBs were quantified in hair follicular cells by immunostaining of 53BP1, and exposure to 72 pesticides and pesticide degradation products were determined using silicone wristbands. Cholinesterase activity was measured in blood samples. DSB frequencies were higher in FW compared to NFW children. Seasonal effects were detected in the FW group, with highest DNA damage levels in April-June and lowest levels in October-November. Acetylcholinesterase depression had the same seasonality and correlated with follicular DNA damage. Organophosphate pesticides were more frequently detected in FW than in NFW children. Participants with organophosphate detections had increased follicular DNA damage compared to participants without organophosphate detection. Follicular DNA damage did not correlate with organochlorine or pyrethroid detections and was not associated with the total number of pesticides detected in the wristbands. These results point to rural disparities in pesticide exposures and their outcomes in children from vulnerable immigrant communities. They suggest that among the different classes of pesticides, organophosphates have the strongest genotoxic effects. Assessing pesticide exposures and their consequences at the individual level is key to environmental surveillance programs. To this end, the minimally invasive combined approach used here is particularly well suited for children.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12403-023-00609-1.

Structure-Dependent Mechanism of Organophosphate Release from Albumin and Butyrylcholinesterase Adducts When Exposed to Fluoride Ion: A Comprehensive In Silico Study

The most favorable targets for retrospectively determining human exposure to organophosphorus pesticides, insecticides, retardants, and other industrial organophosphates (OPs) are adducts of OPs with blood plasma butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) and human serum albumin (HSA). One of the methods for determining OP exposure is the reactivation of modified BChE using a concentrated solution of KF in an acidic medium. It is known that under the action of fluoride ion, OPs or their fluoroanhydrides can be released not only from BChE adducts but also from the adducts with albumin; however, the contribution of albumin to the total pool of released OPs after plasma treatment with KF has not yet been studied. The efficiency of OP release can be affected by many factors associated with the experimental technique, but first, the structure of the adduct must be taken into account. We report a comparative analysis of the structure and conformation of organophosphorus adducts on HSA and BChE using molecular modeling methods and the mechanism of OP release after fluoride ion exposure. The conformational analysis of the organophosphorus adducts on HSA and BChE was performed, and the interaction of fluoride ions with modified proteins was studied by molecular dynamics simulation. The geometric and energy characteristics of the studied adducts and their complexes with fluoride ion were calculated using molecular mechanics and semiempirical approaches. The structural features of modified HSA and BChE that can affect the efficiency of OP release after fluoride ion exposure were revealed. Using the proposed approach, the expediency of using KF for establishing exposure to different OPs, depending on their structure, can be assessed.

Influence of pesticide exposure on farmers' cognition: A systematic review

Objectives

Pesticide application has become necessary to increase crop productivity and reduce losses. However, the use of these products can produce toxic effects. Farmers are individuals occupationally exposed to pesticides, thus subject to associated diseases as well as cognitive impairment. However, this relation is not well established in the literature, requiring further investigation. To assess the potential association between farmers' pesticide exposure and cognitive impairment, we followed the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, considering participants, interventions, comparators, outcomes, and study strategies.

Materials and Methods

This study included articles published between 2000 and 2021 on the Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and PubMed databases, retrieved by the terms "pesticides and cognition" and "pesticides and memory."

Results

In total, ten studies fit the established criteria and were included in the sample. All had farmers occupationally exposed to pesticides in their sample and only one study dispensed with a control group. Of the neurobehavioral tests, four studies used mini-mental state examination, six neurobehavioral core test batteries (tests recognized in the area), and the remaining, other tests. We observed that 90% of articles found an association between cognitive impairment and pesticide exposure. Overall, five studies measured the activity of cholinesterases in their sample, of which three found significant differences between groups, confirming intoxication in those exposed.

Conclusion

Despite the limited number of trials, we found scientific evidence to support the existence of adverse effects of pesticides on farmers' cognition. We recommend that future studies research similar projects, expanding knowledge on the subject.

Modeling of a near-attack conformation of oxime in phosphorylated acetylcholinesterase via a reactivation product, a phosphorylated oxime

At the present, only four antidotes are in use in therapy for poisoning by organophosphorus compounds: 2-PAM, HI-6, obidoxime and trimedoxime. Numerous compounds have been designed and synthetized to be more effective reactivators than those currently in use. Many of those new compounds fail at the enzyme level because interactions formed within the AChE active site are not favourable ones that lead to a successful reactivation. The approach in which the modeling of a phosphorylated oxime (POX), a product of successful reactivation in the AChE active site, may be a way to better understand the role of active site residues during the process of formation of the Michaelis type of complex between an enzyme and oxime. After reactivation, a change in phosphorus stereochemistry occurs leading to a different spatial arrangement of attached substituents, now including an oxime. To study interactions between the AChE oxyanion hole and a phosphorylated oxime, an S203G mutant was used to avoid the steric hindrance caused by the catalytic serine. In this way, the POX could be positioned close to the oxyanion hole. In the final step, the oxime without a phosphoester moiety was transferred into the phosphorylated AChE and molecular dynamics was used to test the stability of the near-attack conformation of the oxime near the phosphorylated serine.

Molecular modeling of Mannich phenols as reactivators of human acetylcholinesterase inhibited by A-series nerve agents

The A-series is the most recent generation of chemical warfare nerve agents (CWA) which act directly on the inhibition of the human acetylcholinesterase (HssAChE) enzyme. These compounds lack accurate experimental data on their physicochemical properties, and there is no evidence that traditional antidotes effectively reactivate HssAChE inhibited by them. In the search for potential antidotes, we employed virtual screening, molecular docking, and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations for the theoretical assessment of the performance of a library of Mannich phenols as potential reactivators of HssAChE inhibited by the Novichok agents A-230, A-232, and A-234, in comparison with the commercial oximes pralidoxime (2-PAM), asoxime (HI-6), trimedoxime (TMB-4), and obidoxime. Following the near-attack conformation (NAC) approach, our results suggest that the compounds assessed would face difficulties in triggering the proposed nucleophilic in-line displacement mechanism. Despite this, it was observed that certain Mannich phenols presented similar or superior results to those obtained by reference oximes against A-232 and A-234 model, suggesting that these compounds can adopt more favourable conformations. Additional binding energy calculations confirmed the stability of the model/ligands complexes and the reactivating potential observed in the molecular docking and MD studies. Our findings indicate that the Mannich phenols could be alternative antidotes and that their efficacy should be evaluated experimentally against the A-series CWA.

Recent advancements in non-enzymatic electrochemical sensor development for the detection of organophosphorus pesticides in food and environment

Organophosphorus Pesticides (OPPs) are among the extensively used pesticides throughout the world to boost agricultural production. However, persistent residues of these toxic pesticides in various vegetables, fruits, and drinking water poses detrimental health effects. Consequently, the rapid monitoring of these harmful chemicals through simple and cost-effective methods has become crucial. In such an instance, electrochemical methods offer simple, rapid, sensitive, reproducible, and affordable detection pathways. To overcome the limitations associated with electrochemical enzymatic sensors, non-enzymatic sensors have emerged as promising and simpler alternatives. The non-enzymatic sensors have demonstrated superior activity, reaching detection limit up to femto (10-15) molar concentration in recent years, leveraging higher selectivity obtained through the molecularly imprinted polymers, synergistic effects between carbonaceous nanomaterials and metals, metal oxide alloys, and other alternative approaches. Herein, this review paper provides an overview of the recent advancements in the development of non-enzymatic electrochemical sensors for the detection of commonly used OPPs, such as Chlorpyrifos (CHL), Diazinon (DZN), Malathion (MTN), Methyl parathion (MP) and Fenthion (FEN). The design method of the electrodes, electrode functioning mechanism, and their analytical performance metrics, such as limit of detection, sensitivity, selectivity, and linearity range, were reviewed and compared. Furthermore, the existing challenges within this rapidly growing field were discussed along with their potential solutions which will facilitate the fabrication of advanced and sustainable non-enzymatic sensors in the future.

Recent advances in the synthesis and applications of single-atom nanozymes in food safety monitoring

Nanozymes are synthetic compounds with enzyme-like tunable catalytic properties. The success of nanozymes for catalytic applications can be attributed to their small dimensions, cost-effective synthesis, appreciable stability, and scalability to molecular dimensions. The emergence of single atom nanozymes (SANzymes) has opened up new possibilities in bioanalytical applications. In this regard, this review outlines enzyme-mimicking features of SANzymes for food safety applications in relation to the key variables controlling their catalytic performance. The discussion is extended further to cover the applications of SANzymes for the monitoring of various compounds/biomaterials of significance with respect to food safety (e.g., pesticides, veterinary drug residues, foodborne pathogenic bacteria, mycotoxins/bacterial endotoxin, antioxidant residues, hydrogen peroxide residues, and heavy metal ions). Furthermore, the performance of SANzymes is evaluated in terms of various performance metrics such as limit of detection (LOD), linear dynamic range, and figure of merit (FoM). The challenges and future road map for the applications of SANzymes are also addressed along with their upscaling in the area of food safety.

Selected herbicides screened for toxicity and analysed as inhibitors of both cholinesterases

Sets of 346 herbicides in use and 163 outdated no longer in use were collected from open access online sources and compared in silico with cholinesterases inhibitors (ChI) and drugs in terms of physicochemical profile and estimated toxic effects on human health. The screening revealed at least one potential adverse consequence for each herbicide class assigned according to their mode of action on weeds. The classes with most toxic warnings were K1, K3/N, F1 and E. The selection of 11 commercial herbicides for in vitro biological tests on human acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), the enzymes involved in neurotoxicity and detoxification of various xenobiotics, respectively, was based mainly on the structural similarity with inhibitors of cholinesterases. Organophosphate anilofos and oxyacetanilide flufenacet were the most potent inhibitors of AChE (25 μM) and BChE (6.4 μM), respectively. Glyphosate, oxadiazon, tembotrione and terbuthylazine were poor inhibitors with an estimated IC₅₀ above 100 μM, while for glyphosate the IC₅₀ was above 1 mM. Generally, all of the selected herbicides inhibited with a slight preference towards BChE. Cytotoxicity assays showed that anilofos, bensulide, butamifos, piperophos and oxadiazon were cytotoxic for hepatocytes (HepG2) and neuroblastoma cell line (SH-SY5Y). Time-independent cytotoxicity accompanied with induction of reactive oxygen species indicated rapid cell death in few hours. Our results based on in silico and in vitro analyses give insight into the potential toxic outcome of herbicides in use and can be applied in the design of new molecules with a less hazardous impact on humans and the environment.

Selenium Heals the Chlorpyrifos-Induced Oxidative Damage and Antioxidant Enzyme Levels in the Rat Tissues

Chlorpyrifos (CPF), mainly exposed by oral, dermal, or inhalation, is a broad-spectrum organophosphate pesticide used in pest control, increasing agricultural productivity, and being considered toxic to living things. Selenium (Se), an essential component of selenoenzymes and selenoproteins, is an essential element that protects cells from oxidative stress and has antioxidant properties. The study aimed to examine the oxidative stress caused by different doses of CPF exposure in brain, liver, and kidney tissues while observing the healing effect of Se application on tissue damage and antioxidant levels. A total of 56 rats were divided into seven different groups: 1st group control (water); 2nd group sham (corn oil); the 3rd group was CPF-L (5.4 mg/kg CPF); the 4th group was CPF-H (13.5 mg/kg CPF); the 5th group was Se (3 mg/kg Se); 6th group was CPF-L + Se (5.4 mg/kg CPF + 3 mg/kg Se); the 7th group was CPF-H + Se (13.5 mg/kg CPF + 3 mg/kg Se). The brain, liver, and kidney tissues were obtained from rats sacrificed 6 weeks later. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE), oxidant, and antioxidant parameters were examined in the tissues. The results suggest that CPF causes neurotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, and renal toxicity by altering AChE levels, inducing lipid peroxidation, and decreasing antioxidant systems. Se treatment increased the activities of AChE and, antioxidant defense system and reduced the malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in the brain, liver, and kidney tissues of rats. Se was found to heal and also protect these tissues against these changes resulting from CPF exposure.

Integrated in silico and experimental discovery of trimeric peptide ligands targeting Butyrylcholinesterase

Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) is recognized as a high value biotherapeutic in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease and drug addiction. This study presents the rational design and screening of an in-silico library of trimeric peptides against BChE and the experimental characterization of peptide ligands for purification. The selected peptides consistently afforded high BChE recovery (> 90 %) and purity, yielding up to a 1000-fold purification factor. This study revealed a marked anti-correlated conformational movement governed by the ionic strength and pH of the aqueous environment, which ultimately controls BChE binding and release during chromatographic purification; and highlighted the role of residues within and allosteric to the catalytic triad of BChE in determining biorecognition, thus providing useful guidance for ligand design and affinity maturation.

Multiple neurological effects associated with exposure to organophosphorus pesticides in man

This article reviews available data regarding the possible association of organophosphorus (OP) pesticides with neurological disorders such as dementia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, neurodevelopment, autism, cognitive development, Parkinson's disease and chronic organophosphate-induced neuropsychiatric disorder. These effects mainly develop after repeated (chronic) human exposure to low doses of OP. In addition, three well defined neurotoxic effects in humans caused by single doses of OP compounds are discussed. Those effects are the cholinergic syndrome, the intermediate syndrome and organophosphate-induced delayed polyneuropathy. Usually, the poisoning can be avoided by an improved administrative control, limited access to OP pesticides, efficient measures of personal protection and education of OP pesticide applicators and medical staff.

Therapy of Organophosphate Poisoning via Intranasal Administration of 2-PAM-Loaded Chitosomes

Chitosan-decorated liposomes were proposed for the first time for the intranasal delivery of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) reactivator pralidoxime chloride (2-PAM) to the brain as a therapy for organophosphorus compounds (OPs) poisoning. Firstly, the chitosome composition based on phospholipids, cholesterol, chitosans (Cs) of different molecular weights, and its arginine derivative was developed and optimized. The use of the polymer modification led to an increase in the encapsulation efficiency toward rhodamine B (RhB; ~85%) and 2-PAM (~60%) by 20% compared to conventional liposomes. The formation of monodispersed and stable nanosized particles with a hydrodynamic diameter of up to 130 nm was shown using dynamic light scattering. The addition of the polymers recharged the liposome surface (from -15 mV to +20 mV), which demonstrates the successful deposition of Cs on the vesicles. In vitro spectrophotometric analysis showed a slow release of substrates (RhB and 2-PAM) from the nanocontainers, while the concentration and Cs type did not significantly affect the chitosome permeability. Flow cytometry and fluorescence microscopy qualitatively and quantitatively demonstrated the penetration of the developed chitosomes into normal Chang liver and M-HeLa cervical cancer cells. At the final stage, the ability of the formulated 2-PAM to reactivate brain AChE was assessed in a model of paraoxon-induced poisoning in an in vivo test. Intranasal administration of 2-PAM-containing chitosomes allows it to reach the degree of enzyme reactivation up to 35 ± 4%.

Synthesis and Biological Studies of Novel Aminophosphonates and Their Metal Carbonyl Complexes (Fe, Ru)

The quest to find new inhibitors of biologically relevant targets is considered an important strategy to introduce new drug candidates for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. A series of (aminomethyl)benzylphosphonates 8a–c and their metallocarbonyl iron 9a–c and ruthenium 10a–c complexes were designed, synthesized, and evaluated for their inhibitory potentials against acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) by determination of IC₅₀. Metallocarbonyl derivatives, in general, did not show significant inhibition activity against these enzymes, the most potent inhibitor was the (aminomethyl)benzylphosphonate 8a (IC₅₀ = 1.215 µM against AChE). Molecular docking analysis of AChE and (aminomethyl)benzylphosphonates 8a–c showed the strongest interactions of 8a and AChE compared to isomers 8b and 8c. Cytotoxicity studies of synthesized compounds towards the V79 cell line were also performed and discussed.

Novel insights on acetylcholinesterase inhibition by Convolvulus pluricaulis, scopolamine and their combination in zebrafish

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors increase the retention of acetylcholine (ACh) in synapses. Although they alleviate cognitive deficits in Alzheimer's disease, their limited benefits warrant investigations of plant extracts with similar properties. We studied the anti-AChE activity of Convolvulus pluricaulis (CP) in a zebrafish model of cognitive impairment induced by scopolamine (SCOP). CP is a perennial herb with anti-amnesiac and anxiolytic properties. It contains alkaloid, anthocyanin, coumarin, flavonoid, phytosterol and triterpenoid components. Isoxazole (ISOX) was used as a positive control for AChE inhibition. CP-treated 168 hpf larvae showed a similar pattern of AChE inhibition (in the myelencephalon and somites) as that of ISOX-treated larvae. CP was superior to ISOX as evidenced by the retention of avoidance response behavior in adult zebrafish. Molecular docking studies indicated that ISOX binds Ser203 of the catalytic triad on the human AChE. The active components of CP-scopoletin and kaempferol-were bound by His447 of the catalytic triad, the anionic subsite of the catalytic center, and the peripheral anionic site. This suggested the ability of CP to mediate both competitive and non-competitive modes of inhibition. Surprisingly, SCOP showed AChE inhibition in larvae, possibly mediated via the choline-binding sites. CP + SCOP induced a concentration-dependent increase in AChE inhibition and ACh depletion. Abnormal motor responses were observed with ISOX, CP, ISOX + SCOP, and CP + SCOP, indicative of undesirable effects on the peripheral cholinergic system. Our study proposes the examination of CP, SCOP, and CP + SCOP as potential AChE inhibitors for their ability to modulate cognitive deficits.

Charged pyridinium oximes with thiocarboxamide moiety are equally or less effective reactivators of organophosphate-inhibited cholinesterases compared to analogous carboxamides

The organophosphorus antidotes, so-called oximes, are able to restore the enzymatic function of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) or butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) via cleavage of organophosphate from the active site of the phosphylated enzyme. In this work, the charged pyridinium oximes containing thiocarboxamide moiety were designed, prepared and tested. Their stability and pK_a properties were found to be analogous to parent carboxamides (K027, K048 and K203). The inhibitory ability of thiocarboxamides was found in low µM levels for AChE and high µM levels for BChE. Their reactivation properties were screened on human recombinant AChE and BChE inhibited by nerve agent surrogates and paraoxon. One thiocarboxamide was able to effectively restore function of NEMP- and NEDPA-AChE, whereas two thiocarboxamides were able to reactivate BChE inhibited by all tested organophosphates. These results were confirmed by reactivation kinetics, where thiocarboxamides were proved to be effective, but less potent reactivators if compared to carboxamides.

Hemoperfusion in combination with hemofiltration for acute severe organophosphorus pesticide poisoning: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Background:

Acute severe organophosphorus pesticide poisoning (ASOPP) is one of the major diseases that endanger human life and health. However, the effects of conventional therapy including gastric lavages, mechanical ventilation, muscarinic antagonist drugs, and cholinesterase reactivators were uncertain. This meta-analysis aims to investigate the safety and efficacy of hemoperfusion combined with hemofiltration besides routine therapy for ASOPP.

Materials and Methods:

A comprehensive search for candidate publications was performed through PubMed, Medline, Cochrane Library, WanFang, Chinese Biomedical Literature, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure from database inception to May 12, 2020. The retrieved studies were screened by the predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. The data of important end points were extracted. The risk ratio (RR) and weighted mean difference (WMD) were pooled for categorical variables and continuous variables, respectively. Meta-analyses and publication bias were conducted by using STATA software version 15.1.

Results:

A total of 11 randomized controlled trials with 811 patients were included. Compared to conventional therapy group, patients in the hemoperfusion plus hemofiltration group were significantly superior with regard to mortality (RR 0.38, 95% confidence interval [CI] [0.25, 0.57], P < 0.001), total atropine dosing (WMD −147.34 mg, 95% CI [−199.49, −95.18], P < 0.001), duration of mechanical ventilation (WMD −2.34 days, 95% CI [−3.77, −0.92], P < 0.001), cholinesterase recovery time (WMD −2.49 days, 95% CI [−3.14, −1.83], P < 0.001), and length of stay (WMD −4.52 days, 95% CI [−5.31, −3.73], P < 0.001).

Conclusion:

Combined hemoperfusion and hemofiltration was a very safe and effective treatment protocol for ASOPP, not only resulting in significantly decreased mortality but also resulting in reduced total atropine dosing, duration of mechanical ventilation, cholinesterase recovery time, and length of stay.