Characterisation and utilisation of nano-reduced starch from underutilised cereals for delivery of folic acid through human GI tract

Nanoparticles mediated folic acid enrichment

Folate is an essential component of many metabolic processes, and folate deficiency is known to cause various disorders. Folate and folic acid, a synthetic and chemically stable form of folate, enriched diet are typically used to overcome this deficiency. Folic acid and folate however, are susceptible to harsh environment and folates enrichment using nanoparticles is an intensively studied strategy in food industry. This review highlights the current methods and types of matrices utilized to develop folic acid/folate carrying nanoparticles. The folic acid/folate loaded nanoparticles prevent cargo degradation during gut absorption and under harsh food processing conditions including, high temperatures, UV light, and autoclaving. The data demonstrates that nanofortifcation of folates using proteins and biopolymers effectively enhances the bioavailability of the cargo. The encapsulation of folic acid in biopolymers by emulsion, spray drying and ionic gelation represent simplistic methods that can be easily scaled up with applications in food industry.

Preserving plum perfection: Buckwheat starch edible coating with xanthan gum and lemongrass essential oil

The research focused on the fabrication of composite coatings using buckwheat starch (BS) and xanthan gum (XG) with incorporation of lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) essential oil (LEO) with varying concentration (0.75 %, 1.0 % and 1.25 % (w/v). BS was extracted from buckwheat groats (Fagopyrum esculentum) and its physico-chemical characteristics were determined. BS showed spherical and polygonal morphology and its XRD pattern was similar to starch extracted from other cereal sources. The amount of reducing sugar, starch and amylose content in extracted BS were 0.99 ± 0.33 %, 86.32 ± 0.22 % and 21.02 ± 1.89 % respectively, which indicates that BS is a suitable base material for the formation of edible coatings. XG was mixed with BS in different ratios (1:1, 2:1, 3:1 and 4:1) to optimize the best ratio of combination for composite coatings. The coating with a ratio of 2:1 was very smooth and was chosen for incorporation of LEO and the coatings physical, functional, mechanical, thermal and micro-structural characteristics were examined. The coating S5 with 1.25 % (w/v) concentration of LEO showed the best results with least moisture content (MC), minimum water vapor permeability (WVP) and maximum contact angle value. Moreover, the S5 formulation had the highest antioxidant (73.3 %) ability and maximum antimicrobial efficiency with inhibition zones of 22.09 ± 0.06 mm and 28.65 ± 0.14 mm against S. aureus and E. coli respectively. The coatings were then coated on plum fruit, and various parameters like weight loss, pH, shrinkage and TSS were calculated every 4th day during the 20 days of refrigeration period. The coated plums' ripening pace was delayed by the S5 formulation which improved moisture retention, maintained the plums' TSS value and overall pH. Therefore, composite coatings made up of BS, XG and 1.25 % (w/v) can be used as a cost-effective bio-active coating material for plum preservation under refrigeration conditions.

Characterization of Nano- and Microstructures of Native Potato Starch as Affected by Physical, Chemical, and Biological Treatments

Modifying starch allows for improvements in its properties to enable improved uses in food matrices, bioplastics, and encapsulating agents. In this research, four varieties of native potato starch were modified by acid treatment, enzymatic treatment, and ethanol precipitation, and their physicochemical, structural, thermal, and techno-functional characteristics were analyzed. According to FT-IR analysis, no influence of the modified starches on the chemical groups was observed, and by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), spherical and oval shapes were observed in the acid and enzymatic treatments, with particle sizes between 27 and 36 μm. In particular, the ethanolic precipitation treatment yielded a different morphology with a particle size between 10.9 and 476.3 nm, resulting in a significant decrease in gelatinization temperature (DSC) and more pronounced crystallites (XRD). On the other hand, the enzymatic treatment showed higher values for z-potential (ζ), and the acid treatment showed lower mass loss (TGA). Acid and ethanolic treatments affected the dough properties compared to native starches. The techno-functional properties showed a decrease in the water absorption index, an increase in the water solubility index, and varied swelling power behaviors. In conclusion, the modification of potato starches through acid, enzymatic, and ethanolic precipitation treatments alters their physicochemical properties, such as swelling capacity, viscosity, and thermal stability. This in turn affects their molecular structure, modifying morphology and the ability to form gels, which expands their applications in the food industry to improve textures, stabilize emulsions, and thicken products. Furthermore, these modifications also open new opportunities for the development of bioplastics by improving the biodegradability and mechanical properties of starch-based plastic materials.

Self-Assembled Nanoparticles from Xie-Bai-San Decoction: Isolation, Characterization and Enhancing Oral Bioavailability

Background

Natural nanoparticles have been found to exist in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) decoctions. However, whether natural nanoparticles can influence the oral bioavailability of active compounds has not been elucidated. Using Xie-Bai-San decoction (XBSD) as an example, the purpose of this study was to isolate, characterize and elucidate the mechanism of the nanoparticles (N-XBSD) in XBSD, and further to explore whether the bioavailability of the main active compounds could be enhanced by N-XBSD.

Methods

N-XBSD were isolated from XBSD, and investigated its characterization and study of its formation mechanism, and evaluation of its ability to enhance bioavailability of active compounds.

Results

The N-XBSD was successfully isolated with the average particle size of 104.53 nm, PDI of 0.27 and zeta potential of -5.14 mV. Meanwhile, all the eight active compounds were most presented in N-XBSD. Kukoamine B could self-assemble with mulberroside A or liquiritin to form nanoparticles, respectively. And the FT-IR and HRMS results indicated the possible binding of the ammonium group of kukoamine B with the phenolic hydroxyl group of mulberroside A or liquiritin, respectively. The established UPLC-MS/MS method was accurate and reliable and met the quantitative requirements. The pharmacokinetic behaviors of the N-XBSD and decoction were similar in rats. Most notably, compared to that of free drugs, the Cmax, AUC0-∞, AUC0-t, T1/2 and MRT0-∞ values of index compounds were the higher in N-XBSD, with a slower plasma clearance rate in rats.

Conclusion

The major active compounds of XBSD were mainly distributed in N-XBSD, and N-XBSD was formed through self-assembly among active compounds. N-XBSD could obviously promote the bioavailability of active compounds, indicating natural nanoparticles of decoctions play an important role in therapeutic effects.

A review of green methods used in starch-polyphenol interactions: physicochemical and digestion aspects

The interactions of starch with lipids, proteins, and other major food components during food processing are inevitable. These interactions could result in the formation of V-type or non-V-type complexes of starch. The starch-lipid complexes have been intensively studied for over five decades, however, the complexes of starch and polyphenols are relatively less studied and are the subject of recent interest. The interactions of starch with polyphenols can affect the physicochemical properties and its digestibility. The literature has highlighted several green methods such as ultrasound, microwave, high pressure, extrusion, ball-milling, cold plasma etc., to assist interactions of starch with polyphenols. However, comprehensive information on green methods to induce starch-polyphenol interactions is still scarce. Therefore, in light of the importance and potential of starch-polyphenol complexes in developing functional foods with low digestion, this review has summarized the novel green methods employed in interactions of starch with flavonoids, phenolic acids and tannins. It has been speculated that flavonoids, phenolic acids, and tannins, among other types of polyphenols, may have anti-digestive activities and are also revealed for their interaction with starch to form either an inclusion or non-inclusion complex. Further information on the effects of these interactions on physicochemical parameters to understand the chemistry and structure of the complexes is also provided.

Ball-milling: A sustainable and green approach for starch modification

Ball-milling is a low-cost and green technology that offers mechanical actions (shear, friction, collision, and impact) to modify and reduce starch to nanoscale size. It is one of the physical modification techniques used to reduce the relative crystallinity and improve the digestibility of starch to their better utility. Ball-milling alters surface morphology, improving the overall surface area and texture of starch granules. This approach also can improve functional properties, including swelling, solubility, and water solubility, with increased energy supplied. Further, the increased surface area of starch particles and subsequent increase in active sites enhance chemical reactions and alteration in structural transformations and physical and chemical properties. This review is about current information on the impact of ball-milling on the compositions, fine structures, morphological, thermal, and rheological characteristics of starch granules. Furthermore, ball-milling is an efficient approach for the development of high-quality starches for applications in the food and non-food industries. There is also an attempt to compare ball-milled starches from various botanical sources.

Upscaling of Apple By-Product by Utilising Apple Seed Protein as a Novel Wall Material for Encapsulation of Chlorogenic Acid as Model Bioactive Compound

Encapsulation is a versatile technique used to protect sensitive bioactive compounds under gastrointestinal conditions. In this study, nanoencapsulation of chlorogenic acid into the apple seed protein matrix was performed using the green technique ultrasonication to protect it from harsh gastric conditions and increase its biological activity and bioavailability upon digestion. Both nano (Nano-Chl) and native capsules (NT-Chl) were characterised by particle size, charge, structure, and morphology. The encapsulation efficiency, release behaviour, antioxidant and antidiabetic properties were also evaluated. The experimental results show that the particle size of the NT-Chl and Nano-Chl was found in the range of 1.4 µm to 708 nm. The encapsulation efficiency was found to be 69% and 80% for NT-Chl and Nano-Chl, respectively. Furthermore, an in vitro digestion study revealed that Nano-Chl showed controlled-release behaviour under simulated intestinal conditions in comparison to NT-Chl. Moreover, Nano-Chl showed enhanced antioxidant and antidiabetic activity in comparison to NT-Chl after simulated digestion. It was concluded that the protein from apple seeds could be utilised as a functional ingredient itself or as a wall material for the encapsulation of sensitive bioactive compounds. Furthermore, these encapsulated particles can be fortified into different food formulations for the development of functional food.

Formation of sweet potato starch nanoparticles by ultrasonic—assisted nanoprecipitation: Effect of cold plasma treatment

Starch nanoparticles (SNPs) were produced from sweet potato starches by ultrasonic treatment combined with rapid nanoprecipitation. The starch concentration, ultrasonic time, and the ratio of starch solution to ethanol were optimized through dynamic light scattering (DLS) technique to obtain SNPs with a Z-average size of 64.51 ± 0.15 nm, poly dispersity index (PDI) of 0.23 ± 0.01. However, after freeze drying, the SNPs showed varying degrees of aggregation depending on the particle size of SNPs before freeze-drying. The smaller the particle size, the more serious the aggregation. Therefore, we tried to treat SNPs with dielectric barrier discharge cold plasma before freeze drying. Properties including morphological features, crystalline structure and apparent viscosity of various starches were measured by field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and rheometer, respectively. The results showed that, after cold plasma (CP) treatment, the aggregation of SNPs during freeze drying was significantly inhibited. Compared to the native sweet potato starch, SNPs showed a higher relative crystallinity and a lower apparent viscosity. After CP treatment, the relative crystallinity of CP SNPs was further higher, and the apparent viscosity was lower. This work provides new ideas for the preparation of SNPs and could promote the development of sweet potato SNPs in the field of active ingredient delivery.

Nanofortification of vitamin B-complex in food matrix: Need, regulations, and prospects

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Overview of nanomaterials to fortify food with vitamin B-complex.

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Nanofortification of food with vitamin B-complex to overcome conventional fortification challenges.

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Regulatory aspects, prospects, and upcoming trends of this indispensable technology are also discussed.

Micronutrient malnutrition (or hidden hunger) caused by vitamin B-complex deficiency is a significant concern in the growing population. Vitamin B-complex plays an essential role in many body functions. With the introduction of nanotechnology in the food industry, new and innovative techniques have started to develop, which holds a promising future to end malnutrition and help achieve United Nations Sustainable Developmental Goal-2 (UN SDG-2), named as zero hunger. This review highlights the need for nanofortification of vitamin B-complex in food matrix to address challenges faced by conventional fortification methods (bioavailability, controlled release, physicochemical stability, and shelf life). Further, different nanomaterials like organic, inorganic, carbon, and composites along with their applications, are discussed in detail. Among various nanomaterials, organic nanomaterials (lipid, polysaccharides, proteins, and biopolymers) were found best for fortifying vitamin B-complex in foods. Additionally, different regulatory aspects across the globe and prospects of this upcoming field are also highlighted in this review.

Enhanced cellular uptake, transport and oral bioavailability of optimized folic acid-loaded chitosan nanoparticles

Folic acid is a synthetic form of folate widely used for food fortification. However, its bioavailability is limited due to its inherent instability at several conditions. Therefore, a suitable encapsulation system is highly required. In the present study, the fabrication condition for folic acid-loaded chitosan nanoparticle (FA-Chi-NP) was optimized and then subjected to characterization. The optimized formulation had the particle size, zeta potential, and encapsulation efficiency of 180 nm, +52 mV, and 90%, respectively. In vitro release profile showed a controlled release of folic acid from the nanoparticles. Treatment of Caco-2 cells with the formulation showed no adverse effects based on MTT and LDH assays, and also, the cellular uptake was significantly higher after 2 h compared to free folic acid. Further, the oral administration of rats with FA-Chi-NPs (1 mg/kg BW) increased the plasma level of both folic acid (3.2-fold) and its metabolites such as tetrahydrofolate (2.3-fold) and 5-methyltetrahydrofolate (1.6-fold) significantly compared to free folic acid. In a bio-distribution study, duodenum and jejunum were found to be the primary sites for absorption. These findings suggest that chitosan may be a promising carrier for the delivery of folic acid and, therefore, could be exploited for various food applications.

Encapsulation of Catechin into β-Glucan Matrix Using Wet Milling and Ultrasonication as a Coupled Approach: Characterization and Bioactivity Retention

In this study, the nanoencapsulation of catechin into the β-glucan matrix from oats [O-Glu (C)] and barley [B-Glu (C)] was performed using the coupled approach of ultrasonication and wet milling. The nanoencapsulated catechin was characterised by particle size distribution, surface charge, SEM, and FTIR. The particle size was found to be 200 nm and 500 nm while zeta potential was found −27.13 and −24 mV for O-Glu (C) and B-Glu (C), respectively. The encapsulation efficiency of O-Glu (C) and B-Glu (C) was found to be 86.5% and 88.2%. FTIR and SEM revealed successful entrapment of catechin in β-glucan. The encapsulated capsules showed sustainable release during simulated gastrointestinal conditions. Moreover, both O-Glu (C) and B-Glu (C) showed that biological activity such as lipase inhibition activity and antioxidant assay were retained after in vitro digestion. It was concluded that O-Glu (C) and B-Glu (C) can be used as functional ingredients effectively in food as well as in the pharmaceutical field.

Nano reduction coupled with encapsulation as a novel technique for utilising millet proteins as future foods

Crocin (saffron bioactive) loaded protein nanoparticles were prepared from three underutilised cereal varieties viz., sorghum (SPCN), foxtail millet (FPCN) and pearl millet (PPCN) using ultrasonication technique. The particle size of crocin loaded protein complex was attained in the nano range with reduced polydispersity index and negative zeta potential. The encapsulation efficiency of crocin in protein nanoparticles was found to be 83.78% (FPCN), 78.74 % (SPCN) and 70.01% (PPCN). The topographical images of crocin loaded protein nano complex was revealed using field emission-scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM). The attenuated total reflectance fourier transform infra-spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) analysis showed the characteristic peaks of crocin at 956, 1700 and 3350 cm^-1 in protein-crocin nanocomplex as a confirmatory test for nanoencapsulation. The antimicrobial activity of crocin loaded protein nanocomplex against three strains (Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Fusarium oxysporium) were also evaluated. In vitro release studies showed higher content of crocin released in simulated intestinal conditions ensuring its controlled release at target site. Bioactivity (anti-cancerous and anti-hypertensive) of crocin upon in-vitro digestion were well retained indicating that protein nanoparticles can act as an effective wall material. Our results suggest that protein nanoparticles prepared in this study can act as an effective oral delivery vehicle for crocin that could be used for development of functional foods.

β-Glucan from mushrooms and dates as a wall material for targeted delivery of model bioactive compound: Nutraceutical profiling and bioavailability

Rutin was nano-encapsulated in date [En-Ru(D)] and mushroom [En-Ru(M)] β-glucan matrix to protect it from the harsh gastrointestinal environment and to enhance its bioavailability and biological activity upon digestion. The encapsulation was carried using green technology i.e., ultra-sonication. The En-Ru(D) and En-Ru (M) showed the hydrodynamic diameter of 314.04 and 482.21 nm with polydispersity index of 0.21 and 0.33. The in vitro release behaviour followed the Higuchi model. The antimicrobial activity of En-Ru(D) and En-Ru(M) were evaluated against gram negative E. coli (ATCC 25922) and gram positive (Staphylococcus aureus) bacteria. Furthermore, En-Ru(D) and En-Ru(M) exhibited increased bioavailability of rutin in intestinal fluid with retention of anti-obesity and antioxidant activities after digestion (p < 0.05). Therefore, β-glucan matrix can efficiently encapsulate flavonoids and regulate the release of functional bioactive ingredients in the simulated human digestive conditions.