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Verma A, Agadagba SK, Chan LLH. Exploring the synergy of the eye-brain connection: neuromodulation approaches for neurodegenerative disorders through transcorneal electrical stimulation. Neural Regen Res 2024; 19:2097-2098. [PMID: 38488536 PMCID: PMC11034586 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.392877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Revised: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 11/24/2023] [Indexed: 04/24/2024] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Antara Verma
- Department of Electrical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
- Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Stephen K. Agadagba
- Department of Electrical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
- Centre for Eye and Vision Research Ltd., Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Leanne Lai-Hang Chan
- Department of Electrical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
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Shokri M, Gogliettino AR, Hottowy P, Sher A, Litke AM, Chichilnisky EJ, Pequito S, Muratore D. Spike sorting in the presence of stimulation artifacts: a dynamical control systems approach. J Neural Eng 2024; 21:016022. [PMID: 38271715 PMCID: PMC10853761 DOI: 10.1088/1741-2552/ad228f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Revised: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2024] [Indexed: 01/27/2024]
Abstract
Objective. Bi-directional electronic neural interfaces, capable of both electrical recording and stimulation, communicate with the nervous system to permit precise calibration of electrical inputs by capturing the evoked neural responses. However, one significant challenge is that stimulation artifacts often mask the actual neural signals. To address this issue, we introduce a novel approach that employs dynamical control systems to detect and decipher electrically evoked neural activity despite the presence of electrical artifacts.Approach. Our proposed method leverages the unique spatiotemporal patterns of neural activity and electrical artifacts to distinguish and identify individual neural spikes. We designed distinctive dynamical models for both the stimulation artifact and each neuron observed during spontaneous neural activity. We can estimate which neurons were active by analyzing the recorded voltage responses across multiple electrodes post-stimulation. This technique also allows us to exclude signals from electrodes heavily affected by stimulation artifacts, such as the stimulating electrode itself, yet still accurately differentiate between evoked spikes and electrical artifacts.Main results. We applied our method to high-density multi-electrode recordings from the primate retina in anex vivosetup, using a grid of 512 electrodes. Through repeated electrical stimulations at varying amplitudes, we were able to construct activation curves for each neuron. The curves obtained with our method closely resembled those derived from manual spike sorting. Additionally, the stimulation thresholds we estimated strongly agreed with those determined through manual analysis, demonstrating high reliability (R2=0.951for human 1 andR2=0.944for human 2).Significance. Our method can effectively separate evoked neural spikes from stimulation artifacts by exploiting the distinct spatiotemporal propagation patterns captured by a dense, large-scale multi-electrode array. This technique holds promise for future applications in real-time closed-loop stimulation systems and for managing multi-channel stimulation strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Shokri
- Delft Center for Systems and Control, Delft University of Technology, Delft 2628 CN, The Netherlands
| | - Alex R Gogliettino
- Neurosciences PhD Program, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, United States of America
- Hansen Experimental Physics Laboratory, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, United States of America
| | - Paweł Hottowy
- Faculty of Physics and Applied Computer Science, AGH University of Krakow, Krakow, Poland
| | - Alexander Sher
- Santa Cruz Institute for Particle Physics, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, United States of America
| | - Alan M Litke
- Santa Cruz Institute for Particle Physics, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, United States of America
| | - E J Chichilnisky
- Departments of Neurosurgery and Ophthalmology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, United States of America
| | - Sérgio Pequito
- Division of Systems and Control, Department of Information Technology, Uppsala University, 751 05 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Dante Muratore
- Microelectronics Department, Delft University of Technology, Delft 2628 CN, The Netherlands
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Lee S, Park J, Lee C, Ahn J, Ryu J, Lee SH, Im CH. Determination of optimal injection current pattern for multichannel transcranial electrical stimulation without individual MRI using multiple head models. COMPUTER METHODS AND PROGRAMS IN BIOMEDICINE 2024; 243:107878. [PMID: 37890288 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmpb.2023.107878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 10/09/2023] [Accepted: 10/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE Multichannel transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) is widely used to achieve improved stimulation focality. In the multichannel tES, the injection current pattern is generally determined through an optimization process with a finite element (FE) head model extracted from individual magnetic resonance images (MRIs). Although using an individual head model ensures the best outcome, acquiring MRIs of individual subjects in many practical applications is often difficult. Alternatively, a standard head model can be used to determine the optimal injection current pattern to stimulate a specific target; however, this may result in a relatively inaccurate delivery of stimulation current owing to the difference in individual anatomical structures. To address this issue, we propose a new approach for determining the injection current pattern using multiple head models, which can improve the stimulation focality compared to that achieved with a single standard head model. METHODS Twenty FE head models were used to optimize the injection current patterns to stimulate three cortical regions that are widely considered targets for tES. The individual injection current patterns were then averaged to obtain each target's mean injection current pattern. The stimulation focality for each target was then calculated by applying different current patterns (the mean current, individual current, and current from a standard model). RESULTS Our results showed that the stimulation focality obtained using the mean injection current pattern was significantly higher than that obtained using the injection current pattern from a standard head model. Additionally, our results demonstrated that a minimum of 13 head models are required to determine mean current pattern, allowing for a higher stimulation focality than when using the current from a standard head model. CONCLUSIONS Hence, using multiple head models can provide a viable solution for improving the stimulation efficacy of multichannel tES when individual MRIs are not available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sangjun Lee
- Department of Electronic Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jimin Park
- Department of Electronic Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Chany Lee
- Cognitive Science Research Group, Korea Brain Research Institute, Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeongyeol Ahn
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Juhyoung Ryu
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Hun Lee
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Chang-Hwan Im
- Department of Electronic Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
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Hernández-Sebastián N, Carpio-Verdín VM, Ambriz-Vargas F, Morales-Morales F, Benítez-Lara A, Buenrostro-Jáuregui MH, Bojorges-Valdez E, Barrientos-García B. Fabrication and Characterization of a Flexible Thin-Film-Based Array of Microelectrodes for Corneal Electrical Stimulation. MICROMACHINES 2023; 14:1999. [PMID: 38004856 PMCID: PMC10673352 DOI: 10.3390/mi14111999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2023] [Revised: 10/21/2023] [Accepted: 10/22/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023]
Abstract
The electric stimulation (ES) of the cornea is a novel therapeutic approach to the treatment of degenerative visual diseases. Currently, ES is delivered by placing a mono-element electrode on the surface of the cornea that uniformly stimulates the eye along the electrode site. It has been reported that a certain degree of correlation exists between the location of the stimulated retinal area and the position of the electrode. Therefore, in this study, we present the development of a sectioned surface electrode for selective electric stimulation of the human cornea. The proposed device consists of 16 independent microelectrodes, a reference electrode, and 18 contact pads. The microelectrodes have a size of 200 µm × 200 µm, are arranged in a 4 × 4 matrix, and cover a total stimulation area of 16 mm2. The proposed fabrication process, based on surface micromachining technology and flexible electronics, uses only three materials: polyimide, aluminum, and titanium, which allow us to obtain a simplified, ergonomic, and reproducible fabrication process. The fabricated prototype was validated to laboratory level by electrical and electrochemical tests, showing a relatively high electrical conductivity and average impedance from 712 kΩ to 1.4 MΩ at the clinically relevant frequency range (from 11 Hz to 30 Hz). Additionally, the biocompatibility of the electrode prototype was demonstrated by performing in vivo tests and by analyzing the polyimide films using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The resulting electrode prototype is robust, mechanically flexible, and biocompatible, with a high potential to be used for selective ES of the cornea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natiely Hernández-Sebastián
- Centro de Investigaciones en Óptica, A.C. Loma del Bosque 115, León 37150, Mexico; (V.M.C.-V.); (F.A.-V.); (F.M.-M.); (B.B.-G.)
| | - Víctor Manuel Carpio-Verdín
- Centro de Investigaciones en Óptica, A.C. Loma del Bosque 115, León 37150, Mexico; (V.M.C.-V.); (F.A.-V.); (F.M.-M.); (B.B.-G.)
| | - Fabián Ambriz-Vargas
- Centro de Investigaciones en Óptica, A.C. Loma del Bosque 115, León 37150, Mexico; (V.M.C.-V.); (F.A.-V.); (F.M.-M.); (B.B.-G.)
| | - Francisco Morales-Morales
- Centro de Investigaciones en Óptica, A.C. Loma del Bosque 115, León 37150, Mexico; (V.M.C.-V.); (F.A.-V.); (F.M.-M.); (B.B.-G.)
| | - Alfredo Benítez-Lara
- CONAHCYT, Centro de Investigaciones en Óptica, A.C. Loma del Bosque 115, León 37150, Mexico;
| | | | - Erik Bojorges-Valdez
- Departamento de Estudios en Ingeniería para la Innovación, Universidad Iberoamericana Ciudad de México, Ciudad de México 01219, Mexico;
| | - Bernardino Barrientos-García
- Centro de Investigaciones en Óptica, A.C. Loma del Bosque 115, León 37150, Mexico; (V.M.C.-V.); (F.A.-V.); (F.M.-M.); (B.B.-G.)
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Bola S, Subramanian P, Calzia D, Dahl A, Panfoli I, Funk RHW, Roehlecke C. Analysis of Electric Field Stimulation in Blue Light Stressed 661W Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24043433. [PMID: 36834840 PMCID: PMC9965974 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24043433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2023] [Revised: 01/25/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Though electrical stimulation is used as a therapeutic approach to treat retinal and spinal injuries, many protective mechanisms at cellular level have not been elucidated. We performed a detailed analysis of cellular events in blue light (Li) stressed 661W cells, which were subjected to direct current electric field (EF) stimulation. Our findings revealed that EF stimulation induced protective effects in 661W cells from Li-induced stress by multiple defense mechanisms, such as increase in mitochondrial activity, gain in mitochondrial potential, increase in superoxide levels, and the activation of unfolded protein response (UPR) pathways, all leading to an enhanced cell viability and decreased DNA damage. Here, our genetic screen results revealed the UPR pathway to be a promising target to ameliorate Li-induced stress by EF stimulation. Thus, our study is important for a knowledgeable transfer of EF stimulation into clinical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharanya Bola
- Institute of Anatomy, TU Dresden, D-01304 Dresden, Germany
| | - Pallavi Subramanian
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, TU Dresden, D-01069 Dresden, Germany
| | - Daniela Calzia
- Department of Pharmacy—DIFAR, Biochemistry and Physiology Lab., University of Genoa, 16126 Genova, Italy
| | - Andreas Dahl
- Deep Sequencing Group SFB 655, Biotechnology Center, TU Dresden, D-01069 Dresden, Germany
| | - Isabella Panfoli
- Department of Pharmacy—DIFAR, Biochemistry and Physiology Lab., University of Genoa, 16126 Genova, Italy
| | - Richard H. W. Funk
- Institute of Anatomy, TU Dresden, D-01304 Dresden, Germany
- Correspondence:
| | - Cora Roehlecke
- Institute of Anatomy, TU Dresden, D-01304 Dresden, Germany
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Yang M, Lennikov A, Chang K, Ashok A, Lee C, Cho KS, Utheim TP, Dartt DA, Chen DF. Transcorneal but not transpalpebral electrical stimulation disrupts mucin homeostasis of the ocular surface. BMC Ophthalmol 2022; 22:490. [PMID: 36522696 PMCID: PMC9756492 DOI: 10.1186/s12886-022-02717-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Transcorneal electrical stimulation (TcES) is increasingly applied as a therapy for preserving and improving vision in retinal neurodegenerative and ischemic disorders. However, a common complaint about TcES is its induction of eye pain and dryness in the clinic, while the mechanisms remain unknown. METHOD TcES or transpalpebral ES (TpES) was conducted in C57BL6j mice for 14 days. The contralateral eyes were used as non-stimulated controls. Levels of intracellular [Ca2+] ([Ca2+]i) were assessed by Fura-2AM. The conductance resistances of the eye under various ES conditions were measured in vivo by an oscilloscope. RESULTS Although TcES did not affect tear production, it significantly induced damage to the ocular surface, as revealed by corneal fluorescein staining that was accompanied by significantly decreased mucin (MUC) 4 expression compared to the control. Similar effects of ES were detected in cultured primary corneal epithelium cells, showing decreased MUC4 and ZO-1 levels after the ES in vitro. In addition, TcES decreased secretion of MUC5AC from the conjunctiva in vivo, which was also corroborated in goblet cell cultures, where ES significantly attenuated carbachol-induced [Ca2+]i increase. In contrast to TcES, transpalpebral ES (TpES) did not induce corneal fluorescein staining while significantly increasing tear production. Importantly, the conductive resistance from orbital skin to the TpES was significantly smaller than that from the cornea to the retina in TcES. CONCLUSION TcES, but not TpES, induces corneal epithelial damage in mice by disrupting mucin homeostasis. TpES thus may represent a safer and more effective ES approach for treating retinal neurodegeneration clinically.
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Affiliation(s)
- Menglu Yang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Schepens Eye Research Institute of Massachusetts Eye and Ear, 20 Staniford St, Boston, MA 02114 USA
| | - Anton Lennikov
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Schepens Eye Research Institute of Massachusetts Eye and Ear, 20 Staniford St, Boston, MA 02114 USA
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Oslo University Hospital, University of Oslo, Kirkeveien 166, Oslo, 0450 Norway
| | - Karen Chang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Schepens Eye Research Institute of Massachusetts Eye and Ear, 20 Staniford St, Boston, MA 02114 USA
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Oslo University Hospital, University of Oslo, Kirkeveien 166, Oslo, 0450 Norway
| | - Ajay Ashok
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Schepens Eye Research Institute of Massachusetts Eye and Ear, 20 Staniford St, Boston, MA 02114 USA
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Oslo University Hospital, University of Oslo, Kirkeveien 166, Oslo, 0450 Norway
| | - Cherin Lee
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Schepens Eye Research Institute of Massachusetts Eye and Ear, 20 Staniford St, Boston, MA 02114 USA
| | - Kin-Sang Cho
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Schepens Eye Research Institute of Massachusetts Eye and Ear, 20 Staniford St, Boston, MA 02114 USA
| | - Tor Paaske Utheim
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Schepens Eye Research Institute of Massachusetts Eye and Ear, 20 Staniford St, Boston, MA 02114 USA
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Oslo University Hospital, University of Oslo, Kirkeveien 166, Oslo, 0450 Norway
| | - Darlene A. Dartt
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Schepens Eye Research Institute of Massachusetts Eye and Ear, 20 Staniford St, Boston, MA 02114 USA
| | - Dong Feng Chen
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Schepens Eye Research Institute of Massachusetts Eye and Ear, 20 Staniford St, Boston, MA 02114 USA
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Battaglini L, Di Ponzio M, Ghiani A, Mena F, Santacesaria P, Casco C. Vision recovery with perceptual learning and non-invasive brain stimulation: Experimental set-ups and recent results, a review of the literature. Restor Neurol Neurosci 2022; 40:137-168. [PMID: 35964213 DOI: 10.3233/rnn-221261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Vision is the sense which we rely on the most to interact with the environment and its integrity is fundamental for the quality of our life. However, around the globe, more than 1 billion people are affected by debilitating vision deficits. Therefore, finding a way to treat (or mitigate) them successfully is necessary. OBJECTIVE This narrative review aims to examine options for innovative treatment of visual disorders (retinitis pigmentosa, macular degeneration, optic neuropathy, refractory disorders, hemianopia, amblyopia), especially with Perceptual Learning (PL) and Electrical Stimulation (ES). METHODS ES and PL can enhance visual abilities in clinical populations, inducing plastic changes. We describe the experimental set-ups and discuss the results of studies using ES or PL or their combination in order to suggest, based on literature, which treatment is the best option for each clinical condition. RESULTS Positive results were obtained using ES and PL to enhance visual functions. For example, repetitive transorbital Alternating Current Stimulation (rtACS) appeared as the most effective treatment for pre-chiasmatic disorders such as optic neuropathy. A combination of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) and visual training seems helpful for people with hemianopia, while transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) makes visual training more efficient in people with amblyopia and mild myopia. CONCLUSIONS This narrative review highlights the effect of different ES montages and PL in the treatment of visual disorders. Furthermore, new options for treatment are suggested. It is noteworthy to mention that, in some cases, unclear results emerged and others need to be more deeply investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Battaglini
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Italy.,Centro di Ateneo dei Servizi Clinici Universitari Psicologici (SCUP), University of Padova, Padova, Italy.,Neuro.Vis.U.S, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Michele Di Ponzio
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Italy.,Istituto di Neuroscienze, Florence, Italy
| | - Andrea Ghiani
- Department of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Federica Mena
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Italy
| | | | - Clara Casco
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Italy.,Centro di Ateneo dei Servizi Clinici Universitari Psicologici (SCUP), University of Padova, Padova, Italy.,Neuro.Vis.U.S, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
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Koo B, Weiland JD. Progressive Retinal Degeneration Increases Cortical Response Latency of Light Stimulation but Not of Electric Stimulation. Transl Vis Sci Technol 2022; 11:19. [PMID: 35446408 PMCID: PMC9034728 DOI: 10.1167/tvst.11.4.19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose The brain is known to change functionally and structurally in response to blindness, but less is known about the effects of restoration of cortical input on brain function. Here, we present a preliminary study to observe alterations in visual and electrical evoked cortical potentials as a function of age in a clinically relevant animal model of retinitis pigmentosa. Methods We recorded brain potentials elicited by light (visual evoked potentials [VEPs]) or corneal electrical stimulation (electrical evoked response [EER]) in retinal degenerate animal model LE-P23H-1. We used a linear mixed model to examine the effects of age on latency and amplitude of VEP and EER age groups P120, P180, and P360. Results VEP N1, P1, and N2 latency and amplitude were analyzed across animal age. For 1 Hz VEP, N1 latency increased significantly with animal age (slope = 0.053 ± 0.020 ms/day, P < 0.01). For 10 Hz VEP, N1, P1, and N2 latency increased significantly with animal age (slope = 0.104 ± 0.011, 0.135 ± 0.011, 0.087 ± 0.023 ms/day, and P < 0.001 for all VEP peaks). Conversely, EER latency did not change with age. Signal amplitude of VEP or EER did not change with age. Conclusions Cortical potentials evoked by electrical stimulation of the retina do not diminish in spite of continued retinal degeneration in P23H rats. Translational Relevance These findings suggest that retinal bioelectronic treatments of retinitis pigmentosa will activate cortex consistently despite variations in outer retinal degeneration. Clinical studies of retinal stimulation should consider varying retinitis pigmentosa genotypes as part of the experimental design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beomseo Koo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - James D. Weiland
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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Vėbraitė I, Hanein Y. In the Eye of the Storm: Bi-Directional Electrophysiological Investigation of the Intact Retina. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:829323. [PMID: 35281487 PMCID: PMC8914158 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.829323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Electrophysiological investigations reveal a great deal about the organization and function of the retina. In particular, investigations of explanted retinas with multi electrode arrays are widely used for basic and applied research purposes, offering high-resolution and detailed information about connectivity and structure. Low-resolution, non-invasive approaches are also widely used. Owing to its delicate nature, high-resolution electrophysiological investigations of the intact retina until now are sparse. In this Mini Review, we discuss progress, challenges and opportunities for electrode arrays suitable for high-resolution, multisite electrophysiological interfacing with the intact retina. In particular, existing gaps in achieving bi-directional electrophysiological investigation of the intact retina are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ieva Vėbraitė
- School of Electrical Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Yael Hanein
- School of Electrical Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Tel Aviv University Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- *Correspondence: Yael Hanein,
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