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Jones RT, Fagbohun IK, Spencer FI, Chen-Hussey V, Paris LA, Logan JG, Hiscox A. A review of Musca sorbens (Diptera: Muscidae) and Musca domestica behavior and responses to chemical and visual cues. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2024; 61:845-860. [PMID: 38795384 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjae070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Revised: 03/28/2024] [Accepted: 05/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/27/2024]
Abstract
Musca flies (Diptera: Muscidae) have been found culpable in the mechanical transmission of several infectious agents, including viruses, bacteria, protozoans, and helminths, particularly in low-income settings in tropical regions. In large numbers, these flies can negatively impact the health of communities and their livestock through the transmission of pathogens. In some parts of the world, Musca sorbens is of particular importance because it has been linked with the transmission of trachoma, a leading cause of preventable and irreversible blindness or visual impairment caused by Chlamydia trachomatis, but the contribution these flies make to trachoma transmission has not been quantified and even less is known for other pathogens. Current tools for control and monitoring of house flies remain fairly rudimentary and have focused on the use of environmental management, insecticides, traps, and sticky papers. Given that the behaviors of flies are triggered by chemical cues from their environment, monitoring approaches may be improved by focusing on those activities that are associated with nuisance behaviors or with potential pathogen transmission, and there are opportunities to improve fly control by exploiting behaviors toward semiochemicals that act as attractants or repellents. We review current knowledge on the odor and visual cues that affect the behavior of M. sorbens and Musca domestica, with the aim of better understanding how these can be exploited to support disease monitoring and guide the development of more effective control strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert T Jones
- Arctech Innovation, The Cube, Londoneast-uk Business and Technical Park, Yew Tree Avenue, Dagenham, UK
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, UK
| | - Ifeoluwa K Fagbohun
- Arctech Innovation, The Cube, Londoneast-uk Business and Technical Park, Yew Tree Avenue, Dagenham, UK
| | - Freya I Spencer
- Arctech Innovation, The Cube, Londoneast-uk Business and Technical Park, Yew Tree Avenue, Dagenham, UK
| | - Vanessa Chen-Hussey
- Arctech Innovation, The Cube, Londoneast-uk Business and Technical Park, Yew Tree Avenue, Dagenham, UK
| | - Laura A Paris
- Arctech Innovation, The Cube, Londoneast-uk Business and Technical Park, Yew Tree Avenue, Dagenham, UK
| | - James G Logan
- Arctech Innovation, The Cube, Londoneast-uk Business and Technical Park, Yew Tree Avenue, Dagenham, UK
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, UK
| | - Alexandra Hiscox
- Arctech Innovation, The Cube, Londoneast-uk Business and Technical Park, Yew Tree Avenue, Dagenham, UK
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Robinson A, Versteeg B, Abdurahman OS, Clatworthy I, Shuka G, Debela D, Hordofa G, Reis de Oliveira Gomes L, Abraham Aga M, Dumessa G, Sarah V, Macleod D, Last A, Burton MJ, Logan JG. Field- and laboratory-based studies on correlates of Chlamydia trachomatis transmission by Musca sorbens: Determinants of fly-eye contact and investigations into fly carriage of elementary bodies. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2024; 18:e0012280. [PMID: 38954734 PMCID: PMC11249242 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0012280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Revised: 07/15/2024] [Accepted: 06/07/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Musca sorbens (Diptera: Muscidae) flies are thought to be vectors of the blinding eye disease trachoma, carrying the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis (Ct) between the eyes of individuals. While their role as vectors has been convincingly demonstrated via randomised controlled trials in The Gambia, studies of fly-borne trachoma transmission remain scant and as such our understanding of their ability to transmit Ct remains poor. We examined fly-eye contact and caught eye-seeking flies from 494 individuals (79% aged ≤9 years) in Oromia, Ethiopia. Ct-carrying flies (harbouring Ct DNA) were found to cluster spatially in and nearby to households in which at least one resident had Ct infection. Fly-eye contact was positively associated with the presence of trachoma (disease), lower human body weight and increased human body temperature. Studies of laboratory-reared M. sorbens indicated that Ct is found both externally and internally following feeds on Ct culture, with scanning electron microscopy revealing how Ct bodies can cling to fly hairs (setae). Testing for Ct on field-caught M. sorbens found fly 'bodies' (thorax, wings and abdomen) to consistently test positive for Ct while legs and heads were infrequently Ct-positive. These studies strongly support the role of M. sorbens as vectors of trachoma and highlight the need for improved understanding of fly-borne trachoma transmission dynamics and vector competence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ailie Robinson
- Department of Disease Control, LSHTM, London, United Kingdom
| | - Bart Versteeg
- International Centre for Eye Health, Clinical Research Department, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine (LSHTM), London, United Kingdom
- Knowledge Institute of the Dutch Association of Medical Specialists, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Oumer Shafi Abdurahman
- International Centre for Eye Health, Clinical Research Department, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine (LSHTM), London, United Kingdom
- The Fred Hollows Foundation Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | | | - Gemeda Shuka
- The Fred Hollows Foundation Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Dereje Debela
- The Fred Hollows Foundation Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | | | | | | | | | | | - David Macleod
- International Centre for Eye Health, Clinical Research Department, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine (LSHTM), London, United Kingdom
- MRC International Statistics and Epidemiology Group, LSHTM, London, United Kingdom
| | - Anna Last
- International Centre for Eye Health, Clinical Research Department, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine (LSHTM), London, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew J Burton
- International Centre for Eye Health, Clinical Research Department, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine (LSHTM), London, United Kingdom
- National Institute for Health Research Biomedical Research Centre for Ophthalmology at Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust and UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, London, United Kingdom
| | - James G Logan
- Department of Disease Control, LSHTM, London, United Kingdom
- Arctech Innovation Ltd, Dagenham, United Kingdom
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Miecha H, Dejene M, Adugna D, Kebede A, Yadeta D, Alemayehu A, Abateneh A, Dayessa M, Shafi M, Taye E, Balcha L, Negussu N, Mengistu B, Willis R, Jimenez C, Bakhtiari A, Boyd S, Kebede B, Tadesse F, Mamo A, Bekele M, Sinke Z, Solomon AW, Harding-Esch EM. Prevalence of Trachoma in Pre-validation Surveillance Surveys in 11 Evaluation Units (Covering 12 Districts) in Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia: Results from 2018-2020. Ophthalmic Epidemiol 2023; 30:655-662. [PMID: 36519777 PMCID: PMC10581667 DOI: 10.1080/09286586.2022.2119258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2021] [Revised: 08/06/2022] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Interventions to reduce the prevalence of trachoma and transmission of ocular Chlamydia trachomatis have been implemented in Oromia Region, Ethiopia. Following an impact survey in which the trachomatous inflammation-follicular (TF) prevalence in 1-9-year-olds is <5%, a surveillance survey is recommended 2 years later, without additional antibiotic treatment. We report results of surveillance surveys in 11 evaluation units (EUs) covering 12 districts in Oromia Region, to plan whether future interventions are needed. METHOD We use a two-stage cluster-sampling cross-sectional survey design. In each EU, 26 clusters (villages) were systematically selected with probability proportional to size; from each cluster, 30 households were selected using compact segment sampling. Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) access was assessed in all selected households. All residents of selected households aged ≥1 year were examined for TF and trachomatous trichiasis (TT) by certified graders. RESULT Of 31,991 individuals enumerated, 29,230 (91% of) individuals were examined. Eight EUs had an age-adjusted TF prevalence in 1-9-year-olds of ≥5% and seven had a TT prevalence unknown to the health system among adults aged ≥15 years of ≥0.2%. About one-third of visited households had access to an improved water source for drinking, and 5% had access to an improved latrine. CONCLUSION Despite TF reductions to <5% at impact survey, prevalence recrudesced to ≥5% in all but three of the 11 EUs. Operational research is needed to understand transmission dynamics and epidemiology, in order to optimise elimination strategies in high-transmission settings like these.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hirpa Miecha
- Oromia Regional State Health Bureau, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | | | - Dereje Adugna
- Oromia Regional State Health Bureau, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Ageru Kebede
- The Fred Hollows Foundation, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Damtew Yadeta
- Oromia Regional State Health Bureau, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Leta Balcha
- The Fred Hollows Foundation, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | | | | | - Rebecca Willis
- International Trachoma Initiative, Task Force for Global Health, Decatur, GA, USA
| | | | - Ana Bakhtiari
- International Trachoma Initiative, Task Force for Global Health, Decatur, GA, USA
| | - Sarah Boyd
- International Trachoma Initiative, Task Force for Global Health, Decatur, GA, USA
| | | | | | - Ayele Mamo
- Oromia Regional State Health Bureau, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | | | - Zelalem Sinke
- Oromia Regional State Health Bureau, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Anthony W. Solomon
- Department of Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Emma M. Harding-Esch
- Clinical Research Department, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
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Selby R, Jeyam A, Tate A, Kebede F, Downs P. Potential mitigating role of ivermectin on the spread of Chlamydia trachomatis by Musca sorbens. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2023; 17:e0011662. [PMID: 37883529 PMCID: PMC10602231 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0011662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Trachoma is the world's most frequent cause of blindness from an infectious agent. The disease caused by infection is associated with lack of access to sanitation and low hygiene standards. Trachoma is controlled through the Surgery, Antibiotics, Facial cleanliness, and Environmental improvement (SAFE) strategy, which delivers azithromycin (AZM) mass drug administration (MDA) in endemic areas. The putative vector Musca sorbens principally reproduce in human faecal matter left in the environment due to open defecation. Ivermectin (IVM) is on the WHO's essential medicines list and is administered as preventative chemotherapy against two neglected tropical diseases (NTDs)-onchocerciasis, as an annual or bi-annual treatment, and lymphatic filariasis, as an annual treatment in combination with albendazole. Ivermectin has a known inhibitive effect on insects that reproduce in dung. To assess if IVM could be a viable vector control tool against M. sorbens, this study evaluates existing data from trachoma, onchocerciasis and lymphatic filariasis mass drug administration (MDA) operations in Ethiopia. Persistent and recrudescent trachoma in evaluation units (EUs) were examined for whether AZM MDA in EUs was accompanied by IVM MDA, and whether co-administration was associated with greater likelihood of trachoma control. Results show an association suggesting that EUs that received both IVM and AZM MDA benefit from improved control of trachoma in persistent or recrudescent areas, when compared to EUs that received AZM MDA. This initial investigation supports the potential for ivermectin's use to support SAFE. Findings warrant further work to validate ivermectin's impact on M. sorbens reproduction through controlled lab and field-based studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Selby
- Sightsavers international, 35 Perrymount Road, Haywards Heath, West Sussex, United Kingdom
| | - Anita Jeyam
- Sightsavers international, 35 Perrymount Road, Haywards Heath, West Sussex, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew Tate
- Sightsavers international, 35 Perrymount Road, Haywards Heath, West Sussex, United Kingdom
| | | | - Philip Downs
- Sightsavers international, 35 Perrymount Road, Haywards Heath, West Sussex, United Kingdom
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