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Wong AM, Budin I. Organelle-Targeted Laurdans Measure Heterogeneity in Subcellular Membranes and Their Responses to Saturated Lipid Stress. ACS Chem Biol 2024. [PMID: 39069657 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.4c00249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/30/2024]
Abstract
Organelles feature characteristic lipid compositions that lead to differences in membrane properties. In cells, membrane ordering and fluidity are commonly measured using the solvatochromic dye Laurdan, whose fluorescence is sensitive to lipid packing. As a general lipophilic dye, Laurdan stains all hydrophobic environments in cells; therefore, it is challenging to characterize membrane properties in specific organelles or assess their responses to pharmacological treatments in intact cells. Here, we describe the synthesis and application of Laurdan-derived probes that read out the membrane packing of individual cellular organelles. The set of organelle-targeted Laurdans (OTL) localizes to the ER, mitochondria, lysosomes, and Golgi compartments with high specificity while retaining the spectral resolution needed to detect biological changes in membrane ordering. We show that ratiometric imaging with OTLs can resolve membrane heterogeneity within organelles as well as changes in lipid packing resulting from inhibition of trafficking or bioenergetic processes. We apply these probes to characterize organelle-specific responses to saturated lipid stress. While the ER and lysosomal membrane fluidity is sensitive to exogenous saturated fatty acids, that of mitochondrial membranes is protected. We then use differences in ER membrane fluidity to sort populations of cells based on their fatty acid diet, highlighting the ability of organelle-localized solvatochromic probes to distinguish between cells based on their metabolic state. These results expand the repertoire of targeted membrane probes and demonstrate their application in interrogating lipid dysregulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian M Wong
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Itay Budin
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
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2
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Wong AM, Budin I. Organelle-targeted Laurdans measure heterogeneity in subcellular membranes and their responses to saturated lipid stress. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.04.16.589828. [PMID: 38659784 PMCID: PMC11042318 DOI: 10.1101/2024.04.16.589828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
Cell organelles feature characteristic lipid compositions that lead to differences in membrane properties. In living cells, membrane ordering and fluidity are commonly measured using the solvatochromic dye Laurdan, whose fluorescence is sensitive to membrane packing. As a general lipophilic dye, Laurdan stains all hydrophobic environments in cells, so it is challenging to characterize membrane properties in specific organelles or assess their responses to pharmacological treatments in intact cells. Here, we describe the synthesis and application of Laurdan-derived probes that read out membrane packing of individual cellular organelles. The set of Organelle-targeted Laurdans (OTL) localizes to the ER, mitochondria, lysosomes and Golgi compartments with high specificity, while retaining the spectral resolution needed to detect biological changes in membrane packing. We show that ratiometric imaging with OTL can resolve membrane heterogeneity within organelles, as well as changes in membrane packing resulting from inhibition of lipid trafficking or bioenergetic processes. We apply these probes to characterize organelle-specific responses to saturated lipid stress. While ER and lysosomal membrane fluidity is sensitive to exogenous saturated fatty acids, that of mitochondrial membranes is protected. We then use differences in ER membrane fluidity to sort populations of cells based on their fatty acid diet, highlighting the ability of organelle-localized solvatochromic probes to distinguish between cells based on their metabolic state. These results expand the repertoire of targeted membrane probes and demonstrate their application to interrogating lipid dysregulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian M. Wong
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Itay Budin
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
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3
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von Lersner A, Fernandes F, Ozawa PM, Jackson M, Masureel M, Ho H, Lima SM, Vagner T, Sung BH, Wehbe M, Franze K, Pua H, Wilson JT, Irish JM, Weaver AM, Di Vizio D, Zijlstra A. Multiparametric Single-Vesicle Flow Cytometry Resolves Extracellular Vesicle Heterogeneity and Reveals Selective Regulation of Biogenesis and Cargo Distribution. ACS NANO 2024; 18:10464-10484. [PMID: 38578701 PMCID: PMC11025123 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.3c11561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2023] [Revised: 03/19/2024] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/07/2024]
Abstract
Mammalian cells release a heterogeneous array of extracellular vesicles (EVs) that contribute to intercellular communication by means of the cargo that they carry. To resolve EV heterogeneity and determine if cargo is partitioned into select EV populations, we developed a method named "EV Fingerprinting" that discerns distinct vesicle populations using dimensional reduction of multiparametric data collected by quantitative single-EV flow cytometry. EV populations were found to be discernible by a combination of membrane order and EV size, both of which were obtained through multiparametric analysis of fluorescent features from the lipophilic dye Di-8-ANEPPS incorporated into the lipid bilayer. Molecular perturbation of EV secretion and biogenesis through respective ablation of the small GTPase Rab27a and overexpression of the EV-associated tetraspanin CD63 revealed distinct and selective alterations in EV populations, as well as cargo distribution. While Rab27a disproportionately affects all small EV populations with high membrane order, the overexpression of CD63 selectively increased the production of one small EV population of intermediate membrane order. Multiplexing experiments subsequently revealed that EV cargos have a distinct, nonrandom distribution with CD63 and CD81 selectively partitioning into smaller vs larger EVs, respectively. These studies not only present a method to probe EV biogenesis but also reveal how the selective partitioning of cargo contributes to EV heterogeneity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ariana
K. von Lersner
- Program in
Cancer Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United
States
| | - Fabiane Fernandes
- Department
of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
- Institute
of Applied Biosciences and Chemistry, Hogeschool
Arnhem en Nijmegen University of Applied Sciences, Nijmegen 6525 EM, Gelderland, Netherlands
| | - Patricia Midori
Murobushi Ozawa
- The
Center
for EV Research, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
- Department
of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt
University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - Marques Jackson
- Department
of Research Pathology, Genentech, San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Matthieu Masureel
- Department
of Structural Biology, Genentech, San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Hoangdung Ho
- Department
of Structural Biology, Genentech, San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Sierra M. Lima
- Department
of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt
University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - Tatyana Vagner
- Department
of Surgery, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California 90048, United States
| | - Bong Hwan Sung
- The
Center
for EV Research, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
- Department
of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt
University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - Mohamed Wehbe
- Department
of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - Kai Franze
- Department
of Research Pathology, Genentech, San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- KNIME
GmbH, Konstanz 78467, Germany
| | - Heather Pua
- Department
of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
- The
Center
for EV Research, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - John T. Wilson
- Program in
Cancer Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United
States
- Department
of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
- The
Center
for EV Research, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
- Department
of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - Jonathan M. Irish
- Program in
Cancer Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United
States
- Department
of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
- Department
of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt
University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - Alissa M. Weaver
- Program in
Cancer Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United
States
- Department
of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
- The
Center
for EV Research, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
- Department
of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt
University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - Dolores Di Vizio
- Department
of Surgery, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California 90048, United States
| | - Andries Zijlstra
- Program in
Cancer Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United
States
- Department
of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
- The
Center
for EV Research, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
- Department
of Research Pathology, Genentech, San Francisco, California 94080, United States
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4
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Erazo-Oliveras A, Muñoz-Vega M, Salinas ML, Wang X, Chapkin RS. Dysregulation of cellular membrane homeostasis as a crucial modulator of cancer risk. FEBS J 2024; 291:1299-1352. [PMID: 36282100 PMCID: PMC10126207 DOI: 10.1111/febs.16665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2022] [Revised: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Cellular membranes serve as an epicentre combining extracellular and cytosolic components with membranous effectors, which together support numerous fundamental cellular signalling pathways that mediate biological responses. To execute their functions, membrane proteins, lipids and carbohydrates arrange, in a highly coordinated manner, into well-defined assemblies displaying diverse biological and biophysical characteristics that modulate several signalling events. The loss of membrane homeostasis can trigger oncogenic signalling. More recently, it has been documented that select membrane active dietaries (MADs) can reshape biological membranes and subsequently decrease cancer risk. In this review, we emphasize the significance of membrane domain structure, organization and their signalling functionalities as well as how loss of membrane homeostasis can steer aberrant signalling. Moreover, we describe in detail the complexities associated with the examination of these membrane domains and their association with cancer. Finally, we summarize the current literature on MADs and their effects on cellular membranes, including various mechanisms of dietary chemoprevention/interception and the functional links between nutritional bioactives, membrane homeostasis and cancer biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfredo Erazo-Oliveras
- Program in Integrative Nutrition and Complex Diseases; Texas A&M University; College Station, Texas, 77843; USA
- Department of Nutrition; Texas A&M University; College Station, Texas, 77843; USA
| | - Mónica Muñoz-Vega
- Program in Integrative Nutrition and Complex Diseases; Texas A&M University; College Station, Texas, 77843; USA
- Department of Nutrition; Texas A&M University; College Station, Texas, 77843; USA
| | - Michael L. Salinas
- Program in Integrative Nutrition and Complex Diseases; Texas A&M University; College Station, Texas, 77843; USA
- Department of Nutrition; Texas A&M University; College Station, Texas, 77843; USA
| | - Xiaoli Wang
- Program in Integrative Nutrition and Complex Diseases; Texas A&M University; College Station, Texas, 77843; USA
- Department of Nutrition; Texas A&M University; College Station, Texas, 77843; USA
| | - Robert S. Chapkin
- Program in Integrative Nutrition and Complex Diseases; Texas A&M University; College Station, Texas, 77843; USA
- Department of Nutrition; Texas A&M University; College Station, Texas, 77843; USA
- Center for Environmental Health Research; Texas A&M University; College Station, Texas, 77843; USA
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5
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Marques-da-Silva D, Lagoa R. Rafting on the Evidence for Lipid Raft-like Domains as Hubs Triggering Environmental Toxicants' Cellular Effects. Molecules 2023; 28:6598. [PMID: 37764374 PMCID: PMC10536579 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28186598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Revised: 09/07/2023] [Accepted: 09/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The plasma membrane lipid rafts are cholesterol- and sphingolipid-enriched domains that allow regularly distributed, sub-micro-sized structures englobing proteins to compartmentalize cellular processes. These membrane domains can be highly heterogeneous and dynamic, functioning as signal transduction platforms that amplify the local concentrations and signaling of individual components. Moreover, they participate in cell signaling routes that are known to be important targets of environmental toxicants affecting cell redox status and calcium homeostasis, immune regulation, and hormonal functions. In this work, the evidence that plasma membrane raft-like domains operate as hubs for toxicants' cellular actions is discussed, and suggestions for future research are provided. Several studies address the insertion of pesticides and other organic pollutants into membranes, their accumulation in lipid rafts, or lipid rafts' disruption by polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P), and even metals/metalloids. In hepatocytes, macrophages, or neurons, B[a]P, airborne particulate matter, and other toxicants caused rafts' protein and lipid remodeling, oxidative changes, or amyloidogenesis. Different studies investigated the role of the invaginated lipid rafts present in endothelial cells in mediating the vascular inflammatory effects of PCBs. Furthermore, in vitro and in vivo data strongly implicate raft-localized NADPH oxidases, the aryl hydrocarbon receptor, caveolin-1, and protein kinases in the toxic mechanisms of occupational and environmental chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorinda Marques-da-Silva
- LSRE—Laboratory of Separation and Reaction Engineering and LCM—Laboratory of Catalysis and Materials, School of Management and Technology, Polytechnic Institute of Leiria, Morro do Lena-Alto do Vieiro, 2411-901 Leiria, Portugal;
- ALiCE—Associate Laboratory in Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
- School of Technology and Management, Polytechnic Institute of Leiria, Morro do Lena-Alto do Vieiro, 2411-901 Leiria, Portugal
| | - Ricardo Lagoa
- LSRE—Laboratory of Separation and Reaction Engineering and LCM—Laboratory of Catalysis and Materials, School of Management and Technology, Polytechnic Institute of Leiria, Morro do Lena-Alto do Vieiro, 2411-901 Leiria, Portugal;
- ALiCE—Associate Laboratory in Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
- School of Technology and Management, Polytechnic Institute of Leiria, Morro do Lena-Alto do Vieiro, 2411-901 Leiria, Portugal
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6
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Whiting R, Stanton S, Kucheriava M, Smith AR, Pitts M, Robertson D, Kammer J, Li Z, Fologea D. Hypo-Osmotic Stress and Pore-Forming Toxins Adjust the Lipid Order in Sheep Red Blood Cell Membranes. MEMBRANES 2023; 13:620. [PMID: 37504986 PMCID: PMC10385129 DOI: 10.3390/membranes13070620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 06/22/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
Lipid ordering in cell membranes has been increasingly recognized as an important factor in establishing and regulating a large variety of biological functions. Multiple investigations into lipid organization focused on assessing ordering from temperature-induced phase transitions, which are often well outside the physiological range. However, particular stresses elicited by environmental factors, such as hypo-osmotic stress or protein insertion into membranes, with respect to changes in lipid status and ordering at constant temperature are insufficiently described. To fill these gaps in our knowledge, we exploited the well-established ability of environmentally sensitive membrane probes to detect intramembrane changes at the molecular level. Our steady state fluorescence spectroscopy experiments focused on assessing changes in optical responses of Laurdan and diphenylhexatriene upon exposure of red blood cells to hypo-osmotic stress and pore-forming toxins at room temperature. We verified our utilized experimental systems by a direct comparison of the results with prior reports on artificial membranes and cholesterol-depleted membranes undergoing temperature changes. The significant changes observed in the lipid order after exposure to hypo-osmotic stress or pore-forming toxins resembled phase transitions of lipids in membranes, which we explained by considering the short-range interactions between membrane components and the hydrophobic mismatch between membrane thickness and inserted proteins. Our results suggest that measurements of optical responses from the membrane probes constitute an appropriate method for assessing the status of lipids and phase transitions in target membranes exposed to mechanical stresses or upon the insertion of transmembrane proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rose Whiting
- Department of Physics, Boise State University, Boise, ID 83725, USA
- Biomolecular Sciences Graduate Program, Boise State University, Boise, ID 83725, USA
| | - Sevio Stanton
- Department of Physics, Boise State University, Boise, ID 83725, USA
| | | | - Aviana R Smith
- Department of Physics, Boise State University, Boise, ID 83725, USA
| | - Matt Pitts
- Department of Physics, Boise State University, Boise, ID 83725, USA
- Biomolecular Sciences Graduate Program, Boise State University, Boise, ID 83725, USA
| | - Daniel Robertson
- Department of Physics, Boise State University, Boise, ID 83725, USA
| | - Jacob Kammer
- Department of Physics, Boise State University, Boise, ID 83725, USA
- Department of Family Medicine, Idaho College of Osteopathic Medicine, Meridian, ID 83642, USA
| | - Zhiyu Li
- Department of Physics, Boise State University, Boise, ID 83725, USA
| | - Daniel Fologea
- Department of Physics, Boise State University, Boise, ID 83725, USA
- Biomolecular Sciences Graduate Program, Boise State University, Boise, ID 83725, USA
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7
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Frawley AT, Leslie KG, Wycisk V, Galiani S, Shrestha D, Eggeling C, Anderson HL. A Photoswitchable Solvatochromic Dye for Probing Membrane Ordering by RESOLFT Super-resolution Microscopy. Chemphyschem 2023; 24:e202300125. [PMID: 36946252 DOI: 10.1002/cphc.202300125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Revised: 03/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/23/2023]
Abstract
A switchable solvatochromic fluorescent dyad can be used to map ordering of lipids in vesicle membranes at a resolution better than the diffraction limit. Combining a Nile Red fluorophore with a photochromic spironaphthoxazine quencher allows the fluorescence to be controlled using visible light, via photoswitching and FRET quenching. Synthetic lipid vesicles of varying composition were imaged with an average 2.5-fold resolution enhancement, compared to the confocal images. Ratiometric detection was used to probe the membrane polarity, and domains of different lipid ordering were distinguished within the same membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew T Frawley
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Chemistry Research Laboratory, Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3TA, UK
| | - Kathryn G Leslie
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Chemistry Research Laboratory, Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3TA, UK
| | - Virginia Wycisk
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Chemistry Research Laboratory, Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3TA, UK
| | - Silvia Galiani
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Dilip Shrestha
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Christian Eggeling
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DS, UK
- Institute of Applied Optics and Biophysics, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Max-Wien-Platz 4, 07743, Jena, Germany
- Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology e.V., Albert-Einstein-Strasse 9, 07745, Jena, Germany
- Jena Center for Soft Matter (JCSM), Philosophenweg 7, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Harry L Anderson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Chemistry Research Laboratory, Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3TA, UK
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8
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Britt RD, Porter N, Grayson MH, Gowdy KM, Ballinger M, Wada K, Kim HY, Guerau-de-Arellano M. Sterols and immune mechanisms in asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2023; 151:47-59. [PMID: 37138729 PMCID: PMC10151016 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2022.09.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The field of sterol and oxysterol biology in lung disease has recently gained attention, revealing a unique need for sterol uptake and metabolism in the lung. The presence of cholesterol transport, biosynthesis, and sterol/oxysterol-mediated signaling in immune cells suggests a role in immune regulation. In support of this idea, statin drugs that inhibit the cholesterol biosynthesis rate-limiting step enzyme, hydroxymethyl glutaryl coenzyme A reductase, show immunomodulatory activity in several models of inflammation. Studies in human asthma reveal contradicting results, whereas promising retrospective studies suggest benefits of statins in severe asthma. Here, we provide a timely review by discussing the role of sterols in immune responses in asthma, analytical tools to evaluate the role of sterols in disease, and potential mechanistic pathways and targets relevant to asthma. Our review reveals the importance of sterols in immune processes and highlights the need for further research to solve critical gaps in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodney D. Britt
- Center for Perinatal Research, The Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus
- Department of Pediatrics, The Ohio State University, Columbus
| | - Ned Porter
- Department of Chemistry and Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville
| | - Mitchell H. Grayson
- Center for Clinical and Translational Research, The Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus
- Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Pediatrics, Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus
| | - Kymberly M. Gowdy
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, College of Medicine, Wexner Medical Center, Columbus
| | - Megan Ballinger
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, College of Medicine, Wexner Medical Center, Columbus
| | - Kara Wada
- Department of Otolaryngology, Wexner Medical Center, Columbus
| | - Hye-Young Kim
- Department of Chemistry and Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville
| | - Mireia Guerau-de-Arellano
- School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Division of Medical Laboratory Science, College of Medicine, Wexner Medical Center, Columbus
- Institute for Behavioral Medicine Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus
- Department of Microbial Infection and Immunity, The Ohio State University, Columbus
- Department of Neuroscience, The Ohio State University, Columbus
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