1
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Omari S, Ng'ong'a F, Kimotho J. In vitro assessment and comparison of quality of alcohol-based hand rubs, pre- and peri-COVID-19 pandemic outbreak in Kenya. F1000Res 2024; 12:1546. [PMID: 38778804 PMCID: PMC11109557 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.140226.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Background In the wake of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, the World Health Organization recommended the use of alcohol-based hand rubs (ABHRs) to curb transmission, leading to increased production and use. This has posed a danger of production and use of poor-quality ABHRs. Methods This study assessed and compared the quality of ABHRs in the Kenyan market that were produced before and after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020. Quality testing was carried out against European EN 1500:2013 and Kenyan EAS 789:2013 Standards and 20 samples analyzed for alcohol content by GC-FID. Results The study found that 27.8% of the peri-COVID-19 pandemic sanitizers had less than 90% bactericidal reduction activity as compared to 12.5% manufactured pre-COVID-19 pandemic. Only 25% peri-COVID-19 pandemic ABHRs met the EAS 789:2013 acceptable limit of over 60% alcohol content. Product adulteration with methanol was found in 20 % of the samples with only 5% complying with FDA approval limit of <0.063% v/v methanol. Study found no correlation between the total alcohol content and the efficacy of ABHRs. Conclusions The study found that more substandard products were produced during the pandemic. This raises a concern about possible emergence of alcohol resistant strains of microorganisms. The study therefore recommends an adequate quality monitoring system to curb against substandard products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Omari
- Department of Biochemistry, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Nairobi, Kenya
- Innovation and Technology Transfer Division, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Florence Ng'ong'a
- Department of Biochemistry, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - James Kimotho
- Innovation and Technology Transfer Division, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
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2
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de Bruin W, van Zijl MC, Aneck-Hahn NH, Korsten L. Quality and safety of South African hand sanitisers during the COVID-19 pandemic. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RESEARCH 2024; 34:719-731. [PMID: 36652575 DOI: 10.1080/09603123.2023.2166020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Health agencies recommend using hand sanitisers as protection against the coronavirus. Thus far, the emphasis on hand sanitiser studies is limited to an analysis of disinfectant content only. This study aims to provide an extended analysis of 60 off-the-shelf alcohol-based hand sanitisers by using gas chromatography to report on alcohol content and the presence of impurities, a recombinant yeast estrogen screen to assess estrogenic activity, and an investigation into labelling compliance with the South African National Standard. Fifty hand sanitisers had an alcohol content of ≥60% v/v alcohol; however, most contained skin irritants and substances that could harm human and environmental health. Estrogenic activity was detected in 29 hand sanitisers and none of the products complied with all the labelling requirements. Since off-the-shelf hand sanitisers in South Africa are not regulated and monitored, evidence-based public awareness programmes on hand sanitiser quality and safety should become a priority.
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Affiliation(s)
- W de Bruin
- Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - M C van Zijl
- Environmental Chemical Pollution and Health Research Unit, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - N H Aneck-Hahn
- Environmental Chemical Pollution and Health Research Unit, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - L Korsten
- Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
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3
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Bayer G, Shayganpour A, Bayer IS. Efficacy of a New Alcohol-Free Organic Acid-Based Hand Sanitizer against Foodborne Pathogens. TOXICS 2023; 11:938. [PMID: 37999590 PMCID: PMC10674435 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11110938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Revised: 11/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/16/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023]
Abstract
In light of the global health crisis triggered by the COVID-19 pandemic, numerous experts have deemed the utilization of hand sanitizers imperative as a precautionary measure against the virus. Consequently, the demand for hand sanitizers has experienced a substantial surge. Since the beginning of 2020, the utilization of alcohol-free hand sanitizers has been increasingly favored due to the potential risks associated with alcohol poisoning, flammability, as well as the adverse effects on skin lipid dissolution, dehydration, and sebum reduction, which can lead to severe cases of eczema and norovirus infections. In this study, we developed an aqueous hand sanitizer that does not contain alcohol. The sanitizer consists of naturally occurring, food-grade organic acids, including lactic, citric, and azelaic acids. Additionally, food-grade ammonium sulfate and a small amount of povidone-iodine (PVPI) were included in the formulation to create a synergistic and potent antibacterial effect. The effectiveness of the hand sanitizer was evaluated against four common foodborne pathogens, namely Clostridium botulinum, Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, and Staphylococcus aureus, via in vitro testing. The organic acids exhibited a synergistic inhibitory function, resulting in a 3-log reduction in CFU/mL. Furthermore, the presence of povidone-iodine and ammonium sulfate enhanced their antibacterial effect, leading to a 4-log reduction in CFU/mL. The hand sanitizer solution remained stable even after 60 days of storage. During this period, the detection of additional triiodide (I3-) ions occurred, which have the ability to release broad-spectrum molecular iodine upon penetrating the cell walls. This alcohol-free hand sanitizer may offer extended protection and is anticipated to be gentle on the skin. This is attributed to the presence of citric and lactic acids, which possess cosmetic properties that soften and smoothen the skin, along with antioxidant properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gözde Bayer
- DS Bio ve Nanoteknoloji A. Ş, Lavida City Plaza 45/7, 06530 Ankara, Türkiye;
| | - Amirreza Shayganpour
- Smart Materials, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego 30, 16163 Genova, Italy;
| | - Ilker S. Bayer
- Smart Materials, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego 30, 16163 Genova, Italy;
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4
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Ma Y, Yi J, Ma J, Yu H, Luo L, Wu W, Jin L, Yang Q, Lou T, Sun D, Cao M. Hand Sanitizer Gels: Classification, Challenges, and the Future of Multipurpose Hand Hygiene Products. TOXICS 2023; 11:687. [PMID: 37624192 PMCID: PMC10459210 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11080687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2023] [Revised: 08/02/2023] [Accepted: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
Hand hygiene is a crucial measure in the prevention and control of infections, and there is a growing awareness among individuals who are making a conscious effort to maintain hand cleanliness. With the advent of the SARS-CoV-2 outbreak, the demand for hand hygiene products has also gradually shifted towards those with antimicrobial properties. Among these products, hand sanitizer gels (HSGs) have gained considerable popularity as an efficient method of hand cleaning, due to their rapid drying and sustained antimicrobial efficacy. Concurrently, there has been a growing interest in novel HSGs that offer additional functions such as skin whitening, moisturizing, and anti-inflammatory effects. These novel HSGs effectively address concerns associated with the ingestion of antimicrobial ingredients and demonstrate reduced skin irritation, thereby alleviating hand dermatological issues. This review provides an extensive overview of the application scenarios, classification, and challenges associated with HSGs while emphasizing the emergence of novel components with biological functions, aiming to contribute to the advancement of hand hygiene practices and offer novel insights for the development of novel HSGs with outstanding antimicrobial properties with other multiple biological functions and desirable biosafety profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yilei Ma
- Institute of Life Sciences & Biomedical Collaborative Innovation Center of Zhejiang Province, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Jia Yi
- Institute of Life Sciences & Biomedical Collaborative Innovation Center of Zhejiang Province, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Jiahui Ma
- Institute of Life Sciences & Biomedical Collaborative Innovation Center of Zhejiang Province, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Haiyang Yu
- Institute of Life Sciences & Biomedical Collaborative Innovation Center of Zhejiang Province, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Li Luo
- Affiliated Dongguan Hospital, Southern Medical University, Dongguan 523059, China
| | - Wei Wu
- Bioengineering College of Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
| | - Libo Jin
- Institute of Life Sciences & Biomedical Collaborative Innovation Center of Zhejiang Province, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Qinsi Yang
- Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wenzhou 325000, China
| | - Ting Lou
- Yiwu Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Yiwu 322000, China;
| | - Da Sun
- Institute of Life Sciences & Biomedical Collaborative Innovation Center of Zhejiang Province, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Min Cao
- The Quzhou Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Quzhou People’s Hospital, Quzhou 324000, China
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5
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Bogdanova OY, Chemykh TF. Strategy for the Choice of Disinfectants in Practical Medicine and Production. Pharm Chem J 2023; 57:314-317. [PMID: 37313435 PMCID: PMC10169102 DOI: 10.1007/s11094-023-02883-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The problem of the strategy for choosing disinfectants in practical medicine is considered. The pandemic of the new coronavirus infection posed new problems for disinfectology. The expanded spectrum of disinfectants and antiseptics offered by the chemical industry in recent years requires justification for the choice in favor of any product. The goals and types of disinfection considered from current positions and the main groups of disinfectants used in Russia and their properties and spectra of activity are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- O. Yu. Bogdanova
- St. Petersburg State Chemical Pharmaceutical University, 14/A Prof. Popova St., St. Petersburg, 197022 Russia
| | - T. F. Chemykh
- St. Petersburg State Chemical Pharmaceutical University, 14/A Prof. Popova St., St. Petersburg, 197022 Russia
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Chabalenge B, Jere E, Nanyangwe N, Hikaambo C, Mudenda S, Banda M, Kalungia A, Matafwali S. Substandard and falsified medical product recalls in Zambia from 2018 to 2021 and implications on the quality surveillance systems. THE JOURNAL OF MEDICINE ACCESS 2022; 6:27550834221141767. [PMID: 36601496 PMCID: PMC9806395 DOI: 10.1177/27550834221141767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Background Substandard and falsified (SF) medical products are removed from circulation through a process called 'product recall' by medicines regulatory agencies. In Zambia, the Zambia Medicines Regulatory Authority (ZAMRA) is responsible for recalling SF medical products from the Zambian market through passive and active surveillance methods. This study aimed to describe the prevalence of recalls of SF medical products and to analyse the frequently recalled therapeutic categories, dosage forms, categories of defects that led to the recalls and their sources with respect to the country of the marketing authorisation holder (MAH) or manufacturer. Methods We conducted a descriptive cross-sectional review of the product recalls issued by ZAMRA between January 2018 and December 2021. A search for all medical product alerts and recalls issued by ZAMRA was carried out by reviewing the internal post-marketing surveillance database kept at ZAMRA headquarters. Data were extracted using a structured Excel database and analysed using Microsoft Excel. Results A total of 119 alerts were received during the review period, of which 83 (69.7%) were product recalls. Oral solid dosage forms were the most recalled dosage form (53%). Furthermore, the number of recalls increased in 2020 (44.6%) and 2021 (22.9%), with the majority (20.5%) of the recalled products being substandard products classified as antiseptics and disinfectants and were attributed to the high demand during the COVID-19 pandemic. Manufacturing laboratory control issues were the reason for product recall in almost half (47.4%) of the cases. Most of the products recalled originated from India (38.6%), followed by Zambia (25.3%). Only one suspected falsified product was recalled between 2018 and 2021. A total of 66 recalls of the 83 products were initiated by ZAMRA, with only 17 voluntarily by foreign MAHs. No product recall was initiated by the local representatives of foreign manufacturers or MAH. Conclusion The majority of the pharmaceutical product recalls in Zambia were substandard products. Manufacturing laboratory control issues lead to most recalls and require investigation of the root causes, preventive action, and strict compliance with the good manufacturing practices guidelines by manufacturers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Billy Chabalenge
- Department of Medicines Control, Zambia
Medicines Regulatory Authority, Lusaka, Zambia,Billy Chabalenge, Department of Medicines
Control, Zambia Medicines Regulatory Authority, P. O Box 31890, Lusaka 10101,
Zambia.
| | - Elimas Jere
- Department of Medicines Control, Zambia
Medicines Regulatory Authority, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Namuchindo Nanyangwe
- Department of Medicines Control, Zambia
Medicines Regulatory Authority, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Christabel Hikaambo
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of
Science, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Steward Mudenda
- Department of Pharmacy, University of
Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Michelo Banda
- Department of Pharmacy, University of
Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Aubrey Kalungia
- Department of Pharmacy, University of
Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Scott Matafwali
- Department of Clinical Research,
Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical
Medicine, London, UK
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Selam MN, Habte BM, Marew T, Bitew M, Getachew T, Getachew S, Abate A, Mitiku M, Matsabisa M, Birhanu G. Evaluation of quality and antimicrobial efficacy of locally manufactured alcohol-based hand sanitizers marketed in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia in the era of COVID-19. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control 2022; 11:126. [PMID: 36209192 PMCID: PMC9547578 DOI: 10.1186/s13756-022-01163-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 09/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has been rapidly spreading across the globe since the World Health Organization (WHO) has declared the disease outbreak as a global pandemic on March 11, 2020. Hand hygiene, via either regular handwashing with soap and water or using hand sanitizers, is among the various measures that need to be followed to control the outbreak of the disease. Alcohol-based hand sanitizers (ABHS) are the "gold standard" for hand disinfection because of their broad antimicrobial spectrum of activity, easy availability, better safety profile, and general acceptability to users. This study aimed at evaluating the physicochemical quality and antimicrobial efficacy of the locally manufactured ABHS marketed in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. METHODS A cross-sectional survey was used to collect ABHS from Addis Ababa marketplaces. A total of 25 sample products were randomly selected from different categories of hand sanitizer manufacturers. The physicochemical evaluation of the products was carried out as per the United States Pharmacopoeia and WHO standards. Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella spp., and Shigella spp clinical isolates were used for the antimicrobial efficacy test. RESULTS The Fourier Transform Infrared result confirmed that all the test products met the identification test for ethanol. The majority (68%) of ABHS complied with the test for ethanol content (75-85% v/v). However, only 3 products fulfilled the hydrogen peroxide content (0.112-0.137% v/v). LPC307 showed the maximum zone of inhibition of 12 mm against Escherichia coli whereas MPC204 exhibited only 3 mm. LPC101 was found to be more sensitive to Shigella and Klebsiella Spp with minimum inhibitory concentration values of 20% and 10%, respectively. The sample product LPC101 showed a minimum bactericidal concentration of 20% against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Klebsiella spp. CONCLUSION One-third of the tested ABHS did not comply with the WHO ethanol content limit and the majority of the products failed to meet the label claim for hydrogen peroxide content. Besides, nearly all products proved that they have activity against all the tested pathogenic microorganisms at a minimum concentration from 10 to 80%; though, they did not show 99.9% bacteriostatic or bactericidal activities as claimed. The study findings suggested regular monitoring of the quality of marketed ABHS considering the current wide use of these products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muluken Nigatu Selam
- grid.7123.70000 0001 1250 5688Department of Pharmaceutics and Social Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, College of Health Sciences, Addis Ababa University, P.O. Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Bruck Messele Habte
- grid.7123.70000 0001 1250 5688Department of Pharmaceutics and Social Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, College of Health Sciences, Addis Ababa University, P.O. Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Tesfa Marew
- grid.7123.70000 0001 1250 5688Department of Pharmaceutics and Social Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, College of Health Sciences, Addis Ababa University, P.O. Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Molalegne Bitew
- Bio and Emerging Technology Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Tigist Getachew
- Bio and Emerging Technology Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | | | - Atlaw Abate
- Ethiopian Food and Drug Authority, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Mequanint Mitiku
- grid.7123.70000 0001 1250 5688Department of Medical Laboratory, Tikur Anbessa Specialized Hospital, College of Health Sciences, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Motlalepula Matsabisa
- grid.412219.d0000 0001 2284 638XDepartment of Pharmacology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, 9300 South Africa
| | - Gebremariam Birhanu
- grid.7123.70000 0001 1250 5688Department of Pharmaceutics and Social Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, College of Health Sciences, Addis Ababa University, P.O. Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia ,grid.412219.d0000 0001 2284 638XDepartment of Pharmacology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, 9300 South Africa
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Saveanu CI, Anistoroaei D, Todireasa S, Saveanu AE, Bobu LI, Bamboi I, Boronia O, Balcos C. Evaluation of the Efficiency of Hand Hygiene Technique with Hydroalcoholic Solution by Image Color Summarize. Medicina (B Aires) 2022; 58:medicina58081108. [PMID: 36013575 PMCID: PMC9413243 DOI: 10.3390/medicina58081108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2022] [Revised: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Objectives: The HH (hand hygiene) technique is relatively simple. Even so, in practice there are still non-conformities regarding this aspect. Lack of knowledge or lack of compliance can be reasons for non-adherence with HH techniques. In this context, the purpose of this study was to follow the realization of the hand-washing technique with hydroalcoholic solution, applied before and after receiving the HH recommendations. Materials and Methods: A descriptive, cross-sectional study was conducted from May 2022 to June 2022. Students from a second year dental medicine class teaching in French 2021/22 “Grigore T. Popa” University of Medicine and Pharmacy in Iasi were included in the study. The approval of the ethics commission was received: No. 184/05.05.2022. The study was conducted in two stages. In the first stage, HH was performed without any recommendation. In the second stage, the antiseptic hand rubbing technique was presented following the WHO recommendations. The fluorescent Fluo-Add solution, Wood lamp for dermatology (4 × 5.5 W ultraviolet tubes with a wavelength of 360 nm), and photo camera were used. Subjects performed their HH movement before and after receiving instructions according to WHO. Images were initially taken from the backhand and palm and were finally analyzed with Image Color Summarizer. The data were analyzed by the Mann–Whitney U Test, t-test paired samples using IBM-SPSS version 26 (IBM, Armonk, NY, USA), and p ≤ 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results: After analyzing the images, there were 70 subjects, 45.7% (32) female and 54.33% (38) male. Final average covered area of backhand was 60.89% (±17.17), 28.84:86.11, compared to 52.07% (±17.04), 9:85.23. Final average covered area for palm was 69.91% (±13.5), 31.61:93.41 compared to 59.74% (±16.64), 26.13:92.72. No statistical significance was obtained by gender. Conclusions: The study showed an improvement in hand hygiene technique without highlighting gender differences.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Daniela Anistoroaei
- Correspondence: (D.A.); (A.E.S.); Tel.: +40-721-377-269 (D.A.); +40-0755569120 (A.E.S.)
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9
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Muleba L, Van Wyk R, Pienaar J, Ratshikhopha E, Singh T. Assessment of Anti-Bacterial Effectiveness of Hand Sanitizers Commonly Used in South Africa. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19159245. [PMID: 35954594 PMCID: PMC9367797 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19159245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Revised: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Hand sanitizers are used as an alternative to hand washing to reduce the number of viable microorganisms when soap and water are not readily available. This study aimed to investigate the anti-bacterial effectiveness of commercially available hand sanitizers and those commonly used in healthcare and community settings. A mapping exercise was done to select and procure different hand sanitizers (n = 18) from retailers. Five microorganisms implicated in hospital-acquired infections were selected and tested against each hand sanitizer: Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus. Twenty-one volunteers were recruited to do a handprint before and after applying the hand sanitizer. Only four out of eighteen hand sanitizers (22%) were effective against all tested bacterial species, and an equal number (22%) were completely ineffective. Seven hand sanitizers with a label claim of 99.99% were only effective against E. coli. Only five hand sanitizers (27%) effectively reduced bacteria on participants’ hands. This study showed that only a fifth of hand sanitizers were effective against selected microorganisms. The findings raise a concern about the effectiveness of hand sanitizers and their role in infection, prevention, and control if not well regulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lufuno Muleba
- National Institute for Occupational Health, National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg 2000, South Africa; (L.M.); (E.R.)
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg 2028, South Africa
| | - Renay Van Wyk
- Department of Environmental Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg 2028, South Africa;
| | - Jennifer Pienaar
- Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, De Montfort University, Leicester LE1 9BH, UK;
| | - Edith Ratshikhopha
- National Institute for Occupational Health, National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg 2000, South Africa; (L.M.); (E.R.)
| | - Tanusha Singh
- National Institute for Occupational Health, National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg 2000, South Africa; (L.M.); (E.R.)
- Department of Environmental Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg 2028, South Africa;
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 2050, South Africa
- Correspondence:
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