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Greenhalgh T, MacIntyre CR, Baker MG, Bhattacharjee S, Chughtai AA, Fisman D, Kunasekaran M, Kvalsvig A, Lupton D, Oliver M, Tawfiq E, Ungrin M, Vipond J. Masks and respirators for prevention of respiratory infections: a state of the science review. Clin Microbiol Rev 2024; 37:e0012423. [PMID: 38775460 PMCID: PMC11326136 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00124-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2024] Open
Abstract
SUMMARYThis narrative review and meta-analysis summarizes a broad evidence base on the benefits-and also the practicalities, disbenefits, harms and personal, sociocultural and environmental impacts-of masks and masking. Our synthesis of evidence from over 100 published reviews and selected primary studies, including re-analyzing contested meta-analyses of key clinical trials, produced seven key findings. First, there is strong and consistent evidence for airborne transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and other respiratory pathogens. Second, masks are, if correctly and consistently worn, effective in reducing transmission of respiratory diseases and show a dose-response effect. Third, respirators are significantly more effective than medical or cloth masks. Fourth, mask mandates are, overall, effective in reducing community transmission of respiratory pathogens. Fifth, masks are important sociocultural symbols; non-adherence to masking is sometimes linked to political and ideological beliefs and to widely circulated mis- or disinformation. Sixth, while there is much evidence that masks are not generally harmful to the general population, masking may be relatively contraindicated in individuals with certain medical conditions, who may require exemption. Furthermore, certain groups (notably D/deaf people) are disadvantaged when others are masked. Finally, there are risks to the environment from single-use masks and respirators. We propose an agenda for future research, including improved characterization of the situations in which masking should be recommended or mandated; attention to comfort and acceptability; generalized and disability-focused communication support in settings where masks are worn; and development and testing of novel materials and designs for improved filtration, breathability, and environmental impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trisha Greenhalgh
- Nuffield Department of Primary Care Health Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - C Raina MacIntyre
- Biosecurity Program, The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Michael G Baker
- Department of Public Health, University of Otago, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Shovon Bhattacharjee
- Biosecurity Program, The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
- School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Abrar A Chughtai
- School of Population Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - David Fisman
- Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mohana Kunasekaran
- Biosecurity Program, The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Amanda Kvalsvig
- Department of Public Health, University of Otago, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Deborah Lupton
- Centre for Social Research in Health and Social Policy Research Centre, Faculty of Arts, Design and Architecture, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Matt Oliver
- Professional Standards Advocate, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Essa Tawfiq
- Biosecurity Program, The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Mark Ungrin
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Schulich School of Engineering; Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Joe Vipond
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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Paddy EN, Afolabi OOD, Sohail M. Exploring toilet plume bioaerosol exposure dynamics in public toilets using a Design of Experiments approach. Sci Rep 2024; 14:10665. [PMID: 38724540 PMCID: PMC11082142 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-61039-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 04/30/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Bioaerosols generated during toilet flushing can contribute to the spread of airborne pathogens and cross-contamination in indoor environments. This presents an increased risk of fomite-mediated or aerosol disease transmission. This study systematically investigated the factors contributing to increased bioaerosol exposure following toilet flushing and developed an empirical model for predicting the exposure-relevant bioaerosol concentration. Air in a toilet cubicle was sampled by impaction after seeding with Clostridium difficile spores. Design of Experiments (DoE) main effects screening and full factorial design approaches were then employed to investigate the significant factors that heighten the risk of exposure to bioaerosols post-flush. Our findings reveal that the inoculated bacterial concentration (C), time elapsed after flushing (t), lateral distance (d), and mechanical ventilation (v) are significant predictors of bioaerosol concentration, with p-values < 0.05. The interaction term, C × d showed a marked increase in bioaerosol concentration up to 232 CFU/m3 at the closest proximity and highest pathogen load. The interplay of C and t (C × t) demonstrated a time-dependent attenuation of bioaerosol viability, with concentrations peaking at 241 CFU/m3 immediately post-flush and notably diminishing over time. The lateral distance and time post-flush (d × t) interaction also revealed a gradual decrease in bioaerosol concentration, highlighting the effectiveness of spatial and temporal dilution in mitigating bioaerosol exposure risks. Furthermore, there is an immediate rise in relative humidity levels post-flush, impacting the air quality in the toilet environment. This study not only advances our understanding of exposure pathways in determining bioaerosol exposure, but also offers pivotal insights for designing targeted interventions to reduce bioaerosol exposure. Recommendations include designing public toilets with antimicrobial surfaces, optimizing ventilation, and initiating timely disinfection protocols to prioritise surfaces closest to the toilet bowl during peak exposure periods, thereby promoting healthier indoor environments and safeguarding public health in high-traffic toilet settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth N Paddy
- School of Architecture, Building and Civil Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire, UK.
| | - Oluwasola O D Afolabi
- School of Architecture, Building and Civil Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire, UK
| | - M Sohail
- School of Architecture, Building and Civil Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire, UK
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Bechmann L, Bauer K, Zerban P, Esser T, Tersteegen A, Fuchs SA, Kaasch AJ, Wolleschak D, Schalk E, Fischer T, Mougiakakos D, Geginat G. Prevention of legionella infections from toilet flushing cisterns. J Hosp Infect 2024; 146:37-43. [PMID: 38224856 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2023.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Revised: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/17/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Immunocompromised patients are at an increased risk of severe legionella infections. We present the results of an outbreak investigation initiated following a fatal case of hospital-acquired legionellosis linked to contaminated water from a toilet-flushing cistern. Additionally, we provide experimental data on the growth of Legionella spp. in flushing cisterns and propose a straightforward protocol for prevention. METHODS We monitored the growth of Legionella spp. in the building's hot- and cold-water systems using quantitative bacterial culture on selective agar. Molecular typing of Legionella pneumophila isolates from the infected patient and the water system was conducted through core-genome multi-locus sequence typing (cgMLST). RESULTS Legionella contamination in the hospital building's cold-water system was significantly higher than in the hot-water system and significantly higher in toilet flushing cistern's water compared with cold water from bathroom sinks and showers. Isolates from the patient and from the flushing cistern of the patient's bathroom were identical by cgMLST. In an experimental setting, daily toilet flushing for a period of 21 days resulted in a 67% reduction in the growth of Legionella spp. in the water of toilet flushing cisterns. Moreover, a one-time disinfection of cisterns with peracetic acid, followed by daily flushing, decreased legionella growth to less than 1% over a period of at least seven weeks in these setting. CONCLUSIONS One-time disinfection of highly contaminated cisterns with peracetic acid and daily toilet flushing as short-term measure can significantly reduce legionella contamination in flushing cisterns. These measures may aid in preventing legionella infection among immunocompromised patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Bechmann
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany.
| | - K Bauer
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - P Zerban
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - T Esser
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - A Tersteegen
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - S A Fuchs
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, Heinrich-Heine-University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - A J Kaasch
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - D Wolleschak
- Department of Haematology and Oncology, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - E Schalk
- Department of Haematology and Oncology, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - T Fischer
- Department of Haematology and Oncology, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - D Mougiakakos
- Department of Haematology and Oncology, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - G Geginat
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
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Eisenberg S, Walton A, Connor TH. The Occupational and Environmental Hazards of Uncovered Toilets. Am J Nurs 2024; 124:55-60. [PMID: 38511713 DOI: 10.1097/01.naj.0001010592.45177.43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Substantial evidence demonstrates that plumes from uncovered toilets potentially expose nurses and other health care workers to aerosols containing infectious agents and hazardous drugs, including antineoplastic drugs. Most hospitals in the United States utilize flushometer-type toilets, which operate under high pressure and do not have a permanently attached closure or lid, which is known to reduce the aerosols generated by flushing. This article aims to raise awareness among nurses of the potential exposure risks associated with toilet plume aerosols, so they can educate other health care workers and take part in initiatives to address these risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seth Eisenberg
- Seth Eisenberg is an oncology nursing consultant and the former professional practice coordinator of infusion services at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle. AnnMarie Walton is an associate professor at the Duke University School of Nursing, Durham, NC. Thomas Harry Connor is a retired hazardous drug researcher for the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health and a former associate professor at the University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston. Contact author: Thomas Harry Connor, . The authors have disclosed no potential conflicts of interest, financial or otherwise
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Belland K, Garcia D, DeJohn C, Allen GR, Mills WD, Glaudel SP. Safety and Effectiveness Assessment of Ultraviolet-C Disinfection in Aircraft Cabins. Aerosp Med Hum Perform 2024; 95:147-157. [PMID: 38356125 DOI: 10.3357/amhp.6350.2024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/16/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION: Aircraft cabins, susceptible to disease transmission, require effective strategies to minimize the spread of airborne diseases. This paper reviews the James Reason Swiss Cheese Theory in mitigating these risks, as implemented by the International Civil Aviation Organization during the COVID-19 pandemic. It also evaluates the use of airborne ultraviolet-C (UV-C) light as an additional protective measure.METHODS: Our approach involved a thorough literature review by experts and a detailed risk-vs.-benefit analysis. The review covered existing research to understand the scientific foundation, while the analysis used established techniques to assess the impact of influenza and COVID-19 in terms of infections, deaths, and economic costs.RESULTS: Integrating UV-C light in aircraft cabins, when applied with appropriate scientific understanding and engineering safeguards, has the potential to reduce in-flight disease transmission. This additional mitigation strategy can work synergistically with existing measures.DISCUSSION: The research and risk-vs.-benefit analysis present strong evidence for the safety and effectiveness of continuous UV-C disinfection in aircraft cabins. It suggests that UV-C light, maintained below exposure limits, can be a valuable addition to existing measures against disease transmission during flights.Belland K, Garcia D, DeJohn C, Allen GR, Mills WD, Glaudel SP. Safety and effectiveness assessment of ultraviolet-C disinfection in aircraft cabins. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2024; 95(3):147-157.
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Valzano F, Coda ARD, Liso A, Arena F. Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria Contaminating Plumbing Components and Sanitary Installations of Hospital Restrooms. Microorganisms 2024; 12:136. [PMID: 38257963 PMCID: PMC10818725 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12010136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2023] [Revised: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses several issues concerning the management of hospital-acquired infections, leading to increasing morbidity and mortality rates and higher costs of care. Multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria can spread in the healthcare setting by different ways. The most important are direct contact transmission occurring when an individual comes into physical contact with an infected or colonized patient (which can involve healthcare workers, patients, or visitors) and indirect contact transmission occurring when a person touches contaminated objects or surfaces in the hospital environment. Furthermore, in recent years, toilets in hospital settings have been increasingly recognised as a hidden source of MDR bacteria. Different sites in restrooms, from toilets and hoppers to drains and siphons, can become contaminated with MDR bacteria that can persist there for long time periods. Therefore, shared toilets may play an important role in the transmission of nosocomial infections since they could represent a reservoir for MDR bacteria. Such pathogens can be further disseminated by bioaerosol and/or droplets potentially produced during toilet use or flushing and be transmitted by inhalation and contact with contaminated fomites. In this review, we summarize available evidence regarding the molecular features of MDR bacteria contaminating toilets of healthcare environments, with a particular focus on plumbing components and sanitary installation. The presence of bacteria with specific molecular traits in different toilet sites should be considered when adopting effective managing and containing interventions against nosocomial infections potentially due to environmental contamination. Finally, here we provide an overview of traditional and new approaches to reduce the spreading of such infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felice Valzano
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, Via Napoli 20, 71122 Foggia, Italy; (F.V.); (F.A.)
| | - Anna Rita Daniela Coda
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Foggia, Via Napoli 20, 71122 Foggia, Italy;
| | - Arcangelo Liso
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Foggia, Via Napoli 20, 71122 Foggia, Italy;
| | - Fabio Arena
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, Via Napoli 20, 71122 Foggia, Italy; (F.V.); (F.A.)
- IRCCS Don Carlo Gnocchi Foundation, Via di Scandicci 269, 50143 Florence, Italy
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Goforth MP, Boone SA, Clark J, Valenzuela PB, McKinney J, Ijaz MK, Gerba CP. Impacts of lid closure during toilet flushing and of toilet bowl cleaning on viral contamination of surfaces in United States restrooms. Am J Infect Control 2023; 52:S0196-6553(23)00820-9. [PMID: 38276944 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2023.11.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 11/25/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Viral aerosols generated during toilet flushing represent a potential route of pathogen transmission. The goal of this study was to determine the impact of toilet lid closure prior to flushing on the generation of viral aerosols and cross-contamination of restroom fomites. METHODS A surrogate for human enteric viruses (bacteriophage MS2) was added to household and public toilet bowls and flushed. The resulting viral contamination of the toilet and other restroom surfaces was then determined. RESULTS After flushing the inoculated toilets, toilet seat bottoms averaged >107 PFU/100 cm2. Viral contamination of restroom surfaces did not depend on toilet lid position (up or down). After toilet bowls were cleaned using a bowl brush with or without a commercial product (hydrochloric acid), a >4 log10 (>99.99%) reduction in contamination of the toilet bowl water was observed versus no product. Bowl brush contamination was reduced by 1.6 log10 (97.64%) when the product was used versus no product. CONCLUSIONS These results demonstrate that closing the toilet lid prior to flushing does not mitigate the risk of contaminating bathroom surfaces and that disinfection of all restroom surfaces (ie, toilet rim, floors) may be necessary after flushing or after toilet brush used for the reduction of virus cross-contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madison P Goforth
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ
| | - Stephanie A Boone
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ.
| | - Justin Clark
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ
| | | | - Julie McKinney
- Global Research and Development for Lysol and Dettol, Reckitt Benckiser LLC, Montvale, NJ
| | - M Khalid Ijaz
- Global Research and Development for Lysol and Dettol, Reckitt Benckiser LLC, Montvale, NJ
| | - Charles P Gerba
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ
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