Exogenous 24-epibrassinolide ameliorates tolerance to high-temperature by adjusting the biosynthesis of pigments, enzymatic, non-enzymatic antioxidants, and diosgenin content in fenugreek

Titanium dioxide -mediated regulation of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants, pigments, and diosgenin content promotes cold stress tolerance in Trigonella foenum-graecum L

Abiotic stresses, notably cold stress, significantly influence various aspects of plant development and reproduction. Various approaches have been proposed to counteract the adverse impacts of cold stress on plant productivity. The unique properties of nanoparticles contribute to an enhanced tolerance of plants to challenging conditions. This study explores the impact of titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) on cold-stress tolerance in fenugreek, as well as genes expression involved in the diosgenin biosynthesis pathway. Varied concentrations of TiO2 NPs (0, 2, 5, and 10 ppm) were sprayed on fenugreek plants subjected to cold stress at 10 °C during 6, 24, and 48 h. Our findings revealed that the utilization of 2 and 5 ppm of TiO2 NPs, positively influenced pigments biosynthesis and enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant activities. It also effectively reduced electrolyte leakage and malondialdehyde content, mitigating the adverse effects of cold stress. The study also highlighted TiO2 NPs' affirmative impact on defense signaling pathways, including abscisic acid, nitric oxide, and auxin, in fenugreek. Moreover, TiO2 NPs significantly influenced the expression of genes related to diosgenin biosynthesis. Simultaneous exposure to cold stress and TiO2 NPs led to a substantial increase in diosgenin content, with the upregulation of SEP, SQS, CAS, and SSR genes compared to control conditions. This research indicated that TiO2 NPs application could effectively stimulate fenugreek biosynthesis of primary and secondary metabolites, consequently enhancing plant tolerance to cold stress. The study's outcomes hold promise for potential applications in the metabolic engineering of diosgenin in fenugreek.

Synergistic effects of melatonin and 24-epibrassinolide on chickpea water deficit tolerance

BACKGROUND

Water deficiency stress reduces yield in grain legumes, primarily due to a decrease in the pods number. Melatonin (ML) and 24-epibrassinolide (EBL) are recognized for their hormone-like properties that improve plant tolerance to abiotic stresses. This study aimed to assess the impact of different concentrations of ML (0, 100, and 200 µM) and EBL (0, 3, and 6 µM) on the growth, biochemical, and physiological characteristics of chickpea plants under water-stressed conditions.

RESULTS

The study's findings indicated that under water-stressed conditions, a decrease in seed (30%) and pod numbers (31%), 100-seed weight (17%), total chlorophyll content (46%), stomatal conductance (33%), as well as an increase in H2O2 (62%), malondialdehyde content (40%), and electrolyte leakage index (40%), resulted in a 40% reduction in chickpea plants grain yield. Our findings confirmed that under water-stressed conditions, seed oil, seed oil yield, and seed protein yield dropped by 20%, 55%, and 36%, respectively. The concurrent exogenous application of ML and EBL significantly reduces oxidative stress, plasma membrane damage, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) content. This treatment also leads to increased yield and its components, higher pigment content, enhanced oil and protein yield, and improved enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant activities such as catalase, superoxide dismutase, polyphenol oxidase, ascorbate peroxidase, guaiacol peroxidase, flavonoid, and carotenoid. Furthermore, it promotes the accumulation of osmoprotectants such as proline, total soluble protein, and sugars.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study found that ML and EBL act synergistically to regulate plant growth, photosynthesis, osmoprotectants accumulation, antioxidant defense systems, and maintain ROS homeostasis, thereby mitigating the adverse effects of water deficit conditions. ML and EBL are key regulatory network components in stressful conditions, with significant potential for future research and practical applications. The regulation metabolic pathways of ML and EBL in water-stressed remains unknown. As a result, future research should aim to elucidate the molecular mechanisms by employing genome editing, RNA sequencing, microarray, transcriptomic, proteomic, and metabolomic analyses to identify the mechanisms involved in plant responses to exogenous ML and EBL under water deficit conditions. Furthermore, the economical applications of synthetic ML and EBL could be an interesting strategy for improving plant tolerance.

Facing climate change: plant stress mitigation strategies in agriculture

Climate change poses significant challenges to global agriculture, with rising temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and increased frequency of extreme weather events threatening crop yields. These changes exceed the adaptability thresholds of many crops, decreasing their yield and threatening food security. At plant physiological levels, climate change-induced stressors disrupt photosynthesis, growth, and reproductive processes, contributing to a reduced productivity. Furthermore, the negative impacts of climate change on agriculture are exacerbated by anthropogenic factors, with agriculture itself contributing significantly to greenhouse gas emissions. To mitigate these challenges, various approaches have been explored. This work reviews the most important physical, chemical, and biological strategies most commonly used in a broad range of agricultural crops. Among physical strategies, increasing water use efficiency without yield reduction through different irrigation strategies, and the use of foliar treatments with reflective properties to mitigate the negative effects of different stresses have been proven to be effective. Concerning chemical approaches, the exogenous treatment of plants with chemicals induces existing molecular and physiological plant defense mechanisms, enhancing abiotic stress tolerance. Regarding biological treatments, plant inoculation with mycorrhiza and plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) can improve enzymatic antioxidant capacity and mineral solubilization, favoring root and plant growth and enhance plant performance under stressful conditions. While these strategies provide valuable short- to medium-term solutions, there is a pressing need for new biotechnological approaches aimed at developing genotypes resistant to stressful conditions. Collaborative efforts among researchers, policymakers, and agricultural stakeholders are essential to ensure global food security in the face of ongoing climate challenges.

Characterizing reference genes for high-fidelity gene expression analysis under different abiotic stresses and elicitor treatments in fenugreek leaves

BACKGROUND

Quantifying gene expression is a critical aspect of applied genomics research across all organisms, and real-time PCR has emerged as a powerful tool for this purpose. However, selecting appropriate internal control genes for data normalization presents specific challenges. This study aimed to identify suitable reference genes for gene expression analysis under various conditions, encompassing salinity, low and high-temperature stresses, and different elicitor treatments. These treatments included titanium dioxide, cold plasma, 24-epibrassinolide, and melatonin, resulting in a total of 13 unique treatments and 148 treatment combinations applied to fenugreek plants.

RESULTS

As per the analysis performed with the BestKeeper tool, EEF-1α, and GAPDH were recognized as the most stable reference genes under the majority of conditions. Furthermore, the GeNorm and NormFinder tools identified β-tubulin and EEF-1α as the most stable reference genes. The findings of this research demonstrated that, although the stability of three reference genes expression was acceptable in almost all evaluated treatments, fluctuations in their expression were observed under the treatments of cold stress with TiO2 NPs application, cold plasma application with salinity stress, and cold plasma application with high-temperature stress compared to others. Simultaneously, the GeNorm analysis results demonstrated that in the mentioned treatments, relying on only one reference gene is inadequate. To corroborate the results, we examined the expression profile of the SSR gene, a pivotal gene in diosgenin biosynthesis, under all investigated treatments and treatment combinations. The outcomes suggested that employing stable reference genes yielded highly consistent results.

CONCLUSIONS

The varying expression patterns of the target genes emphasize the crucial need for precise optimization of experimental conditions and selecting stable reference genes to achieve accurate results in gene expression studies utilizing real-time PCR. These findings offer valuable insights into the selection of appropriate reference genes for gene expression analysis under diverse conditions using real-time PCR.

Differential responses of two fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) landraces pretreated with melatonin to prolonged drought stress and subsequent recovery

BACKGROUND

Drought impairs growth, disturbs photosynthesis, and induces senescence in plants, which results in crop productivity reduction and ultimately jeopardizes human food security. The objective of this study was to determine major parameters associated with drought tolerance and recovery ability of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.), by examining differential biochemical and phenological responses and underlying enzyme activities as well as melatonin roles during drought stress and re-watering for two contrasting landraces. Moreover, the relative expression of three key genes involved in the biosynthesis pathway of diosgenin, including SQS, CAS, and BG, was investigated.

RESULTS

Depending on the conditions, drought stress enhanced the activity of antioxidant enzymes and the osmoregulating compounds, non-enzymatic antioxidants, hydrogen peroxide content, and lipid peroxidation levels in most cases. Severe drought stress accelerated flowering time in Shushtar landrace (SHR) but had no significant effects on Varamin (VR). Pretreatment with melatonin delayed flowering time in SHR and caused high drought resistance in this landrace. Furthermore, melatonin significantly enhanced drought adaptability in VR by improving plant recovery ability.

DISCUSSION

Based on our results plants' responses to drought stress and melatonin pretreatment were completely landrace-specific. Drought stress caused an increase in the relative expression of CAS gene and ultimately the accumulation of steroidal saponins in SHR. Melatonin compensated for the decrease in biomass production due to drought stress and finally increased steroidal saponins performance in SHR. Our study showed that melatonin can improve drought stress and recovery in fenugreek, but different factors such as genotype, melatonin concentration, and plant age should be considered.

Waterlogging faced by bulbil expansion improved the growth of Pinellia ternata and its effect reinforced by brassinolide

The bulbil expansion of P. ternata is a key period for its yield formation, and the process of bulbil expansion is often subjected to short-term heavy precipitation. It is not clear whether the short-term waterlogging can affect bulbil expansion. Brassinolide (BR) is widely believed to enhance plant tolerance to abiotic stress. The study investigated the effects of normal water (C), waterlogging (W), waterlogging + BR (W + B), waterlogging + propiconazole (W + P) on P. ternata at the bulbil expansion period in order to assess P. ternata's ability to cope with waterlogging during the bulbil expansion stage and the regulation effects of BR on the process. The biomass of P. ternata was significantly increased after waterlogging. W treatment significantly reduced the H2O2 and MDA contents, the rate of O2⋅- production and the activities of antioxidant enzymes compared with the C group. AsA and GSH contents were significantly reduced by W treatment. However, the ratios of AsA/DHA and GSH/GSSG were slightly affected by W treatment. The rate of O2∙- production and H2O2 content in W + B group were significantly lower than those in W group. The POD, APX, and GR activities, and GSH content in W + B group were evidently increased compared with the W group. Soluble sugar and active ingredients contents were significantly increased after waterlogging, and the enhancement was reinforced by BR. In conclusion, waterlogging reduced oxidative stress in P. ternata under the experimental conditions. BR treatment under waterlogging had a positive effect on P. ternata by enhancing antioxidant capacity and promoting the accumulation of soluble sugars and active ingredients.

The amelioration of salt stress-induced damage in fenugreek through the application of cold plasma and melatonin

Nowadays, it is increasingly crucial to combine innovative approaches with established methods to enhance plant tolerance and maximize the production of beneficial compounds. With this aim in view, a study was carried out to investigate how different melatonin concentrations (0, 30, and 60 ppm), cold plasma treatment (at 3000 and 4000 V), and varying exposure durations (0, 1, 2, and 4 min) affect the physiological and biochemical attributes of fenugreek plants, as well as the levels of diosgenin under salinity stress. This study revealed that the application of 3000 V cold plasma for 2 min with 60 ppm melatonin by establishing cellular redox homeostasis in salinity-treated fenugreek plants, effectively prevented the destruction of pigments and reduced the electrolyte leakage index of malondialdehyde content. The utilization of these two elicitors has the potential to trigger multiple pathways, including the enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants biosynthesis, and abscisic acid-dependent pathways. This activation results in an enhanced production of abscisic acid, auxin, and endogenous melatonin, along with the regulation of signal transduction pathways. Surprisingly, applying these two treatments increased the expression of SQS, CAS, SSR, BGL, SEP, SMT, and diosgenin content by 13, 22.5, 21.6, 19, 15.4, 12, and 6 times respectively. The findings highlight the intricate interplay between these treatments and the positive impact of their combined application, opening up avenues for further research and practical applications in improving plant tolerance to environmental stresses.

Assessing the effects of 24-epibrassinolide and yeast extract at various levels on cowpea's morphophysiological and biochemical responses under water deficit stress

BACKGROUND

Due to the factor of water deficit, which has placed human food security at risk by causing a 20% annual reduction in agricultural products, addressing this growing peril necessitates the adoption of inventive strategies aimed at enhancing plant tolerance. One such promising approach is employing elicitors such as 24-epibrassinolide (EBR) and yeast extract, which are potent agents capable of triggering robust defense responses in plants. By employing these elicitors, crops can develop enhanced adaptive mechanisms to combat water deficit and improve their ability to withstand drought condition. This study investigates the impact of different levels of EBR (0, 5, 10 µm) and yeast extract (0 and 12 g/l) on enhancing the tolerance of cowpea to water deficit stress over two growing seasons.

RESULTS

The findings of this study demonstrate that, the combined application of EBR (especially 10 µm) and yeast extract (12 g/l) can increase seed yield (18%), 20-pod weight (16%), the number of pods per plant (18%), total chlorophyll content (90%), and decrease malondialdehyde content (45%) in cowpea, compared to plants grown under water deficit stress without these treatments. Upon implementing these treatments, impressive results were obtained, with the highest recorded values observed for the seed yield (1867.55 kg/ha), 20-pod weight (16.29 g), pods number per plant (9), and total chlorophyll content (19.88 mg g-1 FW). The correlation analysis indicated a significant relationship between the seed yield, and total chlorophyll (0.74**), carotenoids (0.82**), weight of 20 seeds (0.67**), and number of pods (0.90**). These traits should be prioritized in cowpea breeding programs focusing on water deficit stress.

CONCLUSIONS

The comprehensive exploration of the effects of EBR and yeast extract across various levels on cowpea plants facing water deficit stress presents a pivotal contribution to the agricultural domain. This research illuminates a promising trajectory for future agricultural practices and users seeking sustainable solutions to enhance crops tolerance. Overall, the implications drawn from this study contribute significantly towards advancing our understanding of plant responses to water deficit stress while providing actionable recommendations for optimizing crop production under challenging environmental conditions.

Transcriptome Shock in Developing Embryos of a Brassica napus and Brassica rapa Hybrid

Interspecific crosses that fuse the genomes of two different species may result in overall gene expression changes in the hybrid progeny, called 'transcriptome shock'. To better understand the expression pattern after genome merging during the early stages of allopolyploid formation, we performed RNA sequencing analysis on developing embryos of Brassica rapa, B. napus, and their synthesized allotriploid hybrids. Here, we show that the transcriptome shock occurs in the developing seeds of the hybrids. Of the homoeologous gene pairs, 17.1% exhibit expression bias, with an overall expression bias toward B. rapa. The expression level dominance also biases toward B. rapa, mainly induced by the expression change in homoeologous genes from B. napus. Functional enrichment analysis revealed significant differences in differentially expressed genes (DEGs) related to photosynthesis, hormone synthesis, and other pathways. Further study showed that significant changes in the expression levels of the key transcription factors (TFs) could regulate the overall interaction network in the developing embryo, which might be an essential cause of phenotype change. In conclusion, the present results have revealed the global changes in gene expression patterns in developing seeds of the hybrid between B. rapa and B. napus, and provided novel insights into the occurrence of transcriptome shock for harnessing heterosis.