1
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Pizzella A, Penna E, Abate N, Frenna E, Canafoglia L, Ragona F, Russo R, Chambery A, Perrone-Capano C, Cappello S, Crispino M, Di Giaimo R. Pathological Deficit of Cystatin B Impairs Synaptic Plasticity in EPM1 Human Cerebral Organoids. Mol Neurobiol 2024; 61:4318-4334. [PMID: 38087165 PMCID: PMC11236866 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-023-03812-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2023] [Accepted: 11/17/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2024]
Abstract
Cystatin B (CSTB) is a small protease inhibitor protein being involved in cell proliferation and neuronal differentiation. Loss-of-function mutations in CSTB gene cause progressive myoclonic epilepsy 1 (EPM1). We previously demonstrated that CSTB is locally synthesized in synaptic nerve terminals from rat brain and secreted into the media, indicating its role in synaptic plasticity. In this work, we have further investigated the involvement of CSTB in synaptic plasticity, using synaptosomes from human cerebral organoids (hCOs) as well as from rodents' brain. Our data demonstrate that CSTB is released from synaptosomes in two ways: (i) as a soluble protein and (ii) in extracellular vesicles-mediated pathway. Synaptosomes isolated from hCOs are enriched in pre-synaptic proteins and contain CSTB at all developmental stages analyzed. CSTB presence in the synaptic territories was also confirmed by immunostaining on human neurons in vitro. To investigate if the depletion of CSTB affects synaptic plasticity, we characterized the synaptosomes from EPM1 hCOs. We found that the levels of presynaptic proteins and of an initiation factor linked to local protein synthesis were both reduced in EPM1 hCOs and that the extracellular vesicles trafficking pathway was impaired. Moreover, EPM1 neurons displayed anomalous morphology with longer and more branched neurites bearing higher number of intersections and nodes, suggesting connectivity alterations. In conclusion, our data strengthen the idea that CSTB plays a critical role in the synapse physiology and reveal that pathologically low levels of CSTB may affect synaptic plasticity, leading to synaptopathy and altered neuronal morphology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amelia Pizzella
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
| | - Eduardo Penna
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
- College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA, 91766, USA
| | - Natalia Abate
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Elisa Frenna
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
| | - Laura Canafoglia
- Integrated Diagnostics for Epilepsy, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesca Ragona
- Department of Pediatric Neuroscience, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, Milan, Italy
| | - Rosita Russo
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli, Caserta, Italy
| | - Angela Chambery
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli, Caserta, Italy
| | | | - Silvia Cappello
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
- Biomedical Center, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Marianna Crispino
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy.
| | - Rossella Di Giaimo
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy.
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany.
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2
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Lucchino V, Scaramuzzino L, Scalise S, Lo Conte M, Zannino C, Benedetto GL, Aguglia U, Ferlazzo E, Cuda G, Parrotta EI. Insights into the Genetic Profile of Two Siblings Affected by Unverricht-Lundborg Disease Using Patient-Derived hiPSCs. Cells 2022; 11:3491. [PMID: 36359887 PMCID: PMC9655992 DOI: 10.3390/cells11213491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Unverricht-Lundborg disease (ULD), also known as progressive myoclonic epilepsy 1 (EPM1), is a rare autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a complex symptomatology that includes action- and stimulus-sensitive myoclonus and tonic-clonic seizures. The main cause of the onset and development of ULD is a repeat expansion of a dodecamer sequence localized in the promoter region of the gene encoding cystatin B (CSTB), an inhibitor of lysosomal proteases. Although this is the predominant mutation found in most patients, the physio-pathological mechanisms underlying the disease complexity remain largely unknown. In this work, we used patient-specific iPSCs and their neuronal derivatives to gain insight into the molecular and genetic machinery responsible for the disease in two Italian siblings affected by different phenotypes of ULD. Specifically, fragment length analysis on amplified CSTB promoters found homozygous status for dodecamer expansion in both patients and showed that the number of dodecamer repeats is the same in both. Furthermore, the luciferase reporter assay showed that the CSTB promoter activity was similarly reduced in both lines compared to the control. This information allowed us to draw important conclusions: (1) the phenotypic differences of the patients do not seem to be strictly dependent on the genetic mutation around the CSTB gene, and (2) that some other molecular mechanisms, not yet clearly identified, might be taken into account. In line with the inhibitory role of cystatin B on cathepsins, molecular investigations performed on iPSCs-derived neurons showed an increased expression of lysosomal cathepsins (B, D, and L) and a reduced expression of CSTB protein. Intriguingly, the increase in cathepsin expression does not appear to be correlated with the residual amount of CSTB, suggesting that other mechanisms, in addition to the regulation of cathepsins, could be involved in the pathological complexity of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valeria Lucchino
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University Magna Graecia, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Luana Scaramuzzino
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University Magna Graecia, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Stefania Scalise
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University Magna Graecia, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Michela Lo Conte
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University Magna Graecia, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Clara Zannino
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University Magna Graecia, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Giorgia Lucia Benedetto
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University Magna Graecia, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Umberto Aguglia
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University Magna Graecia, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Edoardo Ferlazzo
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University Magna Graecia, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Giovanni Cuda
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University Magna Graecia, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
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3
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Di Matteo F, Pipicelli F, Kyrousi C, Tovecci I, Penna E, Crispino M, Chambery A, Russo R, Ayo-Martin AC, Giordano M, Hoffmann A, Ciusani E, Canafoglia L, Götz M, Di Giaimo R, Cappello S. Cystatin B is essential for proliferation and interneuron migration in individuals with EPM1 epilepsy. EMBO Mol Med 2020; 12:e11419. [PMID: 32378798 PMCID: PMC7278547 DOI: 10.15252/emmm.201911419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Revised: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 04/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Progressive myoclonus epilepsy (PME) of Unverricht–Lundborg type (EPM1) is an autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disorder with the highest incidence of PME worldwide. Mutations in the gene encoding cystatin B (CSTB) are the primary genetic cause of EPM1. Here, we investigate the role of CSTB during neurogenesis in vivo in the developing mouse brain and in vitro in human cerebral organoids (hCOs) derived from EPM1 patients. We find that CSTB (but not one of its pathological variants) is secreted into the mouse cerebral spinal fluid and the conditioned media from hCOs. In embryonic mouse brain, we find that functional CSTB influences progenitors’ proliferation and modulates neuronal distribution by attracting interneurons to the site of secretion via cell‐non‐autonomous mechanisms. Similarly, in patient‐derived hCOs, low levels of functional CSTB result in an alteration of progenitor's proliferation, premature differentiation, and changes in interneurons migration. Secretion and extracellular matrix organization are the biological processes particularly affected as suggested by a proteomic analysis in patients’ hCOs. Overall, our study sheds new light on the cellular mechanisms underlying the development of EPM1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Di Matteo
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany.,International Max Planck Research School for Translational Psychiatry (IMPRS-TP), Munich, Germany
| | - Fabrizia Pipicelli
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany.,International Max Planck Research School for Translational Psychiatry (IMPRS-TP), Munich, Germany
| | | | - Isabella Tovecci
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany.,Department of Biology, University Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Eduardo Penna
- Department of Biology, University Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | | | - Angela Chambery
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Caserta, Italy
| | - Rosita Russo
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Caserta, Italy
| | - Ane Cristina Ayo-Martin
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany.,International Max Planck Research School for Translational Psychiatry (IMPRS-TP), Munich, Germany
| | | | | | - Emilio Ciusani
- Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Magdalena Götz
- Physiological Genomics, Biomedical Center (BMC), Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitaet (LMU), Planegg/Martinsried, Germany.,Helmholtz Center Munich, Biomedical Center (BMC), Institute of Stem Cell Research, Planegg/Martinsried, Germany.,SyNergy Excellence Cluster, Munich, Germany
| | - Rossella Di Giaimo
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany.,Department of Biology, University Federico II, Naples, Italy
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HIV Infection Induces Extracellular Cathepsin B Uptake and Damage to Neurons. Sci Rep 2019; 9:8006. [PMID: 31142756 PMCID: PMC6541605 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-44463-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders prevail in 20-50 percent of infected individuals. Macrophages transmigrate through the blood brain barrier during HIV-1 infection, triggering neuronal dysfunction. HIV-infected macrophages secrete cathepsin B (CATB), and serum amyloid p component (SAPC), inducing neuronal apoptosis by an unknown mechanism. We hypothesized that HIV infection facilitates CATB/SAPC secretion from macrophages followed by neuronal internalization, promoting dysfunction. SK-N-SH neuronal cells were exposed to active recombinant histidine-tagged cathepsin B (His-CATB). His-CATB entry was tracked by intracellular flow cytometry, and neuronal dysfunction was verified by western blot. Macrophage-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) were tested for the presence of CATB and SAPC. Neurons internalized His-CATB, an effect that was partially decreased by pre-treatment with anti-CATB antibody. Pre-treatment with CATB and SAPC antibodies decreased cleavage of caspase-3 and restored synaptophysin in neurons. Neurons exposed to macrophage-conditioned media differentially internalized His-CATB, dependent on the HIV replication levels. Finally, CATB and SAPC were secreted in EVs. We report for the first time that CATB is secreted from macrophages both free and in EVs, and is internalized by neurons. Moreover, HIV-replication levels modulate the amount of CATB neuronal uptake, and neuronal dysfunction can be decreased with CATB antibodies. In conclusion, the CATB/SAPC complex represents a novel target against HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders.
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5
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Kavčič N, Pegan K, Turk B. Lysosomes in programmed cell death pathways: from initiators to amplifiers. Biol Chem 2017; 398:289-301. [DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2016-0252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2016] [Accepted: 09/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Lysosome is the central organelle for intracellular degradation of biological macromolecules and organelles. The material destined for degradation enters the lysosomes primarily via endocytosis, autophagy and phagocytosis, and is degraded through the concerted action of more than 50 lysosomal hydrolases. However, lysosomes are also linked with numerous other processes, including cell death, inflammasome activation and immune response, as well as with lysosomal secretion and cholesterol recycling. Among them programmed cell death pathways including apoptosis have received major attention. In most of these pathways, cell death was accompanied by lysosomal membrane permeabilization and release of lysosomal constituents with an involvement of lysosomal hydrolases, including the cathepsins. However, it is less clear, whether lysosomal membrane permeabilization is really critical for the initiation of cell death programme(s). Therefore, the role of lysosomal membrane permeabilization in various programmed cell death pathways is reviewed, as well as the mechanisms leading to it.
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6
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Zhang DY, Zheng Y, Tan CP, Sun JH, Zhang W, Ji LN, Mao ZW. Graphene Oxide Decorated with Ru(II)-Polyethylene Glycol Complex for Lysosome-Targeted Imaging and Photodynamic/Photothermal Therapy. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2017; 9:6761-6771. [PMID: 28150943 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.6b13808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The combination of photothermal therapy (PTT) and photodynamic therapy (PDT) can kill cancer cells more efficiently as compared with PTT or PDT treatment alone. In this work, we use nanohybrid rGO-Ru-PEG composed of reduced nanographene oxide (rGO) sheet and a phosphorescent polyethylene glycol modified Ru(II) complex (Ru-PEG) for combined PTT and PDT of cancer. Photosensitizer and imaging agent Ru-PEG is decorated onto delivery and PTT agent rGO via π-π stacking and hydrophobic interactions. The chemical structure and morphology have been characterized by various methods. The release of Ru-PEG from rGO surface is pH-dependent, and irradiation can increase the release rate considerably. The combined effects of PDT and PTT have been evaluated by cytotoxicity assay under serial irradiation at 808 nm (PTT) and 450 nm (PDT). Mechanism investigation shows that the nanohybrid can induce apoptosis through generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cathepsin-initiated apoptotic signaling pathways under light excitation. rGO-Ru-PEG can be applied to in vivo photothermal imaging, and high treatment efficacy was achieved for in vivo antitumor experiments when irradiated with an 808 nm laser and a 450 nm laser. Our work provides an effective strategy for the construction of multifunctional imaging and phototherapeutic nanohybrids for the treatment of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Yang Zhang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University , Guangzhou 510275, PR China
| | - Yue Zheng
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University , Guangzhou 510275, PR China
| | - Cai-Ping Tan
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University , Guangzhou 510275, PR China
| | - Jing-Hua Sun
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University , Guangzhou 510275, PR China
| | - Wei Zhang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University , Guangzhou 510275, PR China
| | - Liang-Nian Ji
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University , Guangzhou 510275, PR China
| | - Zong-Wan Mao
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University , Guangzhou 510275, PR China
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7
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Stoka V, Turk V, Turk B. Lysosomal cathepsins and their regulation in aging and neurodegeneration. Ageing Res Rev 2016; 32:22-37. [PMID: 27125852 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2016.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 223] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2016] [Revised: 04/12/2016] [Accepted: 04/23/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Lysosomes and lysosomal hydrolases, including the cathepsins, have been shown to change their properties with aging brain a long time ago, although their function was not really understood. The first biochemical and clinical studies were followed by a major expansion in the last 20 years with the development of animal disease models and new approaches leading to a major advancement of understanding of the role of physiological and degenerative processes in the brain at the molecular level. This includes the understanding of the major role of autophagy and the cathepsins in a number of diseases, including its critical role in the neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis. Similarly, cathepsins and some other lysosomal proteases were shown to have important roles in processing and/or degradation of several important neuronal proteins, thereby having either neuroprotective or harmful roles. In this review, we discuss lysosomal cathepsins and their regulation with the focus on cysteine cathepsins and their endogenous inhibitors, as well as their role in several neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronika Stoka
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, J. Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, Sl-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; J. Stefan International Postgraduate School, Jamova 39, Sl-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Vito Turk
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, J. Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, Sl-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; J. Stefan International Postgraduate School, Jamova 39, Sl-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Boris Turk
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, J. Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, Sl-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; Centre of Excellence for Integrated Approaches in Chemistry and Biology of Proteins, Jamova 39, Sl-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of Ljubljana, Večna pot 113, Sl-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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8
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Raghav N, Jangra S, Kumar A, Bhattacharyya S. Quinazoline derivatives as cathepsins B, H and L inhibitors and cell proliferating agents. Int J Biol Macromol 2016; 94:719-727. [PMID: 27780761 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2016] [Revised: 09/29/2016] [Accepted: 10/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Cysteine Cathepsins well known to be involved in cancer, inflammation and regulation of degenerative processes like apoptosis have become specific targets in drug designing. The potential of quinazolines and their derivatives in medicinal chemistry led us to synthesise a novel series of seven compounds of quinazolines to evaluate their effect on cathepsins and cellular aspects of HepG2 cells. In the present work we report the solvent free microwave assisted synthesis of (E)-8-benzylidene-5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-2,4-diarylquinazolines as inhibitors of mammalian hepatic cysteine proteases viz. Cathepsins B, H and L. In vitro inhibition of Cathepsins B, H and L is correlated well with in vitro studies when tested using MTT (3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-Diphenyltetrazolium Bromide) assay on HepG2 cells, hepatocellular carcinoma cell line. The studies have been extended to evaluate the type of inhibition exhibited by the individual enzyme. Out of the seven compounds 1g i.e. (E)-8-(4-fluorobenzylidene)-4-(4-fluorophenyl)-2-phenyl-5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydroquinazoline has been found to be most inhibitory for Cathepsins B, H and L to a maximum extent with the Ki values of 10-10M, 10-10M and 10-9M order respectively. In silico studies of all compounds have also been done at the active sites of Cathepsin B, H and L.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neera Raghav
- Department of Chemistry, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra-136118, Haryana, India.
| | - Suman Jangra
- Department of Chemistry, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra-136118, Haryana, India
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Raghav N, Jangra S, Kumar A, Bhattacharyya S, Wadhwa D, Sindhu J. Cathepsin B, H and L inhibitors as cell proliferating agents: design, synthesis, computational and pharmacological studies of some novel 2-(2-naphthoyl)-6,6-dimethyl-3-aryl-2,3,6,7-tetrahydrobenzofuran-4(5H)-ones. RSC Adv 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra06480a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A novel series of 2-(2-naphthoyl)-6,6-dimethyl-3-aryl-2,3,6,7-tetrahydrobenzofuran-4(5H)-one derivatives synthesized and structure confirmed by X-ray crystallography have been evaluated as inhibitors to cathepsins B, H and L as well as cell proliferating agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neera Raghav
- Department of Chemistry
- Kurukshetra University
- Kurukshetra-136118
- India
| | - Suman Jangra
- Department of Chemistry
- Kurukshetra University
- Kurukshetra-136118
- India
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10
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Yu F, Chen Z, Wang B, Jin Z, Hou Y, Ma S, Liu X. The role of lysosome in cell death regulation. Tumour Biol 2015; 37:1427-36. [DOI: 10.1007/s13277-015-4516-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2015] [Accepted: 11/25/2015] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
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Fan K, Li D, Zhang Y, Han C, Liang J, Hou C, Xiao H, Ikenaka K, Ma J. The induction of neuronal death by up-regulated microglial cathepsin H in LPS-induced neuroinflammation. J Neuroinflammation 2015; 12:54. [PMID: 25889123 PMCID: PMC4379721 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-015-0268-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2014] [Accepted: 02/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neuroinflammation is a hallmark that leads to selective neuronal loss and/or dysfunction in neurodegenerative disorders. Microglia-derived lysosomal cathepsins are increasingly recognized as important inflammatory mediators to trigger signaling pathways that aggravate neuroinflammation. However, cathepsin H (Cat H), a cysteine protease, has been far less studied in neuroinflammation, compared to cathepsins B, D, L, and S. The expression patterns and functional roles of Cat H in the brain in neuroinflammation remain unknown. METHODS C57BL/6J mice were intraperitoneally injected with either 0.9% saline or lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 5 mg/kg). Immunohistochemistry (IHC) and in situ hybridization (ISH) were used to analyze expression and localization of Cat H in the brain. Nitrite assay was used to examine microglial activation in vitro; ELISA was used to determine the release of Cat H and proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IFN-γ). Cat H activity was analyzed by cellular Cat H assay kit. Flow cytometry and in situ cell death detection were used to investigate neuronal death. Data were evaluated for statistical significance with one-way ANOVA and t test. RESULTS Cat H mRNA was only present in perivascular microglia and non-parenchymal sites under normal conditions. After LPS injection, Cat H mRNA expression in activated microglia in different brain regions was increased. Twenty-four hours after LPS injection, Cat H mRNA expression was maximal in SNr; 72 h later, it peaked in cerebral cortex and hippocampus then decreased and maintained at a low level. The expression of Cat H protein exhibited the similar alterations after LPS injection. In vitro, inflammatory stimulation (LPS, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IFN-γ) increased the release and activity of Cat H in microglia. Conversely, addition of Cat H to microglia promoted the production and release of NO, IL-1β, and IFN-γ which could be prevented by neutralizing antibody. Further, addition of Cat H to Neuro2a cells induced neuronal death. CONCLUSIONS Taken together, these data indicate that the up-regulated microglial Cat H expression, release, and activity in the brain lead to neuronal death in neuroinflammation. The functional link of Cat H with microglial activation might contribute to the initiation and maintenance of microglia-driven chronic neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Fan
- Department of Anatomy, Dalian Medical University, West Section No. 9, South Road, Lvshun, Dalian, 116044, , Liaoning, China.
| | - Daobo Li
- Clinical Medicine of Seven-year Education, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116044, , Liaoning, China.
| | - Yanli Zhang
- Department of Anatomy, Dalian Medical University, West Section No. 9, South Road, Lvshun, Dalian, 116044, , Liaoning, China.
| | - Chao Han
- Regenerative Medicine Center, the First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116011, , Liaoning, China.
| | - Junjie Liang
- Graduate School, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116044, , Liaoning, China.
| | - Changyi Hou
- Graduate School, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116044, , Liaoning, China.
| | - Hongliang Xiao
- Graduate School, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116044, , Liaoning, China.
| | - Kazuhiro Ikenaka
- Division of Neurobiology and Bioinformatics, National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Okazaki, 444-8787, , Aichi, Japan.
| | - Jianmei Ma
- Department of Anatomy, Dalian Medical University, West Section No. 9, South Road, Lvshun, Dalian, 116044, , Liaoning, China.
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12
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Li MM, Jiang T, Sun Z, Zhang Q, Tan CC, Yu JT, Tan L. Genome-wide microRNA expression profiles in hippocampus of rats with chronic temporal lobe epilepsy. Sci Rep 2014; 4:4734. [PMID: 24751812 PMCID: PMC3994440 DOI: 10.1038/srep04734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2013] [Accepted: 04/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The expression and functions of microRNAs (miRNAs) in chronic temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE), the most common type of refractory epilepsy in adults, are poorly understood currently. In this study, status epilepticus evoked by amygdala stimulation was used to establish rat chronic TLE model. Two months later, high-throughput sequencing was employed to investigate miRNA expression profile in rat hippocampus, and six miRNAs were confirmed to be differentially expressed. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway analysis indicated that most of the target genes for these six miRNAs were associated with neuronal apoptosis. Meanwhile, the levels of miR-423-3p and miR-296-5p were correlated with the activity of caspase-3, an apoptosis indicator. Additionally, the loading of miR-423-3p was increased in RNA-induced silencing complex whilst caspase-6, a target of miR-423-3p, was reduced in chronic TLE rats. Collectively, our findings suggest that miRNAs may exert anti-apoptotic effects in chronic TLE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng-Meng Li
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, School of Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
- These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Teng Jiang
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Qingdao, China
- These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Zhen Sun
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Taishan Medical University, Qingdao, China
| | - Qun Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, School of Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Chen-Chen Tan
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, School of Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Jin-Tai Yu
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, School of Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Qingdao, China
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Taishan Medical University, Qingdao, China
| | - Lan Tan
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, School of Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Qingdao, China
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Taishan Medical University, Qingdao, China
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13
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Appelqvist H, Wäster P, Kågedal K, Öllinger K. The lysosome: from waste bag to potential therapeutic target. J Mol Cell Biol 2014; 5:214-26. [PMID: 23918283 DOI: 10.1093/jmcb/mjt022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 526] [Impact Index Per Article: 52.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Lysosomes are ubiquitous membrane-bound intracellular organelles with an acidic interior. They are central for degradation and recycling of macromolecules delivered by endocytosis, phagocytosis, and autophagy. In contrast to the rather simplified view of lysosomes as waste bags, nowadays lysosomes are recognized as advanced organelles involved in many cellular processes and are considered crucial regulators of cell homeostasis. The function of lysosomes is critically dependent on soluble lysosomal hydrolases (e.g. cathepsins) as well as lysosomal membrane proteins (e.g. lysosome-associated membrane proteins). This review focuses on lysosomal involvement in digestion of intra- and extracellular material, plasma membrane repair, cholesterol homeostasis, and cell death. Regulation of lysosomal biogenesis and function via the transcription factor EB (TFEB) will also be discussed. In addition, lysosomal contribution to diseases, including lysosomal storage disorders, neurodegenerative disorders, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases, is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Appelqvist
- Experimental Pathology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
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14
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Wang F, Yu L, Monopoli MP, Sandin P, Mahon E, Salvati A, Dawson KA. The biomolecular corona is retained during nanoparticle uptake and protects the cells from the damage induced by cationic nanoparticles until degraded in the lysosomes. NANOMEDICINE-NANOTECHNOLOGY BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2013; 9:1159-68. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2013.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 310] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2012] [Revised: 04/17/2013] [Accepted: 04/25/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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15
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Sun Z, Yu JT, Jiang T, Li MM, Tan L, Zhang Q, Tan L. Genome-wide microRNA profiling of rat hippocampus after status epilepticus induced by amygdala stimulation identifies modulators of neuronal apoptosis. PLoS One 2013; 8:e78375. [PMID: 24205215 PMCID: PMC3808371 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0078375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2013] [Accepted: 09/20/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small and endogenously expressed non-coding RNAs that negatively regulate the expression of protein-coding genes at the translational level. Emerging evidence suggests that miRNAs play critical roles in central nervous system under physiological and pathological conditions. However, their expression and functions in status epilepticus (SE) have not been well characterized thus far. Here, by using high-throughput sequencing, we characterized miRNA expression profile in rat hippocampus at 24 hours following SE induced by amygdala stimulation. After confirmation by qRT-PCR, six miRNAs were found to be differentially expressed in brain after SE. Subsequent Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway analysis indicated that most of the predicted target genes for these six miRNAs were related to neuronal apoptosis. We then investigated the dynamic changes of these six miRNAs at different time-point (4 hours, 24 hours, 1 week and 3 weeks) after SE. Meanwhile, neuronal survival and apoptosis in the hippocampus after SE were evaluated by Nissl staining and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP end-labeling assay. We found that the expression of miR-874-3p, miR-20a-5p, miR-345-3p, miR-365-5p, and miR-764-3p were significantly increased from 24 hours to 1 week, whereas miR-99b-3p level was markedly decreased from 24 hours to 3 weeks after SE. Further analysis revealed that the levels of miR-365-5p and miR-99b-3p were significantly correlated with neuronal apoptosis after SE. Taken together, our data suggest that miRNAs are important modulators of SE-induced neuronal apoptosis. These findings also open new avenues for future studies aimed at developing strategies against neuronal apoptosis after SE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Sun
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Taishan Medical University, Qingdao, China
| | - Jin-Tai Yu
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, School of Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Qingdao, China
- * E-mail: (Lan Tan); (J-TY)
| | - Teng Jiang
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Qingdao, China
| | - Meng-Meng Li
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, School of Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Lin Tan
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, School of Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Qun Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, School of Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Lan Tan
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Taishan Medical University, Qingdao, China
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, School of Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Qingdao, China
- * E-mail: (Lan Tan); (J-TY)
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16
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Sun T, Turk V, Turk B, Kopitar-Jerala N. Increased expression of stefin B in the nucleus of T98G astrocytoma cells delays caspase activation. Front Mol Neurosci 2012; 5:93. [PMID: 23049497 PMCID: PMC3442183 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2012.00093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2012] [Accepted: 08/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Stefin B (cystatin B) is an endogenous inhibitor of cysteine proteinases localized in the nucleus and the cytosol. Loss-of-function mutations in the stefin B gene (CSTB) gene were reported in patients with Unverricht-Lundborg disease (EPM1). Our previous results showed that thymocytes isolated from stefin B-deficient mice are more sensitive to apoptosis induced by the protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor staurosporin (STS) than the wild-type control cells. We have also shown that the increased expression of stefin B in the nucleus of T98G astrocytoma cells delayed cell cycle progression through the S phase. In the present study we examined if the nuclear or cytosolic functions of stefin B are responsible for the accelerated induction of apoptosis observed in the cells from stefin B-deficient mice. We have shown that the overexpression of stefin B in the nucleus, but not in the cytosol of astrocytoma T98G cells, delayed caspase-3 and -7 activation. Pretreatment of cells with the pan-caspase inhibitor z-Val-Ala-Asp(OMe)-fluoromethylketone completely inhibited caspase activation, while treatment with the inhibitor of calpains- and papain-like cathepsins (2S,3S)-trans-epoxysuccinyl-leucylamido-3-methyl-butane ethyl ester did not prevent caspase activation. We concluded that the delay of caspase activation in T98G cells overexpressing stefin B in the nucleus is independent of cathepsin inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Sun
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular and Structural Biology, Jožef Stefan Institute Ljubljana, Slovenia ; Liaoning Cancer Hospital and Institute Shenyang, Liaoning, PR China
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17
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Dysregulation of macrophage-secreted cathepsin B contributes to HIV-1-linked neuronal apoptosis. PLoS One 2012; 7:e36571. [PMID: 22693552 PMCID: PMC3365072 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0036571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2011] [Accepted: 04/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic HIV infection leads to the development of cognitive impairments, designated as HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND). The secretion of soluble neurotoxic factors by HIV-infected macrophages plays a central role in the neuronal dysfunction and cell death associated with HAND. One potentially neurotoxic protein secreted by HIV-1 infected macrophages is cathepsin B. To explore the potential role of cathepsin B in neuronal cell death after HIV infection, we cultured HIV-1ADA infected human monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM) and assayed them for expression and activity of cathepsin B and its inhibitors, cystatins B and C. The neurotoxic activity of the secreted cathepsin B was determined by incubating cells from the neuronal cell line SK-N-SH with MDM conditioned media (MCM) from HIV-1 infected cultures. We found that HIV-1 infected MDM secreted significantly higher levels of cathepsin B than did uninfected cells. Moreover, the activity of secreted cathepsin B was significantly increased in HIV-infected MDM at the peak of viral production. Incubation of neuronal cells with supernatants from HIV-infected MDM resulted in a significant increase in the numbers of apoptotic neurons, and this increase was reversed by the addition of either the cathepsin B inhibitor CA-074 or a monoclonal antibody to cathepsin B. In situ proximity ligation assays indicated that the increased neurotoxic activity of the cathepsin B secreted by HIV-infected MDM resulted from decreased interactions between the enzyme and its inhibitors, cystatins B and C. Furthermore, preliminary in vivo studies of human post-mortem brain tissue suggested an upregulation of cathepsin B immunoreactivity in the hippocampus and basal ganglia in individuals with HAND. Our results demonstrate that HIV-1 infection upregulates cathepsin B in macrophages, increases cathepsin B activity, and reduces cystatin-cathepsin interactions, contributing to neuronal apoptosis. These findings provide new evidence for the role of cathepsin B in neuronal cell death induced by HIV-infected macrophages.
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Česen MH, Pegan K, Spes A, Turk B. Lysosomal pathways to cell death and their therapeutic applications. Exp Cell Res 2012; 318:1245-51. [PMID: 22465226 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2012.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2012] [Revised: 03/05/2012] [Accepted: 03/05/2012] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Lysosomes are the major cell digestive organelles that were discovered over 50 years ago. They contain a number of hydrolases that help them to degrade intracellular and extracellular material delivered. Among the hydrolases, the cathepsins, a group of proteases enclosed in the lysosomes, have a major role. About a decade ago, the cathepsins were found to participate in apoptosis. Following their release into the cytosol, they cleave Bid and degrade antiapoptotic Bcl-2 proteins, thereby triggering the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis, with the lysosomal membrane permeabilization being the critical step in this pathway. Lysosomal dysfunction is linked with several diseases, including cancer and neurodegenerative disorders, thereby providing a potential for therapeutic applications. In this review lysosomes and lysosomal proteases involvement in apoptosis and their possible pharmaceutical targeting are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maruša Hafner Česen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, J. Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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19
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Repnik U, Stoka V, Turk V, Turk B. Lysosomes and lysosomal cathepsins in cell death. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2011; 1824:22-33. [PMID: 21914490 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2011.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 292] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2011] [Revised: 08/24/2011] [Accepted: 08/26/2011] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Lysosomes are the key degradative compartments of the cell. Lysosomal cathepsins, which are enclosed in the lysosomes, help to maintain the homeostasis of the cell's metabolism by participating in the degradation of heterophagic and autophagic material. Following the targeted lysosomal membrane's destabilization, the cathepsins can be released into the cytosol and initiate the lysosomal pathway of apoptosis through the cleavage of Bid and the degradation of the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 homologues. Cathepsins can also amplify the apoptotic signaling, when the lysosomal membranes are destabilized at a later stage of apoptosis, initiated by other stimuli. However, the functional integrity of the lysosomal compartment during apoptosis enables efficient autophagy, which can counteract apoptosis by providing the energy source and by disposing the damaged mitochondria, which generate the ROS. Impairing autophagy by disabling the lysosome function is being investigated as an adjuvant therapeutic approach to sensitize cells to apoptosis-inducing agents. Destabilization of the lysosomal membranes by the lysosomotropic detergents seems to be a promising strategy in this context as it would not only disable autophagy, but also promote apoptosis through the initiation of the lysosomal pathway. In contrast, the impaired autophagy and lysosomal degradation linked with the increased oxidative stress underlie degenerative changes in the aging neurons. This further suggests that lysosomes and lysosomal cathepsins have a dual role in cell death. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Proteolysis 50 years after the discovery of lysosome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Urška Repnik
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, J. Stefan Institute, Jamova, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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20
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In vivo contributions of BH3-only proteins to neuronal death following seizures, ischemia, and traumatic brain injury. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2011; 31:1196-210. [PMID: 21364604 PMCID: PMC3099642 DOI: 10.1038/jcbfm.2011.26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The Bcl-2 homology (BH) domain 3-only proteins are a proapoptotic subgroup of the Bcl-2 gene family, which regulate cell death via effects on mitochondria. The BH3-only proteins react to various cell stressors and promote cell death by binding and inactivating antiapoptotic Bcl-2 family members and direct activation of proapoptotic multi-BH domain proteins such as Bax. Here, we review the in vivo evidence for their involvement in the pathophysiology of status epilepticus and contrast it to ischemia and traumatic brain injury. Seizures in rodents activate three potent proapoptotic BH3-only proteins: Bid, Bim, and Puma. Analysis of damage after seizures in mice singly deficient for each BH3-only protein supports a causal role for Puma and to a lesser extent Bim but, surprisingly, not Bid. In ischemia and trauma, where core aspects of the pathophysiology of cell death overlap, multiple BH3-only proteins are also activated and Bid has been shown to be required for neuronal death. The findings suggest that while each neurologic insult activates multiple BH3-only proteins, there may be specificity in their functional contribution. Future challenges include evaluating the remaining BH3-only proteins, explaining different causal contributions, and, if possible, exploring neurologic outcomes in mouse models deficient for multiple BH3-only proteins.
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21
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Apraiz A, Boyano MD, Asumendi A. Cell-centric view of apoptosis and apoptotic cell death-inducing antitumoral strategies. Cancers (Basel) 2011; 3:1042-80. [PMID: 24212653 PMCID: PMC3756403 DOI: 10.3390/cancers3011042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2011] [Revised: 02/18/2011] [Accepted: 03/01/2011] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Programmed cell death and especially apoptotic cell death, occurs under physiological conditions and is also desirable under pathological circumstances. However, the more we learn about cellular signaling cascades, the less plausible it becomes to find restricted and well-limited signaling pathways. In this context, an extensive description of pathway-connections is necessary in order to point out the main regulatory molecules as well as to select the most appropriate therapeutic targets. On the other hand, irregularities in programmed cell death pathways often lead to tumor development and cancer-related mortality is projected to continue increasing despite the effort to develop more active and selective antitumoral compounds. In fact, tumor cell plasticity represents a major challenge in chemotherapy and improvement on anticancer therapies seems to rely on appropriate drug combinations. An overview of the current status regarding apoptotic pathways as well as available chemotherapeutic compounds provides a new perspective of possible future anticancer strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aintzane Apraiz
- Department of Cell Biology and Histology, School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of the Basque Country, 48940, Leioa (Bizkaia), Spain.
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22
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Bien S, Rimmbach C, Neumann H, Niessen J, Reimer E, Ritter CA, Rosskopf D, Cinatl J, Michaelis M, Schroeder HWS, Kroemer HK. Doxorubicin-induced cell death requires cathepsin B in HeLa cells. Biochem Pharmacol 2010; 80:1466-77. [PMID: 20709028 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2010.07.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2010] [Revised: 07/20/2010] [Accepted: 07/27/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The cysteine protease cathepsin B acts as a key player in apoptosis. Cathepsin B-mediated cell death is induced by various stimuli such as ischemia, bile acids or TNFα. Whether cathepsin B can be influenced by anticancer drugs, however, has not been studied in detail. Here, we describe the modulation of doxorubicin-induced cell death by silencing of cathepsin B expression. Previously, it was shown that doxorubicin, in contrast to other drugs, selectively regulates expression and activity of cathepsin B. Selective silencing of cathepsin B by siRNA or the cathepsin B specific inhibitor CA074Me modified doxorubicin-mediated cell death in Hela tumor cells. Both Caspase 3 activation and PARP cleavage were significantly reduced in cells lacking cathepsin B. Moreover, mitochondrial membrane permeabilization as well as the release of cytochrome C and AIF from mitochondria into cytosol induced by doxorubicin were significantly diminished in cathepsin B suppressed cells. In addition, doxorubicin associated down-regulation of XIAP was not observed in cathepsin B silenced cells. Lack of cathepsin B significantly modified cell cycle regulatory proteins such as cdk1, Wee1 and p21 without significant changes in G(1), S or G(2)M cell cycle phases maybe indicating further cell cycle independent actions of these proteins. Consequently, cell viability following doxorubicin was significantly elevated in cells with cathepsin B silencing. In summary, our data strongly suggest a role of cathepsin B in doxorubicin-induced cell death. Therefore, increased expression of cathepsin B in various types of cancer can modify susceptibility towards doxorubicin.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Bien
- Department of Pharmacology, Ernst Moritz Arndt University, Friedrich Loefflerstr. 23d, 17487 Greifswald, Germany
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23
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Repnik U, Turk B. Lysosomal-mitochondrial cross-talk during cell death. Mitochondrion 2010; 10:662-9. [PMID: 20696281 DOI: 10.1016/j.mito.2010.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2010] [Revised: 07/15/2010] [Accepted: 07/23/2010] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles, which contain an arsenal of different hydrolases, enabling them to act as the terminal degradative compartment of the endocytotic, phagocytic and autophagic pathways. During the last decade, it was convincingly shown that destabilization of lysosomal membrane and release of lysosomal content into the cytosol can initiate the lysosomal apoptotic pathway, which is dependent on mitochondria destabilization. The cleavage of BID to t-BID and degradation of anti-apoptotic BCL-2 proteins by lysosomal cysteine cathepsins were identified as links to the mitochondrial cytochrome c release, which eventually leads to caspase activation. There have also been reports about the involvement of lysosome destabilization and lysosomal proteases in the extrinsic apoptotic pathway, although the molecular mechanism is still under debate. In the present article, we discuss the cross-talk between lysosomes and mitochondria during apoptosis and its consequences for the fate of the cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Urška Repnik
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jozef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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24
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Celli JP, Spring BQ, Rizvi I, Evans CL, Samkoe KS, Verma S, Pogue BW, Hasan T. Imaging and photodynamic therapy: mechanisms, monitoring, and optimization. Chem Rev 2010; 110:2795-838. [PMID: 20353192 PMCID: PMC2896821 DOI: 10.1021/cr900300p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1624] [Impact Index Per Article: 116.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan P Celli
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, USA
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25
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Schrader K, Huai J, Jöckel L, Oberle C, Borner C. Non-caspase proteases: triggers or amplifiers of apoptosis? Cell Mol Life Sci 2010; 67:1607-18. [PMID: 20169397 PMCID: PMC11115756 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-010-0287-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2010] [Accepted: 01/20/2010] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Caspases are the most important effectors of apoptosis, the major form of programmed cell death (PCD) in multicellular organisms. This is best reflected by the appearance of serious development defects in mice deficient for caspase-8, -9, and -3. Meanwhile, caspase-independent PCD, mediated by other proteases or signaling components has been described in numerous publications. Although we do not doubt that such cell death exists, we propose that it has evolved later during evolution and is most likely not designed to execute, but to amplify and speed-up caspase-dependent cell death. This review shall provide evidence for such a concept.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Schrader
- Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research (ZBMZ), Albert Ludwigs University Freiburg, Stefan Meier Str. 17, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
- Faculty of Biology, Albert Ludwigs University Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Jisen Huai
- Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research (ZBMZ), Albert Ludwigs University Freiburg, Stefan Meier Str. 17, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Lars Jöckel
- Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research (ZBMZ), Albert Ludwigs University Freiburg, Stefan Meier Str. 17, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
- Faculty of Biology, Albert Ludwigs University Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Graduate School of Biology and Medicine (SGBM), Albert Ludwigs University Freiburg, Albertstr. 19a, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Carolin Oberle
- Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research (ZBMZ), Albert Ludwigs University Freiburg, Stefan Meier Str. 17, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
- Present Address: Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe, Institute of Toxicology and Genetics, PO Box 3640, 76021 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Christoph Borner
- Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research (ZBMZ), Albert Ludwigs University Freiburg, Stefan Meier Str. 17, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
- Faculty of Biology, Albert Ludwigs University Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Graduate School of Biology and Medicine (SGBM), Albert Ludwigs University Freiburg, Albertstr. 19a, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
- Centre for Biological Signaling Studies (Bioss), Albert Ludwigs University Freiburg, Albertstrasse 19, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
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26
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Wang X, Wu W, Lin G, Li D, Wu G, Wang J. Temporal Proteomic Analysis Reveals Continuous Impairment of Intestinal Development in Neonatal Piglets with Intrauterine Growth Restriction. J Proteome Res 2009; 9:924-35. [DOI: 10.1021/pr900747d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqiu Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China 100193, and Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843
| | - Weizong Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China 100193, and Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843
| | - Gang Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China 100193, and Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843
| | - Defa Li
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China 100193, and Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843
| | - Guoyao Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China 100193, and Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843
| | - Junjun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China 100193, and Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843
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27
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Turk B, Turk V. Lysosomes as "suicide bags" in cell death: myth or reality? J Biol Chem 2009; 284:21783-21787. [PMID: 19473965 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.r109.023820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 213] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Boris Turk
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jožef Stefan Institute, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of Ljubljana, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Vito Turk
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jožef Stefan Institute, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
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28
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Yan BZ, Wang W, Chen LY, Bi MR, Lu YJ, Li BX, Yang BS. Role of cathepsin B-mediated apoptosis in fulminant hepatic failure in mice. World J Gastroenterol 2009; 15:1231-6. [PMID: 19291823 PMCID: PMC2658851 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.15.1231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM: To investigate the pathogenic role of cathepsin B and the protective effect of a cathepsin B inhibitor (CA-074Me) in fulminant hepatic failure in mice.
METHODS: LPS/D-Gal N was injected into mice of the model group to induce fulminant hepatic failure; the protected group was administered CA-074me for 30 min before LPS/D-Gal N treatment; the normal group was given isochoric physiologic saline. Liver tissue histopathology was determined with HE at 2, 4, 6 and 8 h after Lps/D-Gal injection. Hepatocyte apoptosis was examined by TUNEL method. The expression of cathepsin B in liver tissues was investigated by immunohistochemistry, Western blot and RT-PCR.
RESULTS: Compared with the normal group, massive typical hepatocyte apoptosis occurred in the model group; the number of apoptotic cells reached a maximum 6 h after injection. The apoptosis index (AI) in the protected group was clearly reduced (30.4 ± 2.8 vs 18.1 ± 2.0, P < 0.01 ). Cathepsin B activity was markedly increased in drug-treated mice compared with the normal group (P < 0.01). Incubation with LPS/D-Gal N at selected time points resulted in a time-dependent increase in cathepsin B activity, and reached a maximum by 8 h. The expression of cathepsin B was significantly decreased in the protected group (P < 0.01).
CONCLUSION: Cathepsin B plays an essential role in the pathogenesis of fulminant hepatic failure, and the cathepsin B inhibitor CA-074me can attenuate apoptosis and liver injury.
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29
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Chung H, Yoon YH, Hwang JJ, Cho KS, Koh JY, Kim JG. Ethambutol-induced toxicity is mediated by zinc and lysosomal membrane permeabilization in cultured retinal cells. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2008; 235:163-70. [PMID: 19063910 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2008.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2008] [Revised: 10/25/2008] [Accepted: 11/05/2008] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Ethambutol, an efficacious antituberculosis agent, can cause irreversible visual loss in a small but significant fraction of patients. However, the mechanism of ocular toxicity remains to be established. We previously reported that ethambutol caused severe vacuole formation in cultured retinal cells, and that the addition of zinc along with ethambutol aggravated vacuole formation whereas addition of the cell-permeable zinc chelator, N,N,N',N'-tetrakis (2-pyridylmethyl) ethylenediamine (TPEN), reduced vacuole formation. To investigate the origin of vacuoles and to obtain an understanding of drug toxicity, we used cultured primary retinal cells from newborn Sprague-Dawley rats and imaged ethambutol-treated cells stained with FluoZin-3, zinc-specific fluorescent dye, under a confocal microscope. Almost all ethambutol-induced vacuoles contained high levels of labile zinc. Double staining with LysoTracker or MitoTracker revealed that almost all zinc-containing vacuoles were lysosomes and not mitochondria. Intracellular zinc chelation with TPEN markedly blocked both vacuole formation and zinc accumulation in the vacuole. Immunocytochemistry with antibodies to lysosomal-associated membrane protein-2 (LAMP-2) and cathepsin D, an acid lysosomal hydrolase, disclosed lysosomal activation after exposure to ethambutol. Immunoblotting after 12 h exposure to ethambutol showed that cathepsin D was released into the cytosol. In addition, cathepsin inhibitors attenuated retinal cell toxicity induced by ethambutol. This is consistent with characteristics of lysosomal membrane permeabilization (LMP). TPEN also inhibited both lysosomal activation and LMP. Thus, accumulation of zinc in lysosomes, and eventual LMP, may be a key mechanism of ethambutol-induced retinal cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyewon Chung
- Department of Ophthalmology, Asan Medical Center, University of Ulsan, College of Medicine, 388-1 Pungnab-dong, Songpa-gu, Seoul, 138-736, Republic of Korea
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Kirkegaard T, Jäättelä M. Lysosomal involvement in cell death and cancer. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2008; 1793:746-54. [PMID: 18948147 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2008.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 274] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2008] [Revised: 07/10/2008] [Accepted: 09/17/2008] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Lysosomes, with their arsenal of degradative enzymes are increasingly becoming an area of interest in the field of oncology. The changes induced in this compartment upon transformation are numerous and whereas most are viewed as pro-oncogenic the same processes also render cancer cells susceptible to lysosomal death pathways. This review will provide an overview of the pro- and anti-oncogenic potential of this compartment and how these might be exploited for cancer therapy, with special focus on lysosomal death pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Kirkegaard
- Danish Cancer Society, Department of Apoptosis, Institute of Cancer Biology, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Conus S, Simon HU. Cathepsins: key modulators of cell death and inflammatory responses. Biochem Pharmacol 2008; 76:1374-82. [PMID: 18762176 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2008.07.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2008] [Revised: 07/25/2008] [Accepted: 07/28/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Apoptosis is a key mechanism in the build up and maintenance of both innate and adaptive immunity as well as in the regulation of cellular homeostasis in almost every organ and tissue. Central to the apoptotic process is a family of intracellular cysteine proteases with aspartate-specificity, called caspases. Nevertheless, there is growing evidence that other non-caspase proteases, in particular lysosomal cathepsins, can play an important role in the regulation of apoptosis. In this review, the players and the molecular mechanisms involved in the lysosomal apoptotic pathways will be discussed as well as the importance of these pathways in the immune system and the pathogenesis of diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sébastien Conus
- Institute of Pharmacology, University of Bern, Friedbühlstrasse 49, CH-3010 Bern, Switzerland
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32
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Droga-Mazovec G, Bojic L, Petelin A, Ivanova S, Romih R, Repnik U, Salvesen GS, Stoka V, Turk V, Turk B. Cysteine cathepsins trigger caspase-dependent cell death through cleavage of bid and antiapoptotic Bcl-2 homologues. J Biol Chem 2008; 283:19140-50. [PMID: 18469004 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m802513200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 296] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
As a model for defining the role of lysosomal cathepsins in apoptosis, we characterized the action of the lysosomotropic agent LeuLeuOMe using distinct cellular models. LeuLeuOMe induces lysosomal membrane permeabilization, resulting in release of lysosomal cathepsins that cleave the proapoptotic Bcl-2 family member Bid and degrade the antiapoptotic member Bcl-2, Bcl-xL, or Mcl-1. The papain-like cysteine protease inhibitor E-64d largely prevented apoptosis, Bid cleavage, and Bcl-2/Bcl-xL/Mcl-1 degradation. The pancaspase inhibitor N-benzyloxycarbonyl-Val-Ala-Asp(OMe)fluoromethyl ketone failed to prevent Bid cleavage and degradation of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 homologues but substantially decreased cell death, suggesting that cathepsin-mediated apoptosis in these cellular models mostly follows a caspase-dependent pathway. Moreover, in vitro experiments showed that one or more of the cysteine cathepsins B, L, S, K, and H could cleave Bcl-2, Bcl-xL, Mcl-1, Bak, and BimEL, whereas no Bax cleavage was observed. On the basis of inhibitor studies, we demonstrate that lysosomal disruption triggered by LeuLeuOMe occurs before mitochondrial damage. We propose that degradation of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family members by lysosomal cathepsins synergizes with cathepsin-mediated activation of Bid to trigger a mitochondrial pathway to apoptosis. Moreover, XIAP (X-chromosome-linked inhibitor of apoptosis) was also found to be a target of cysteine cathepsins, suggesting that cathepsins can mediate caspase-dependent apoptosis also downstream of mitochondria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela Droga-Mazovec
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular and Structural Biology, J. Stefan Institute, Sl-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Gowran A, Campbell VA. A role for p53 in the regulation of lysosomal permeability by Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in rat cortical neurones: implications for neurodegeneration. J Neurochem 2008; 105:1513-24. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2008.05278.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Makar TK, Trisler D, Sura KT, Sultana S, Patel N, Bever CT. Brain derived neurotrophic factor treatment reduces inflammation and apoptosis in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. J Neurol Sci 2008; 270:70-6. [PMID: 18374360 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2008.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2007] [Revised: 01/30/2008] [Accepted: 02/07/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis is an inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS) which includes a neurodegenerative component. Brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is a neuroprotective agent which might be useful in preventing neurodegeneration but its application has been limited because the blood brain barrier restricts its access to the CNS. We have developed a novel delivery system for BDNF using transformed bone marrow stem cells (BMSC) and undertook studies of EAE to determine whether the delivery of BDNF could reduce inflammation and apoptosis. Mice receiving BDNF producing BMSC had reduced clinical impairment compared to control mice receiving BMSC that did not produce BDNF. Pathological examination of brain and spinal cord showed a reduction in inflammatory infiltrating cells in treated compared to control mice. Apoptosis was reduced in brain and spinal cord based on TUNEL and cleaved Caspase-3 staining. Consistent with the known mechanism of action of BDNF on apoptosis, Bcl-2 and Akt were increased in treated mice. Further studies suggested that these increases could be mediated by inhibition of both caspase dependent and caspase independent pathways. These results suggest that the BDNF delivered by the transformed bone marrow stem cells reduced clinical severity, inflammation and apoptosis in this model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tapas K Makar
- VA Maryland Healthcare System, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
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Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) employing photosensiter N-aspartyl chlorin e6 (NPe6) can induce lysosome disruption and initiate the intrinsic apoptotic pathway. Yet the precise signal transduction pathway remains poorly understood. In this study, we have investigated the molecular mechanism in NPe6-PDT-induced apoptosis in human lung adenocarcinoma cells (ASTC-a-1). A recombinant fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) Bid probe was utilized to determine the kinetics of Bid cleavage. The results show that cleavage of the Bid-FRET probe occurred 150 +/- 5 min after NPe6-PDT treatment, and this process lasted for 45 +/- 5 min. The Bid cleavage coincided with a translocation of tBid from cytoplasm to mitochondria. Remarkably, a significant protection against cell death was observed by using small interfering RNA for Bid. Therefore, our study clearly showed the dynamics of Bid activation and redistribution during NPe6-PDT-induced apoptosis by using real-time analysis in living cells, and the inhibition of cell death by silencing Bid with interference strongly suggested that activation of Bid is required for inducing apoptosis in this experimental model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingling Wan
- MOE Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science & Institute of Laser Life Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
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36
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Lorenzo HK, Susin SA. Therapeutic potential of AIF-mediated caspase-independent programmed cell death. Drug Resist Updat 2008; 10:235-55. [PMID: 18180198 DOI: 10.1016/j.drup.2007.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2007] [Accepted: 11/01/2007] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Resistance to anticancer drugs is often related to deficient cell death execution pathways in cancer cells. Apoptosis, which denotes a form of cell death executed by caspases, was traditionally considered as the only physiological and programmed form of cell death. However, recent evidence indicates that programmed cell death (PCD) can occur in complete absence of caspase activation. Indeed, a large number of caspase-independent models are now defined and a key protein implicated in this type of PCD, apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF), has been identified. AIF is a mitochondrial protein with two faces looking in opposite life/death directions. Recently, the identification of five different isoforms allowed a better characterization of AIFs life/mitochondrial versus death/nuclear functions, as well as definition of its pro-apoptotic region and some of its nuclear partners. Importantly, much work on caspase-independent PCD has revealed that AIF participates in more PCD systems than initially thought. A wider molecular knowledge of AIF, and of the caspase-independent PCDs in which it is involved, are key to provide new insights into the role of PCD. There is no doubt that these insights will lead to the development of more selective and efficient drugs against cancer, degenerative diseases, and other pathological disorders implicating AIF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans K Lorenzo
- INSERM U542, Institut André Lwoff, Lavoisier Building, 94803 Villejuif, France.
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Abstract
Apoptosis is the major mechanism by which eukaryotic organisms eliminate potentially dangerous, superfluous and damaged cells. Initially, nuclei and mitochondria were found to be the key organelles involved in the process. However, recent data suggest that lysosomes and the endoplasmic reticulum also play important roles in the process. A number of different stimuli were found to directly or indirectly target the lysosomal membrane, thereby inducing lysosomal permeabilization and the release of cysteine cathepsins and the aspartic protease cathepsin D into the cytosol. Once in the cytosol, cathepsins can trigger cell death by different mechanisms. Here we discuss the different signaling pathways used by lysosomal proteases to trigger apoptosis and their potential role in physiological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronika Stoka
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, J. Stefan Institute, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Stahl S, Reinders Y, Asan E, Mothes W, Conzelmann E, Sickmann A, Felbor U. Proteomic analysis of cathepsin B- and L-deficient mouse brain lysosomes. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2007; 1774:1237-46. [PMID: 17765022 PMCID: PMC7105221 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2007.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2007] [Revised: 05/25/2007] [Accepted: 07/06/2007] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Cathepsins B and L are lysosomal cysteine proteases which have been implicated in a variety of pathological processes such as cancer, tumor angiogenesis, and neurodegeneration. However, only a few protein substrates have thus far been described and the mechanisms by which cathepsins B and L regulate cell proliferation, invasion, and apoptosis are poorly understood. Combined deficiency of both cathepsins results in early-onset neurodegeneration in mice reminiscent of neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses in humans. Therefore, we intended to quantify accumulated proteins in brain lysosomes of double deficient mice. A combination of subcellular fractionation and LC-MS/MS using isobaric tagging for relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ) allowed us to simultaneously assess wildtype and cathepsin B(-/-)L(-/-) cerebral lysosomes. Altogether, 19 different proteins were significantly increased in cathepsin B(-/-)L(-/-) lysosomes. Most elevated proteins had previously been localized to neuronal biosynthetic, recycling/endocytic or lysosomal compartments. A more than 10-fold increase was observed for Rab14, the Delta/Notch-like epidermal growth factor-related receptor (DNER), calcyon, and carboxypeptidase E. Intriguingly, immunohistochemistry demonstrated that Rab14 and DNER specifically stain swollen axons in double deficient brains. Since dense accumulations of expanded axons are the earliest phenotypic and pathognomonic feature of cathepsin B(-/-)L(-/-) brains, our data suggest a role for cathepsins B and L in recycling processes during axon outgrowth and synapse formation in the developing postnatal central nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonja Stahl
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Würzburg, Biozentrum, Am Hubland, D-97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Yvonne Reinders
- Rudolf-Virchow-Center for Experimental Biomedicine, University of Würzburg, Germany
| | - Esther Asan
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Würzburg, Germany
| | - Walther Mothes
- Section of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Ernst Conzelmann
- Department of Physiological Chemistry II, University of Würzburg, Germany
| | - Albert Sickmann
- Rudolf-Virchow-Center for Experimental Biomedicine, University of Würzburg, Germany
| | - Ute Felbor
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Würzburg, Biozentrum, Am Hubland, D-97074 Würzburg, Germany
- Corresponding author. Tel.: +49 931 888 4097; fax: +49 931 888 4058.
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Turk B, Stoka V. Protease signalling in cell death: caspases versus cysteine cathepsins. FEBS Lett 2007; 581:2761-7. [PMID: 17544407 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2007.05.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2007] [Revised: 05/11/2007] [Accepted: 05/14/2007] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Proteases were, for a long time, mainly considered as protein degrading enzymes. However, in the last decade this view has changed dramatically, and the focus is now on proteases as signalling molecules. One of the best examples is apoptosis, the major mechanism used by eukaryotes to remove superfluous, damaged and potentially dangerous cells, in which a number of proteases have been found to play a central role. Of these the caspases have been considered to be the major players. However, more recently, other proteases have been increasingly suggested as being important in apoptosis, in particular the cysteine cathepsins. In this review the roles of caspases and cysteine cathepsins in apoptosis signalling are compared and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boris Turk
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular and Structural Biology, J. Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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40
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Abstract
Apoptosis can be mediated by different mechanisms. There is growing evidence that different proteolytic enzymes are involved in the regulation of apoptosis. Cathepsins are proteases which, under physiologic conditions, are localized intralysosomally. In response to certain signals they are released from the lysosomes into the cytoplasm where they trigger apoptotic cell death via various pathways, including the activation of caspases or the release of proapoptotic factors from the mitochondria. Here, we review different mechanisms that induce the release of lysosomal enzymes, and the functional relevance of defined cathepsins in defined models of apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- C E Chwieralski
- Institute of Immunology, Otto-von-Guericke-University, Magdeburg, Germany
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41
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Tardy C, Codogno P, Autefage H, Levade T, Andrieu-Abadie N. Lysosomes and lysosomal proteins in cancer cell death (new players of an old struggle). Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2005; 1765:101-25. [PMID: 16412578 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2005.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2005] [Revised: 11/21/2005] [Accepted: 11/28/2005] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Death of cancer cells influences tumor development and progression, as well as the response to anticancer therapies. This can occur through different cell death programmes which have recently been shown to implicate components of the acidic organelles, lysosomes. The role of lysosomes and lysosomal enzymes, including cathepsins and some lipid hydrolases, in programmed cell death associated with apoptotic or autophagic phenotypes is presented, as evidenced from observations on cultured cells and living animals. The possible molecular mechanisms that underlie the action of lysosomes during cell death are also described. Finally, the contribution of lysosomal proteins and lysosomes to tumor initiation and progression is discussed. Elucidation of this role and the underlying mechanisms will shed a new light on these 'old' organelles and hopefully pave the way for the development of novel anticancer strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudine Tardy
- INSERM U466, Laboratoire de Biochimie, Institut Louis Bugnard, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Rangueil, BP 84225, 31432 Toulouse, France
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Abstract
Epilepsy is a common, chronic neurologic disorder characterized by recurrent unprovoked seizures. Experimental modeling and clinical neuroimaging of patients has shown that certain seizures are capable of causing neuronal death. Such brain injury may contribute to epileptogenesis, impairments in cognitive function or the epilepsy phenotype. Research into cell death after seizures has identified the induction of the molecular machinery of apoptosis. Here, the authors review the clinical and experimental evidence for apoptotic cell death pathway function in the wake of seizure activity. We summarize work showing intrinsic (mitochondrial) and extrinsic (death receptor) apoptotic pathway function after seizures, activation of the caspase and Bcl-2 families of cell death modulators and the acute and chronic neuropathologic impact of intervening in these molecular cascades. Finally, we describe evolving data on nonlethal roles for these proteins in neuronal restructuring and cell excitability that have implications for shaping the epilepsy phenotype. This review highlights the work to date on apoptosis pathway signaling during seizure-induced neuronal death and epileptogenesis, and speculates on how emerging roles in brain remodeling and excitability have enriched the number of therapeutic strategies for protection against seizure-damage and epileptogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- David C Henshall
- Department of Physiology & Medical Physics, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland.
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43
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Lockwood TD. The transfer of reductive energy and pace of proteome turnover: a theory of integrated catabolic control. Antioxid Redox Signal 2005; 7:982-98. [PMID: 15998253 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2005.7.982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Hundreds of cell proteins undergo reversible transitions among redox states. Coordinate control and common functions served by redox-modified proteins are unknown. The suspect "redox code" integrating metabolome, proteome, and genome remains undefined. Protein redox control involves coupling of the population redox partition to transfer of reductive energy from source to sink. Lessons in metabolic programs under redox coordination might be found in nutritional desperation where reductive transfer from fuel fails to feed pathways to protein reduction. Upon nutritional interruption, proteolysis initially increases. However, catabolism secondarily declines in later starvation so as to postpone loss of the minimal proteome under synthetic failure and delay death. Integrated proteome turnover is paced by reductive transfer coupled to redox states of proteins serving diverse functions. Some continuing proteolysis is redox-independent. Cathepsin B is a model, redox-responsive, catabolic machine among proteins involved in turnover. The CysHis pair is simultaneously a redox-responsive site, an inhibitory metal-binding site, and a peptidolytic reaction mechanism. Pro-region cleavage generates permissive reaction conditions, but not necessarily the maximal peptidolytic rate. Mature cathepsin B can be inactivated by partition into multiple oxidation states. Cathepsin B can be reductively activated by glutathione or disulfhydryl reductases, and redox-buffered by glutathione homodisulfide/glutathione. Topics in protease regulation include: (a) the rate of total cell transfer of nutrient reductive energy from NADPH source potential to reductive pathways, (b) the distribution of reductive energy routed through parallel interactive pathways to protease, (c) the rate of transfer from protease through pathways to oxygen (reactive oxygen species) acceptor at sink potential, and (d) the linkage of protease state partition to relative rates of reductions and oxidations. Cell iron, sulfur, and oxygen redox are inseparable. The interaction of the CysHis site with iron provides a sensor, integrator, and effector switch coupling cathepsin B to metal-sulfuroxygen redox. Artificial metal-redox-proton switching is a new concept in protein engineering; however, nature has already applied "nanotechnology" to protein redox control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas D Lockwood
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Medicine, Wright State University, Dayton, OH 45429, USA.
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Sengoelge G, Luo W, Fine D, Perschl AM, Fierlbeck W, Haririan A, Sorensson J, Rehman TU, Hauser P, Trevick JS, Kulak SC, Wegner B, Ballermann BJ. A SAGE-based comparison between glomerular and aortic endothelial cells. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2005; 288:F1290-300. [PMID: 15657302 DOI: 10.1152/ajprenal.00076.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Endothelial cells have many characteristics in common, but significant morphological and functional differences exist between endothelial cells from different anatomic sites. The specific glomerular endothelial (GEn) cell transcript repertoire is unknown. We sought to determine whether endothelial cells derived from bovine glomeruli display a distinct transcriptional profile compared with bovine aortic endothelium (BAE) under identical conditions. Serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE), which includes known and unknown transcripts, was used to make the comparison. The GEn and BAE SAGE libraries contain 36,844 and 26,452 total tag sequences, respectively. Among 6,524 unique tag sequences represented at least 2 times in the 2 libraries, 2,094 (32%) were matched to well-characterized bovine cDNA sequences (358 tags) or expressed sequence tags (EST). Identification of the human homolog was achieved for 1,035 of these tags. Forty-two tags were differentially expressed in GEn. For 25 of these, the bovine cDNA or EST, and for 17 the human homolog was identified. Among all transcripts with a known bovine and human tag, seven were expressed at levels more than 10-fold higher in cultured GEn cells compared with all other SAGE libraries. The transcript “DKFZp564B076” was localized by in situ hybridization to glomerular endothelium in vivo and was shown by real-time RT-PCR to be highly abundant in glomeruli compared with aortic intima. This work supports the concept that differences in the transcriptional profile of endothelial cells from distinct origins are observed under otherwise equivalent conditions. Furthermore, we have identified the first known transcript predominant in glomerular endothelium in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gürkan Sengoelge
- Division of Nephrology and Dialysis, Dept. of Medicine III, Medical Univ. Vienna, Währinger Gürtel 18-20, A-1090, Vienna, Austria.
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Kopitar-Jerala N, Schweiger A, Myers RM, Turk V, Turk B. Sensitization of stefin B-deficient thymocytes towards staurosporin-induced apoptosis is independent of cysteine cathepsins. FEBS Lett 2005; 579:2149-55. [PMID: 15811333 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2005.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2005] [Revised: 02/24/2005] [Accepted: 03/02/2005] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Stefin B (cystatin B) is an inhibitor of lysosomal cysteine cathepsins and does not inhibit cathepsin D, E (aspartic) or cathepsin G (serine) proteinases. In this study, we have investigated apoptosis triggered by camptothecin, staurosporin (STS), and anti-CD95 monoclonal antibody in the thymocytes from the stefin B-deficient mice and wild-type mice. We have observed increased sensibility to STS-induced apoptosis in the thymocytes of stefin B-deficient mice. Pretreatment of cells with pan-caspase inhibitor z-Val-Ala-Asp(OMe)-fluoromethylketone completely inhibited phosphatidylserine externalization and caspase activation, while treatment with inhibitor of calpains- and papain-like cathepsins (2S,3S)-trans-epoxysuccinyl-leucylamido-3-methyl-butane ethyl ester did not prevent caspase activation nor phosphatidylserine exposure. We conclude that sensitization to apoptosis induced by STS in thymocytes of stefin B-deficient and wild-type mice is not dependent on cathepsin inhibition by stefin B.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natasa Kopitar-Jerala
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Jozef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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46
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da Costa RMA, Riou L, Paquola A, Menck CFM, Sarasin A. Transcriptional profiles of unirradiated or UV-irradiated human cells expressing either the cancer-prone XPB/CS allele or the noncancer-prone XPB/TTD allele. Oncogene 2004; 24:1359-74. [PMID: 15608684 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1208288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Xeroderma pigmentosum (XP) and trichothiodystrophy (TTD) syndromes are characterized by deficiency in nucleotide excision repair pathway, but with distinguished clinical manifestations. While XP patients exhibit a high frequency of skin cancer, TTD patients are not cancer prone. The relation between lack of DNA repair and their clinical manifestations was investigated through analysis of the transcriptional profile of 12,600 transcripts in two isogenic cell lines with different capabilities of DNA repair. These cell lines result from a stable transfection of the XPB-TTD allele into XP complementation group B fibroblasts, from an XP patient who also have clinical abnormalities corresponding to Cockayne's syndrome (CS). The microarray assays performed under normal growth conditions showed the expression of distinct groups of genes in each cell line. The UVC-transcription modulation of these cells revealed the changes in 869 transcripts. Some of these transcripts had similar modulation pattern in both cells, although with eventually different time patterns for induction or repression. However, some different 'UVC signature' for each cell line was also found, that is, transcripts that were specifically UV regulated depending on the DNA repair status of the cell. These results provide a detailed portrait of expression profiles that may potentially unravel the causes of the different phenotypes of XP/CS and TTD patients.
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47
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Müntener K, Zwicky R, Csucs G, Rohrer J, Baici A. Exon skipping of cathepsin B: mitochondrial targeting of a lysosomal peptidase provokes cell death. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:41012-7. [PMID: 15262981 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m405333200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The alternatively spliced messenger RNA of the human cysteine peptidase cathepsin B missing exons 2 and 3 encodes a truncated form of the enzyme lacking the signal peptide and part of the inhibitory propeptide. This deletion results in a new N-terminal leader sequence characteristic of proteins predestined for transport into mitochondria. We determined enzyme targeting to intracellular organelles by transfecting HeLa cells with constructs containing segments of variable length of the N terminus of truncated cathepsin B fused to green fluorescent protein. Co-localization of the constructs with mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum was probed with specific markers. None of the chimeric products were found in the endoplasmic reticulum, showing that truncated cathepsin B is misrouted from its regular biosynthetic pathway and forced to enter the mitochondria instead of lysosomes as its final destination. The first 20 amino acids of the new N terminus were necessary and sufficient for mitochondrial targeting, but only cells expressing the complete truncated cathepsin B sequence died by nuclear fragmentation. This new and unexpected behavior draws attention to an additional extralysosomal role for a cysteine peptidase with several recognized important pathophysiological functions. Mitochondrial targeting of cathepsin B may have significant consequences on cell life in pathological or physiological situations characterized by excessive transcription of the cathepsin B message lacking exons 2 and 3, as observed for instance in osteoarthritic cartilage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathrin Müntener
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
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Abstract
For many years apoptosis research has focused on caspases and their putative role as sole executioners of programmed cell death. Accumulating information now suggests that lysosomal cathepsins are also pivotally involved in this process, especially in pathological conditions. In particular, the role of lysosomes and lysosomal enzymes in initiation and execution of the apoptotic program has become clear in several models, to the point that the existence of a 'lysosomal pathway of apoptosis' is now generally accepted. This pathway of apoptosis can be activated by death receptors, lipid mediators, and photodamage. Lysosomal proteases can be released from the lysosomes into the cytosol, where they contribute to the apoptotic cascade upstream of mitochondria. This review focuses on the players and the molecular mechanisms involved in the lysosomal pathway of apoptosis as well as on the importance of this pathway in development and pathology.
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Cirman T, Oresić K, Mazovec GD, Turk V, Reed JC, Myers RM, Salvesen GS, Turk B. Selective disruption of lysosomes in HeLa cells triggers apoptosis mediated by cleavage of Bid by multiple papain-like lysosomal cathepsins. J Biol Chem 2003; 279:3578-87. [PMID: 14581476 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m308347200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 356] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Increasing evidence suggests that lysosomal proteases are actively involved in apoptosis. Using HeLa cells as the model system, we show that selective lysosome disruption with L-leucyl-L-leucine methyl ester results in apoptosis, characterized by translocation of lysosomal proteases into the cytosol and by the cleavage of a proapoptotic Bcl-2-family member Bid. Apoptosis and Bid cleavage, but not translocation of lysosomal proteases to the cytosol, could be prevented by 15 microM L-trans-epoxysuccinyl(OEt)-Leu-3-methylbutylamide, an inhibitor of papain-like cysteine proteases. Incubation of cells with 15 microM N-benzoyloxycarbonyl-VAD-fluoromethyl ketone prevented apoptosis but not Bid cleavage, suggesting that cathepsin-mediated apoptosis in this system is caspase-dependent. In vitro experiments performed at neutral pH showed that papain-like cathepsins B, H, L, S, and K cleave Bid predominantly at Arg(65) or Arg(71). No Bid cleavage was observed with cathepsins C and X or the aspartic protease cathepsin D. Incubation of full-length Bid treated with cathepsins B, H, L, and S resulted in rapid cytochrome c release from isolated mitochondria. Thus, Bid may be an important mediator of apoptosis induced by lysosomal disruption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tina Cirman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Jozef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
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