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Martin-Vega A, Cobb MH. Navigating the ERK1/2 MAPK Cascade. Biomolecules 2023; 13:1555. [PMID: 37892237 PMCID: PMC10605237 DOI: 10.3390/biom13101555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2023] [Revised: 10/16/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The RAS-ERK pathway is a fundamental signaling cascade crucial for many biological processes including proliferation, cell cycle control, growth, and survival; common across all cell types. Notably, ERK1/2 are implicated in specific processes in a context-dependent manner as in stem cells and pancreatic β-cells. Alterations in the different components of this cascade result in dysregulation of the effector kinases ERK1/2 which communicate with hundreds of substrates. Aberrant activation of the pathway contributes to a range of disorders, including cancer. This review provides an overview of the structure, activation, regulation, and mutational frequency of the different tiers of the cascade; with a particular focus on ERK1/2. We highlight the importance of scaffold proteins that contribute to kinase localization and coordinate interaction dynamics of the kinases with substrates, activators, and inhibitors. Additionally, we explore innovative therapeutic approaches emphasizing promising avenues in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Martin-Vega
- Department of Pharmacology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, 6001 Forest Park Rd., Dallas, TX 75390, USA;
| | - Melanie H. Cobb
- Department of Pharmacology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, 6001 Forest Park Rd., Dallas, TX 75390, USA;
- Simmons Comprehensive Cancer Center, UT Southwestern Medical Center, 6001 Forest Park Rd., Dallas, TX 75390, USA
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2
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Nair A, Chakraborty S, Saha B. CD40 induces selective routing of Ras isoforms to subcellular compartments. J Cell Commun Signal 2023; 17:1009-1021. [PMID: 37126117 PMCID: PMC10409697 DOI: 10.1007/s12079-023-00747-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2022] [Accepted: 04/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Ras GTPases are central to cellular signaling and oncogenesis. The three loci of the Ras gene encode for four protein isoforms namely Harvey-Ras (H-Ras), Kirsten-Ras (K-Ras 4A and 4B), and Neuroblastoma-Ras (N-Ras) which share ~ 80% sequence similarity and used to be considered functionally redundant. The small molecule inhibitors of Ras lack specificity for the isoforms leading to widespread toxicity in Ras-targeted therapeutics. Ras isoforms' tissue-specific expression and selective association with carcinogenesis, embryonic development, and infection suggested their non-redundancy. We show that CD40, an antigen-presenting cell (APC)-expressed immune receptor, induces selective relocation of H-Ras, K-Ras, and N-Ras to the Plasma membrane (PM) lipid rafts, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), but not to the Golgi complex (GC). The two palmitoylated Ras isoforms-H-Ras and N-Ras-have a similar pattern of colocalization into the lipid-rich raft microdomain of the PM at early time points when compared to non-palmitoylated K-Ras (4B) with polylysine residues. CD40-induced trafficking of H-Ras and K-Ras to mitochondria and ER was found to be similar but different from that of N-Ras. Trafficking of all the Ras isoforms to the GC was independent of CD40 stimulation. The receptor-driven trafficking and spatial segregation of H-Ras, K-Ras, and N-Ras imply isoform-specific subcellular signaling platforms for the functional non-redundancy of Ras isoforms. PDB structures have been modified to illustrate various signaling proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arathi Nair
- National Centre for Cell Science, Ganeshkhind, Pune, 411007, India.
| | - Sushmita Chakraborty
- Department of Transplant Immunology and Immunogenetics, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, 1100029, India
| | - Bhaskar Saha
- National Centre for Cell Science, Ganeshkhind, Pune, 411007, India.
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3
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Ras protein abundance correlates with Ras isoform mutation patterns in cancer. Oncogene 2023; 42:1224-1232. [PMID: 36864243 PMCID: PMC10079525 DOI: 10.1038/s41388-023-02638-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Revised: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 03/04/2023]
Abstract
Activating mutations of Ras genes are often observed in cancer. The protein products of the three Ras genes are almost identical. However, for reasons that remain unclear, KRAS is far more frequently mutated than the other Ras isoforms in cancer and RASopathies. We have quantified HRAS, NRAS, KRAS4A and KRAS4B protein abundance across a large panel of cell lines and healthy tissues. We observe consistent patterns of KRAS > NRAS»HRAS protein expression in cells that correlate with the rank order of Ras mutation frequencies in cancer. Our data provide support for the model of a sweet-spot of Ras dosage mediating isoform-specific contributions to cancer and development. We suggest that in most cases, being the most abundant Ras isoform correlates with occupying the sweet-spot and that HRAS and NRAS expression is usually insufficient to promote oncogenesis when mutated. However, our results challenge the notion that rare codons mechanistically underpin the predominance of KRAS mutant cancers. Finally, direct measurement of mutant versus wildtype KRAS protein abundance revealed a frequent imbalance that may suggest additional non-gene duplication mechanisms for optimizing oncogenic Ras dosage.
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4
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Cataisson C, Lee AJ, Zhang AM, Mizes A, Korkmaz S, Carofino BL, Meyer TJ, Michalowski AM, Li L, Yuspa SH. RAS oncogene signal strength regulates matrisomal gene expression and tumorigenicity of mouse keratinocytes. Carcinogenesis 2022; 43:1149-1161. [PMID: 36306264 PMCID: PMC10122430 DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgac083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Environmental and molecular carcinogenesis are linked by the discovery that chemical carcinogen induced-mutations in the Hras or Kras genes drives tumor development in mouse skin. Importantly, enhanced expression or allele amplification of the mutant Ras gene contributes to selection of initiated cells, tumor persistence, and progression. To explore the consequences of Ras oncogene signal strength, primary keratinocytes were isolated and cultured from the LSL-HrasG12D and LSL-KrasG12D C57BL/6J mouse models and the mutant allele was activated by adeno-Cre recombinase. Keratinocytes expressing one (H) or two (HH) mutant alleles of HrasG12D, one KrasG12D allele (K), or one of each (HK) were studied. All combinations of activated Ras alleles stimulated proliferation and drove transformation marker expression, but only HH and HK formed tumors. HH, HK, and K sustained long-term keratinocyte growth in vitro, while H and WT could not. RNA-Seq yielded two distinct gene expression profiles; HH, HK, and K formed one cluster while H clustered with WT. Weak MAPK activation was seen in H keratinocytes but treatment with a BRAF inhibitor enhanced MAPK signaling and facilitated tumor formation. K keratinocytes became tumorigenic when they were isolated from mice where the LSL-KrasG12D allele was backcrossed from the C57BL/6 onto the FVB/N background. All tumorigenic keratinocytes but not the non-tumorigenic precursors shared a common remodeling of matrisomal gene expression that is associated with tumor formation. Thus, RAS oncogene signal strength determines cell-autonomous changes in initiated cells that are critical for their tumor-forming potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christophe Cataisson
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Alex J Lee
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Ashley M Zhang
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Alicia Mizes
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Serena Korkmaz
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Brandi L Carofino
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Thomas J Meyer
- CCR Collaborative Bioinformatics Resource, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
- Advanced Biomedical Computational Science, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD, USA
| | | | - Luowei Li
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Stuart H Yuspa
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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5
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Nuevo-Tapioles C, Philips MR. The role of KRAS splice variants in cancer biology. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:1033348. [PMID: 36393833 PMCID: PMC9663995 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.1033348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
The three mammalian RAS genes (HRAS, NRAS and KRAS) encode four proteins that play central roles in cancer biology. Among them, KRAS is mutated more frequently in human cancer than any other oncogene. The pre-mRNA of KRAS is alternatively spliced to give rise to two products, KRAS4A and KRAS4B, which differ in the membrane targeting sequences at their respective C-termini. Notably, both KRAS4A and KRAS4B are oncogenic when KRAS is constitutively activated by mutation in exon 2 or 3. Whereas KRAS4B is the most studied oncoprotein, KRAS4A is understudied and until recently considered relatively unimportant. Emerging work has confirmed expression of KRAS4A in cancer and found non-overlapping functions of the splice variants. The most clearly demonstrated of these is direct regulation of hexokinase 1 by KRAS4A, suggesting that the metabolic vulnerabilities of KRAS-mutant tumors may be determined in part by the relative expression of the splice variants. The aim of this review is to address the most relevant characteristics and differential functions of the KRAS splice variants as they relate to cancer onset and progression.
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Ozdemir ES, Koester AM, Nan X. Ras Multimers on the Membrane: Many Ways for a Heart-to-Heart Conversation. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:219. [PMID: 35205266 PMCID: PMC8872464 DOI: 10.3390/genes13020219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Revised: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Formation of Ras multimers, including dimers and nanoclusters, has emerged as an exciting, new front of research in the 'old' field of Ras biomedicine. With significant advances made in the past few years, we are beginning to understand the structure of Ras multimers and, albeit preliminary, mechanisms that regulate their formation in vitro and in cells. Here we aim to synthesize the knowledge accrued thus far on Ras multimers, particularly the presence of multiple globular (G-) domain interfaces, and discuss how membrane nanodomain composition and structure would influence Ras multimer formation. We end with some general thoughts on the potential implications of Ras multimers in basic and translational biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- E. Sila Ozdemir
- Cancer Early Detection Advanced Research Center, Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, 2720 S Moody Ave., Portland, OR 97201, USA;
| | - Anna M. Koester
- Program in Quantitative and Systems Biology, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Oregon Health & Science University, 2730 S Moody Ave., Portland, OR 97201, USA;
| | - Xiaolin Nan
- Cancer Early Detection Advanced Research Center, Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, 2720 S Moody Ave., Portland, OR 97201, USA;
- Program in Quantitative and Systems Biology, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Oregon Health & Science University, 2730 S Moody Ave., Portland, OR 97201, USA;
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Drosten M, Barbacid M. Targeting KRAS mutant lung cancer: light at the end of the tunnel. Mol Oncol 2021; 16:1057-1071. [PMID: 34951114 PMCID: PMC8895444 DOI: 10.1002/1878-0261.13168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Revised: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
For decades, KRAS mutant lung adenocarcinomas (LUAD) have been refractory to therapeutic strategies based on personalized medicine owing to the complexity of designing inhibitors to selectively target KRAS and downstream targets with acceptable toxicities. The recent development of selective KRASG12C inhibitors represents a landmark after 40 years of intense research efforts since the identification of KRAS as a human oncogene. Here, we discuss the mechanisms responsible for the rapid development of resistance to these inhibitors, as well as potential strategies to overcome this limitation. Other therapeutic strategies aimed at inhibiting KRAS oncogenic signaling by targeting either upstream activators or downstream effectors are also reviewed. Finally, we discuss the effect of targeting the mitogen‐activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway, both based on the failure of MEK and ERK inhibitors in clinical trials, as well as on the recent identification of RAF1 as a potential target due to its MAPK‐independent activity. These new developments, taken together, are likely to open new avenues to effectively treat KRAS mutant LUAD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Drosten
- Molecular Oncology Program, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Oncológicas (CNIO), Madrid, Spain
| | - Mariano Barbacid
- Molecular Oncology Program, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Oncológicas (CNIO), Madrid, Spain
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Haidar M, Jacquemin P. Past and Future Strategies to Inhibit Membrane Localization of the KRAS Oncogene. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222413193. [PMID: 34947990 PMCID: PMC8707736 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222413193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Revised: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
KRAS is one of the most studied oncogenes. It is well known that KRAS undergoes post-translational modifications at its C-terminal end. These modifications are essential for its membrane location and activity. Despite significant efforts made in the past three decades to target the mechanisms involved in its membrane localization, no therapies have been approved and taken into the clinic. However, many studies have recently reintroduced interest in the development of KRAS inhibitors, either by directly targeting KRAS or indirectly through the inhibition of critical steps involved in post-translational KRAS modifications. In this review, we summarize the approaches that have been applied over the years to inhibit the membrane localization of KRAS in cancer and propose a new anti-KRAS strategy that could be used in clinic.
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Sunaga N, Miura Y, Kasahara N, Sakurai R. Targeting Oncogenic KRAS in Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13235956. [PMID: 34885068 PMCID: PMC8656763 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13235956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2021] [Revised: 11/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary v-Ki-ras2 Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene (KRAS) is the most common driver in NSCLC, and targeting oncogenic KRAS is a major challenge in the treatment of non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). While several covalent KRAS G12C inhibitors have emerged as a novel anti-KRAS therapy, the development of combined therapies involving the targeting of oncogenic KRAS plus other targeted drugs is still required given the vast heterogeneity of KRAS-mutated tumors. In this review, we summarize the biological and immunological characteristics of oncogenic KRAS-driven NSCLC and the preclinical and clinical evidence for mutant KRAS-targeted therapies. We also discuss the mechanisms of resistance to KRAS G12C inhibitors and possible therapeutic strategies to overcome this drug resistance. Abstract Recent advances in molecular biology and the resultant identification of driver oncogenes have achieved major progress in precision medicine for non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). v-Ki-ras2 Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene (KRAS) is the most common driver in NSCLC, and targeting KRAS is considerably important. The recent discovery of covalent KRAS G12C inhibitors offers hope for improving the prognosis of NSCLC patients, but the development of combination therapies corresponding to tumor characteristics is still required given the vast heterogeneity of KRAS-mutated NSCLC. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of KRAS mutations regarding the involvement of malignant transformation and describe the preclinical and clinical evidence for targeting KRAS-mutated NSCLC. We also discuss the mechanisms of resistance to KRAS G12C inhibitors and possible combination treatment strategies to overcome this drug resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noriaki Sunaga
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-39-15 Showa-machi, Maebashi 371-8511, Gunma, Japan;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-27-220-8000
| | - Yosuke Miura
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-39-15 Showa-machi, Maebashi 371-8511, Gunma, Japan;
| | - Norimitsu Kasahara
- Innovative Medical Research Center, Gunma University Hospital, 3-39-15 Showa-machi, Maebashi 371-8511, Gunma, Japan;
| | - Reiko Sakurai
- Oncology Center, Gunma University Hospital, 3-39-15 Showa-machi, Maebashi 371-8511, Gunma, Japan;
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10
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Li HY, Qi WL, Wang YX, Meng LH. Covalent inhibitor targets KRasG12C: A new paradigm for drugging the undruggable and challenges ahead. Genes Dis 2021; 10:403-414. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gendis.2021.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Revised: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
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Ramos-Kuri M, Meka SH, Salamanca-Buentello F, Hajjar RJ, Lipskaia L, Chemaly ER. Molecules linked to Ras signaling as therapeutic targets in cardiac pathologies. Biol Res 2021; 54:23. [PMID: 34344467 PMCID: PMC8330049 DOI: 10.1186/s40659-021-00342-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract The Ras family of small Guanosine Triphosphate (GTP)-binding proteins (G proteins) represents one of the main components of intracellular signal transduction required for normal cardiac growth, but is also critically involved in the development of cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure. The present review provides an update on the role of the H-, K- and N-Ras genes and their related pathways in cardiac diseases. We focus on cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure, where Ras has been studied the most. We also review other cardiac diseases, like genetic disorders related to Ras. The scope of the review extends from fundamental concepts to therapeutic applications. Although the three Ras genes have a nearly identical primary structure, there are important functional differences between them: H-Ras mainly regulates cardiomyocyte size, whereas K-Ras regulates cardiomyocyte proliferation. N-Ras is the least studied in cardiac cells and is less associated to cardiac defects. Clinically, oncogenic H-Ras causes Costello syndrome and facio-cutaneous-skeletal syndromes with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and arrhythmias. On the other hand, oncogenic K-Ras and alterations of other genes of the Ras-Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) pathway, like Raf, cause Noonan syndrome and cardio-facio-cutaneous syndromes characterized by cardiac hypertrophy and septal defects. We further review the modulation by Ras of key signaling pathways in the cardiomyocyte, including: (i) the classical Ras-Raf-MAPK pathway, which leads to a more physiological form of cardiac hypertrophy; as well as other pathways associated with pathological cardiac hypertrophy, like (ii) The SAPK (stress activated protein kinase) pathways p38 and JNK; and (iii) The alternative pathway Raf-Calcineurin-Nuclear Factor of Activated T cells (NFAT). Genetic alterations of Ras isoforms or of genes in the Ras-MAPK pathway result in Ras-opathies, conditions frequently associated with cardiac hypertrophy or septal defects among other cardiac diseases. Several studies underline the potential role of H- and K-Ras as a hinge between physiological and pathological cardiac hypertrophy, and as potential therapeutic targets in cardiac hypertrophy and failure. Graphic abstract ![]()
The Ras (Rat Sarcoma) gene family is a group of small G proteins Ras is regulated by growth factors and neurohormones affecting cardiomyocyte growth and hypertrophy Ras directly affects cardiomyocyte physiological and pathological hypertrophy Genetic alterations of Ras and its pathways result in various cardiac phenotypes Ras and its pathway are differentially regulated in acquired heart disease Ras modulation is a promising therapeutic target in various cardiac conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Ramos-Kuri
- Instituto Nacional de Cancerología, Unidad de Investigación Biomédica en Cáncer, Secretarìa de Salud/Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, México.,Researcher of the Facultad de Bioética, Cátedra de Infertilidad, Universidad Anáhuac, Mexico City, México.,Centro de Investigación en Bioética y Genética, Querétaro, México
| | - Sri Harika Meka
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Clinical and Translational Research Center, 875 Ellicott Street, Suite 8030B, Buffalo, NY, 14203, USA
| | - Fabio Salamanca-Buentello
- University of Toronto Institute of Medical Science, Medical Sciences Building, 1 King's College Circle, Room 2374, Toronto, ON, M5S 1A8, Canada
| | | | - Larissa Lipskaia
- INSERM U955 and Département de Physiologie, Hôpital Henri Mondor, FHU SENEC, AP-HP, and Université Paris-Est Créteil (UPEC), 94010, Créteil, France
| | - Elie R Chemaly
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Clinical and Translational Research Center, 875 Ellicott Street, Suite 8030B, Buffalo, NY, 14203, USA.
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KRAS4A induces metastatic lung adenocarcinomas in vivo in the absence of the KRAS4B isoform. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2023112118. [PMID: 34301865 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2023112118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
In mammals, the KRAS locus encodes two protein isoforms, KRAS4A and KRAS4B, which differ only in their C terminus via alternative splicing of distinct fourth exons. Previous studies have shown that whereas KRAS expression is essential for mouse development, the KRAS4A isoform is expendable. Here, we have generated a mouse strain that carries a terminator codon in exon 4B that leads to the expression of an unstable KRAS4B154 truncated polypeptide, hence resulting in a bona fide Kras4B-null allele. In contrast, this terminator codon leaves expression of the KRAS4A isoform unaffected. Mice selectively lacking KRAS4B expression developed to term but died perinatally because of hypertrabeculation of the ventricular wall, a defect reminiscent of that observed in embryos lacking the Kras locus. Mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) obtained from Kras4B-/- embryos proliferated less than did wild-type MEFs, because of limited expression of KRAS4A, a defect that can be compensated for by ectopic expression of this isoform. Introduction of the same terminator codon into a Kras FSFG12V allele allowed expression of an endogenous KRAS4AG12V oncogenic isoform in the absence of KRAS4B. Exposure of Kras +/FSF4AG12V4B- mice to Adeno-FLPo particles induced lung tumors with complete penetrance, albeit with increased latencies as compared with control Kras +/FSFG12V animals. Moreover, a significant percentage of these mice developed proximal metastasis, a feature seldom observed in mice expressing both mutant isoforms. These results illustrate that expression of the KRAS4AG12V mutant isoform is sufficient to induce lung tumors, thus suggesting that selective targeting of the KRAS4BG12V oncoprotein may not have significant therapeutic consequences.
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Abstract
KRAS is one of the most commonly mutated oncogene and a negative predictive factor for a number of targeted therapies. Therefore, the development of targeting strategies against mutant KRAS is urgently needed. One potential strategy involves disruption of K-Ras membrane localization, which is necessary for its proper function. In this review, we summarize the current data about the importance of membrane-anchorage of K-Ras and provide a critical evaluation of this targeting paradigm focusing mainly on prenylation inhibition. Additionally, we performed a RAS mutation-specific analysis of prenylation-related drug sensitivity data from a publicly available database (https://depmap.org/repurposing/) of three classes of prenylation inhibitors: statins, N-bisphosphonates, and farnesyl-transferase inhibitors. We observed significant differences in sensitivity to N-bisphosphonates and farnesyl-transferase inhibitors depending on KRAS mutational status and tissue of origin. These observations emphasize the importance of factors affecting efficacy of prenylation inhibition, like distinct features of different KRAS mutations, tissue-specific mutational patterns, K-Ras turnover, and changes in regulation of prenylation process. Finally, we enlist the factors that might be responsible for the large discrepancy between the outcomes in preclinical and clinical studies including methodological pitfalls, the incomplete understanding of K-Ras protein turnover, and the variation of KRAS dependency in KRAS mutant tumors.
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14
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Chen WC, To MD, Westcott PMK, Delrosario R, Kim IJ, Philips M, Tran Q, Bollam SR, Goodarzi H, Bayani N, Mirzoeva O, Balmain A. Targeting KRAS4A splicing through the RBM39/DCAF15 pathway inhibits cancer stem cells. Nat Commun 2021; 12:4288. [PMID: 34257283 PMCID: PMC8277813 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-24498-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The commonly mutated human KRAS oncogene encodes two distinct KRAS4A and KRAS4B proteins generated by differential splicing. We demonstrate here that coordinated regulation of both isoforms through control of splicing is essential for development of Kras mutant tumors. The minor KRAS4A isoform is enriched in cancer stem-like cells, where it responds to hypoxia, while the major KRAS4B is induced by ER stress. KRAS4A splicing is controlled by the DCAF15/RBM39 pathway, and deletion of KRAS4A or pharmacological inhibition of RBM39 using Indisulam leads to inhibition of cancer stem cells. Our data identify existing clinical drugs that target KRAS4A splicing, and suggest that levels of the minor KRAS4A isoform in human tumors can be a biomarker of sensitivity to some existing cancer therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Ching Chen
- UCSF Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Minh D To
- UCSF Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Peter M K Westcott
- UCSF Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
- MIT Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Reyno Delrosario
- UCSF Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Il-Jin Kim
- Guardant Health, Redwood City, California, USA
| | - Mark Philips
- NYU Cancer Institute, NYU School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Quan Tran
- UCSF Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Saumya R Bollam
- UCSF Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Hani Goodarzi
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Nora Bayani
- UCSF Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Olga Mirzoeva
- UCSF Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Allan Balmain
- UCSF Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, San Francisco, CA, USA.
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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15
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RASless MEFs as a Tool to Study RAS-Dependent and RAS-Independent Functions. METHODS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY (CLIFTON, N.J.) 2021; 2262:335-346. [PMID: 33977488 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1190-6_21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
RAS proteins are key players in multiple cellular processes. To study the role of RAS proteins individually or in combination, we have developed MEFs that can be rendered RASless, i.e., devoid of all endogenous RAS isoforms. These cells have significantly contributed to our understanding of the requirements for RAS functions in cell proliferation as well as their implications in diverse cellular processes. Here, we describe methods using RASless MEFs to study RAS-dependent cellular activities with special emphasis on proliferation. We provide the details to identify inducers of RAS-independent proliferation in colony assays. We recommend following these stringent guidelines to avoid false-positive results. Moreover, this protocol can be adapted to generate RASless MEFs ectopically expressing RAS variants to interrogate their function in the absence of endogenous RAS isoforms or to perform experiments in the absence of RAS. Finally, we also describe protocols to generate and use RASless MEFs for cell cycle analyses using the FUCCI cell cycle indicator.
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Henkels KM, Rehl KM, Cho KJ. Blocking K-Ras Interaction With the Plasma Membrane Is a Tractable Therapeutic Approach to Inhibit Oncogenic K-Ras Activity. Front Mol Biosci 2021; 8:673096. [PMID: 34222333 PMCID: PMC8244928 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2021.673096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Ras proteins are membrane-bound small GTPases that promote cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Consistent with this key regulatory role, activating mutations of Ras are present in ∼19% of new cancer cases in the United States per year. K-Ras is one of the three ubiquitously expressed isoforms in mammalian cells, and oncogenic mutations in this isoform account for ∼75% of Ras-driven cancers. Therefore, pharmacological agents that block oncogenic K-Ras activity would have great clinical utility. Most efforts to block oncogenic Ras activity have focused on Ras downstream effectors, but these inhibitors only show limited clinical benefits in Ras-driven cancers due to the highly divergent signals arising from Ras activation. Currently, four major approaches are being extensively studied to target K-Ras–driven cancers. One strategy is to block K-Ras binding to the plasma membrane (PM) since K-Ras requires the PM binding for its signal transduction. Here, we summarize recently identified molecular mechanisms that regulate K-Ras–PM interaction. Perturbing these mechanisms using pharmacological agents blocks K-Ras–PM binding and inhibits K-Ras signaling and growth of K-Ras–driven cancer cells. Together, these studies propose that blocking K-Ras–PM binding is a tractable strategy for developing anti–K-Ras therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen M Henkels
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Boonshoft School of Medicine, Wright State University, Dayton, OH, United States
| | - Kristen M Rehl
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Boonshoft School of Medicine, Wright State University, Dayton, OH, United States
| | - Kwang-Jin Cho
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Boonshoft School of Medicine, Wright State University, Dayton, OH, United States
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Addeo A, Banna GL, Friedlaender A. KRAS G12C Mutations in NSCLC: From Target to Resistance. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13112541. [PMID: 34064232 PMCID: PMC8196854 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13112541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Revised: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Lung cancer represents the most common form of cancer, accounting for 1.8 million deaths globally in 2020. Over the last decade the treatment for advanced and metastatic non-small cell lung cancer have dramatically improved largely thanks to the emergence of two therapeutic breakthroughs: the discovery of immune checkpoint inhibitors and targeting of oncogenic driver alterations. While these therapies hold great promise, they face the same limitation as other inhibitors: the emergence of resistant mechanisms. One such alteration in non-small cell lung cancer is the Kirsten Rat Sarcoma (KRAS) oncogene. KRAS mutations are the most common oncogenic driver in NSCLC, representing roughly 20-25% of cases. The mutation is almost exclusively detected in adenocarcinoma and is found among smokers 90% of the time. Along with the development of new drugs that have been showing promising activity, resistance mechanisms have begun to be clarified. The aim of this review is to unwrap the biology of KRAS in NSCLC with a specific focus on primary and secondary resistance mechanisms and their possible clinical implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfredo Addeo
- Swiss Cancer Center Leman, Oncology Department, Switzerland University of Geneva, University Hospital Geneva, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland;
- Correspondence:
| | | | - Alex Friedlaender
- Swiss Cancer Center Leman, Oncology Department, Switzerland University of Geneva, University Hospital Geneva, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland;
- Oncology Service, Clinique Générale Beaulieu, 1206 Geneva, Switzerland
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40 Years of RAS-A Historic Overview. Genes (Basel) 2021; 12:genes12050681. [PMID: 34062774 PMCID: PMC8147265 DOI: 10.3390/genes12050681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 04/28/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been over forty years since the isolation of the first human oncogene (HRAS), a crucial milestone in cancer research made possible through the combined efforts of a few selected research groups at the beginning of the 1980s. Those initial discoveries led to a quantitative leap in our understanding of cancer biology and set up the onset of the field of molecular oncology. The following four decades of RAS research have produced a huge pool of new knowledge about the RAS family of small GTPases, including how they regulate signaling pathways controlling many cellular physiological processes, or how oncogenic mutations trigger pathological conditions, including developmental syndromes or many cancer types. However, despite the extensive body of available basic knowledge, specific effective treatments for RAS-driven cancers are still lacking. Hopefully, recent advances involving the discovery of novel pockets on the RAS surface as well as highly specific small-molecule inhibitors able to block its interaction with effectors and/or activators may lead to the development of new, effective treatments for cancer. This review intends to provide a quick, summarized historical overview of the main milestones in RAS research spanning from the initial discovery of the viral RAS oncogenes in rodent tumors to the latest attempts at targeting RAS oncogenes in various human cancers.
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Busquets-Hernández C, Triola G. Palmitoylation as a Key Regulator of Ras Localization and Function. Front Mol Biosci 2021; 8:659861. [PMID: 33816563 PMCID: PMC8010249 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2021.659861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Ras proteins require membrane association for proper function. This process is tightly regulated by reversible palmitoylation that controls not only the distribution over different subcellular compartments but also Ras compartmentalization within membrane subdomains. As a result, there is a growing interest in protein palmitoylation and the enzymes that control this process. In this minireview, we discuss how palmitoylation affects the localization and function of Ras proteins. A better understanding of the regulatory mechanism controlling protein lipidation is expected to provide new insights into the functional role of these modifications and may ultimately lead to the development of novel therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gemma Triola
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Institute of Advanced Chemistry of Catalonia (IQAC-CSIC), Barcelona, Spain
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Mutation bias within oncogene families is related to proliferation-specific codon usage. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:30848-30856. [PMID: 33199641 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2016119117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
It is well known that in cancer gene families some members are more frequently mutated in tumor samples than their family counterparts. A paradigmatic case of this phenomenon is KRAS from the RAS family. Different explanations have been proposed ranging from differential interaction with other proteins to preferential expression or localization. Interestingly, it has been described that despite the high amino acid identity between RAS family members, KRAS employs an intriguing differential codon usage. Here, we found that this phenomenon is not exclusive to the RAS family. Indeed, in the RAS family and other oncogene families with two or three members, the most prevalently mutated gene in tumor samples employs a differential codon usage that is characteristic of genes involved in proliferation. Prompted by these observations, we chose the RAS family to experimentally demonstrate that the translation efficiency of oncogenes that are preferentially mutated in tumor samples is increased in proliferative cells compared to quiescent cells. These results were further validated by assessing the translation efficiency of KRAS in cell lines that differ in their tRNA expression profile. These differences are related to the cell division rate of the studied cells and thus suggest an important role in context-specific oncogene expression regulation. Altogether, our study demonstrates that dynamic translation programs contribute to shaping the expression profiles of oncogenes. Therefore, we propose this codon bias as a regulatory layer to control cell context-specific expression and explain the differential prevalence of mutations in certain members of oncogene families.
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Luo L, Chen Y, Chen X, Zheng Y, Zhou V, Yu M, Burns R, Zhu W, Fu G, Felix JC, Hartley C, Damnernsawad A, Zhang J, Wen R, Drobyski WR, Gao C, Wang D. Kras-Deficient T Cells Attenuate Graft-versus-Host Disease but Retain Graft-versus-Leukemia Activity. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 205:3480-3490. [PMID: 33158956 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2000006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Acute graft-versus-host disease (aGVHD) is one major serious complication that is induced by alloreactive donor T cells recognizing host Ags and limits the success of allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. In the current studies, we identified a critical role of Kras in regulating alloreactive T cell function during aGVHD. Kras deletion in donor T cells dramatically reduced aGVHD mortality and severity in an MHC-mismatched allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation mouse model but largely maintained the antitumor capacity. Kras-deficient CD4 and CD8 T cells exhibited impaired TCR-induced activation of the ERK pathway. Kras deficiency altered TCR-induced gene expression profiles, including the reduced expression of various inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. Moreover, Kras deficiency inhibited IL-6-mediated Th17 cell differentiation and impaired IL-6-induced ERK activation and gene expression in CD4 T cells. These findings support Kras as a novel and effective therapeutic target for aGVHD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lan Luo
- Blood Research Institute, Versiti, Milwaukee, WI 53226.,Department of Hematology, Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China
| | - Yuhong Chen
- Blood Research Institute, Versiti, Milwaukee, WI 53226
| | - Xiao Chen
- Department of Medicine, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226
| | - Yongwei Zheng
- Blood Research Institute, Versiti, Milwaukee, WI 53226
| | - Vivian Zhou
- Department of Medicine, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226
| | - Mei Yu
- Blood Research Institute, Versiti, Milwaukee, WI 53226
| | - Robert Burns
- Blood Research Institute, Versiti, Milwaukee, WI 53226
| | - Wen Zhu
- Blood Research Institute, Versiti, Milwaukee, WI 53226.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226
| | - Guoping Fu
- Blood Research Institute, Versiti, Milwaukee, WI 53226
| | - Juan C Felix
- Department of Pathology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226; and
| | - Christopher Hartley
- Department of Pathology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226; and
| | - Alisa Damnernsawad
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
| | - Jing Zhang
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
| | - Renren Wen
- Blood Research Institute, Versiti, Milwaukee, WI 53226
| | | | - Chunji Gao
- Department of Hematology, Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China
| | - Demin Wang
- Blood Research Institute, Versiti, Milwaukee, WI 53226; .,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226
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Kattan WE, Hancock JF. RAS Function in cancer cells: translating membrane biology and biochemistry into new therapeutics. Biochem J 2020; 477:2893-2919. [PMID: 32797215 PMCID: PMC7891675 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20190839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The three human RAS proteins are mutated and constitutively activated in ∼20% of cancers leading to cell growth and proliferation. For the past three decades, many attempts have been made to inhibit these proteins with little success. Recently; however, multiple methods have emerged to inhibit KRAS, the most prevalently mutated isoform. These methods and the underlying biology will be discussed in this review with a special focus on KRAS-plasma membrane interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walaa E. Kattan
- Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, McGovern Medical School University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, TX 77030, USA
- The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center UTHealth Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, TX 77030, USA
| | - John F. Hancock
- Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, McGovern Medical School University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, TX 77030, USA
- The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center UTHealth Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, TX 77030, USA
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Abstract
One of the mechanisms potentially explaining the discrepancy between the number of human genes and the functional complexity of organisms is generating alternative splice variants, an attribute of the vast majority of multi-exon genes. Members of the RAS family, such as NRAS, KRAS and HRAS, all of which are of significant importance in cancer biology, are no exception. The structural and functional differences of these splice variants, particularly if they contain the canonical (and therefore routinely targeted for diagnostic purposes) hot spot mutations, pose a significant challenge for targeted therapies. We must therefore consider whether these alternative splice variants constitute a minor component as originally thought and how therapies targeting the canonical isoforms affect these alternative splice variants and their overall functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erzsébet Rásó
- 2nd Department of Pathology, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary.
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24
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Prior IA, Hood FE, Hartley JL. The Frequency of Ras Mutations in Cancer. Cancer Res 2020; 80:2969-2974. [PMID: 32209560 PMCID: PMC7367715 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-19-3682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 501] [Impact Index Per Article: 125.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Revised: 02/13/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Ras is frequently mutated in cancer, however, there is a lack of consensus in the literature regarding the cancer mutation frequency of Ras, with quoted values varying from 10%-30%. This variability is at least in part due to the selective aggregation of data from different databases and the dominant influence of particular cancer types and particular Ras isoforms within these datasets. To provide a more definitive figure for Ras mutation frequency in cancer, we cross-referenced the data in all major publicly accessible cancer mutation databases to determine reliable mutation frequency values for each Ras isoform in all major cancer types. These percentages were then applied to current U.S. cancer incidence statistics to estimate the number of new patients each year that have Ras-mutant cancers. We find that approximately 19% of patients with cancer harbor Ras mutations, equivalent to approximately 3.4 million new cases per year worldwide. We discuss the Ras isoform and mutation-specific trends evident within the datasets that are relevant to current Ras-targeted therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian A Prior
- Division of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom.
| | - Fiona E Hood
- Division of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - James L Hartley
- NCI RAS Initiative, Cancer Research Technology Program, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, Maryland
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Abstract
RAS (KRAS, NRAS and HRAS) is the most frequently mutated gene family in cancers, and, consequently, investigators have sought an effective RAS inhibitor for more than three decades. Even 10 years ago, RAS inhibitors were so elusive that RAS was termed 'undruggable'. Now, with the success of allele-specific covalent inhibitors against the most frequently mutated version of RAS in non-small-cell lung cancer, KRASG12C, we have the opportunity to evaluate the best therapeutic strategies to treat RAS-driven cancers. Mutation-specific biochemical properties, as well as the tissue of origin, are likely to affect the effectiveness of such treatments. Currently, direct inhibition of mutant RAS through allele-specific inhibitors provides the best therapeutic approach. Therapies that target RAS-activating pathways or RAS effector pathways could be combined with these direct RAS inhibitors, immune checkpoint inhibitors or T cell-targeting approaches to treat RAS-mutant tumours. Here we review recent advances in therapies that target mutant RAS proteins and discuss the future challenges of these therapies, including combination strategies.
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26
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Ras2, the TC21/R-Ras2 Drosophila homologue, contributes to insulin signalling but is not required for organism viability. Dev Biol 2020; 461:172-183. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2020.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Revised: 02/09/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Post JB, Roodhart JML, Snippert HJG. Colorectal Cancer Modeling with Organoids: Discriminating between Oncogenic RAS and BRAF Variants. Trends Cancer 2020; 6:111-129. [PMID: 32061302 DOI: 10.1016/j.trecan.2019.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2019] [Revised: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 12/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
RAS and BRAF proteins are frequently mutated in colorectal cancer (CRC) and have been associated with therapy resistance in metastatic CRC patients. RAS isoforms are considered to act as redundant entities in physiological and pathological settings. However, there is compelling evidence that mutant variants of RAS and BRAF have different oncogenic potentials and therapeutic outcomes. In this review we describe similarities and differences between various RAS and BRAF oncogenes in CRC development, histology, and therapy resistance. In addition, we discuss the potential of patient-derived tumor organoids for personalized therapy, as well as CRC modeling using genome editing in preclinical model systems to study similarities and discrepancies between the effects of oncogenic MAPK pathway mutations on tumor growth and drug response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasmin B Post
- Molecular Cancer Research, Center for Molecular Medicine, University Medical Center Utrecht and Utrecht University, CX Utrecht, The Netherlands; Oncode Institute Netherlands, Office Jaarbeurs Innovation Mile, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jeanine M L Roodhart
- Department of Medical Oncology, Center for Molecular Medicine, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Oncode Institute Netherlands, Office Jaarbeurs Innovation Mile, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Hugo J G Snippert
- Molecular Cancer Research, Center for Molecular Medicine, University Medical Center Utrecht and Utrecht University, CX Utrecht, The Netherlands; Oncode Institute Netherlands, Office Jaarbeurs Innovation Mile, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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Liu P, Kerins MJ, Tian W, Neupane D, Zhang DD, Ooi A. Differential and overlapping targets of the transcriptional regulators NRF1, NRF2, and NRF3 in human cells. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:18131-18149. [PMID: 31628195 PMCID: PMC6885608 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra119.009591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2019] [Revised: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The nuclear factor (erythroid 2)-like (NRF) transcription factors are a subset of cap'n'collar transcriptional regulators. They consist of three members, NRF1, NRF2, and NRF3, that regulate the expression of genes containing antioxidant-response elements (AREs) in their promoter regions. Although all NRF members regulate ARE-containing genes, each is associated with distinct roles. A comprehensive study of differential and overlapping DNA-binding and transcriptional activities of the NRFs has not yet been conducted. Here, we performed chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP)-exo sequencing, an approach that combines ChIP with exonuclease treatment to pinpoint regulatory elements in DNA with high precision, in conjunction with RNA-sequencing to define the transcriptional targets of each NRF member. Our approach, done in three U2OS cell lines, identified 31 genes that were regulated by all three NRF members, 27 that were regulated similarly by all three, and four genes that were differentially regulated by at least one NRF member. We also found genes that were up- or down-regulated by only one NRF member, with 84, 84, and 22 genes that were regulated by NRF1, NRF2, and NRF3, respectively. Analysis of the ARE motifs identified in ChIP peaks revealed that NRF2 prefers binding to AREs flanked by GC-rich regions and that NRF1 prefers AT-rich flanking regions. Thus, sequence preference, likely in combination with upstream signaling events, determines NRF member activation under specific cellular contexts. Our analysis provides a comprehensive description of differential and overlapping gene regulation by the transcriptional regulators NRF1, NRF2, and NRF3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengfei Liu
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721
| | - Michael J. Kerins
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721
| | - Wang Tian
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721
| | - Durga Neupane
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721
| | - Donna D. Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721
- University of Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721
| | - Aikseng Ooi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721
- University of Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721
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Bian J, Olesik SV. Separation and characterization of KRas proteins and tryptic peptides using enhanced-fluidity liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Analyst 2019; 144:6270-6275. [PMID: 31566639 DOI: 10.1039/c9an01454c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Enhanced-fluidity, reversed-phase liquid chromatography was developed using custom instrumentation for separation and characterization of intact KRas proteins and tryptic peptides. The KRas, HRas and NRas function as GDP-GTP regulated binary switches in many signalling pathways, and mutations in Ras proteins are frequently found in human cancers and represent poor prognosis markers for patients. Mutations of the KRas isoform constitute some of the most common aberrations among all human cancers and intensive drug discovery efforts have been directed toward targeting the KRas protein. Separation and characterization of the KRas protein and tryptic peptides are helpful for exploring targeting, which has not been fully investigated using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. EFLC-MS provided improved chromatographic performance compared to traditional HPLC-MS in terms of shorter analysis time, increased ion intensity and a shift to higher charge states for intact KRas proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Bian
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, 100 West 18th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
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Fuentes-Mateos R, Jimeno D, Gómez C, Calzada N, Fernández-Medarde A, Santos E. Concomitant deletion of HRAS and NRAS leads to pulmonary immaturity, respiratory failure and neonatal death in mice. Cell Death Dis 2019; 10:838. [PMID: 31685810 PMCID: PMC6828777 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-019-2075-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2019] [Revised: 10/07/2019] [Accepted: 10/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
We reported previously that adult (HRAS-/-; NRAS-/-) double knockout (DKO) mice showed no obvious external phenotype although lower-than-expected numbers of weaned DKO animals were consistently tallied after crossing NRAS-KO and HRAS-KO mice kept on mixed genetic backgrounds. Using mouse strains kept on pure C57Bl/6 background, here we performed an extensive analysis of the offspring from crosses between HRAS-KO and NRAS-KO mice and uncovered the occurrence of very high rates of perinatal mortality of the resulting DKO littermates due to respiratory failure during the first postnatal 24-48 h. The lungs of newborn DKO mice showed normal organ structure and branching but displayed marked defects of maturation including much-reduced alveolar space with thick separating septa and significant alterations of differentiation of alveolar (AT1, AT2 pneumocytes) and bronchiolar (ciliated, Clara cells) cell lineages. We also observed the retention of significantly increased numbers of undifferentiated progenitor precursor cells in distal lung epithelia and the presence of substantial accumulations of periodic acid-Schiff-positive (PAS+) material and ceramide in the lung airways of newborn DKO mice. Interestingly, antenatal dexamethasone treatment partially mitigated the defective lung maturation phenotypes and extended the lifespan of the DKO animals up to 6 days, but was not sufficient to abrogate lethality in these mice. RNA microarray hybridization analyses of the lungs of dexamethasone-treated and untreated mice uncovered transcriptional changes pointing to functional and metabolic alterations that may be mechanistically relevant for the defective lung phenotypes observed in DKO mice. Our data suggest that delayed alveolar differentiation, altered sphingolipid metabolism and ceramide accumulation are primary contributors to the respiratory stress and neonatal lethality shown by DKO mice and uncover specific, critical roles of HRAS and NRAS for correct lung differentiation that are essential for neonatal survival and cannot be substituted by the remaining KRAS function in this organ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rocío Fuentes-Mateos
- Centro de Investigación del Cáncer-Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer (CSIC- Universidad de Salamanca) and CIBERONC, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - David Jimeno
- Centro de Investigación del Cáncer-Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer (CSIC- Universidad de Salamanca) and CIBERONC, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Carmela Gómez
- Centro de Investigación del Cáncer-Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer (CSIC- Universidad de Salamanca) and CIBERONC, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Nuria Calzada
- Centro de Investigación del Cáncer-Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer (CSIC- Universidad de Salamanca) and CIBERONC, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Alberto Fernández-Medarde
- Centro de Investigación del Cáncer-Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer (CSIC- Universidad de Salamanca) and CIBERONC, 37007, Salamanca, Spain.
| | - Eugenio Santos
- Centro de Investigación del Cáncer-Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer (CSIC- Universidad de Salamanca) and CIBERONC, 37007, Salamanca, Spain.
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Muñoz-Maldonado C, Zimmer Y, Medová M. A Comparative Analysis of Individual RAS Mutations in Cancer Biology. Front Oncol 2019; 9:1088. [PMID: 31681616 PMCID: PMC6813200 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2019.01088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2019] [Accepted: 10/02/2019] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
In human cells, three closely related RAS genes, termed HRAS, KRAS, and NRAS, encode four highly homologous proteins. RAS proteins are small GTPases involved in a broad spectrum of key molecular and cellular activities, including proliferation and survival among others. Gain-of-function missense mutations, mostly located at codons 12, 13, and 61, constitutively activate RAS proteins and can be detected in various types of human cancers. KRAS is the most frequently mutated, followed by NRAS and HRAS. However, each isoform exhibits distinctive mutation frequency at each codon, supporting the hypothesis that different RAS mutants may lead to distinct biologic manifestations. This review is focused on the differences in signaling and phenotype, as well as on transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics profiles related to individual RAS-mutated variants. Additionally, association of these mutants with particular targeted outcomes and rare mutations at additional RAS codons are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Muñoz-Maldonado
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, Bern, Switzerland.,Radiation Oncology, Department for BioMedical Research, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Yitzhak Zimmer
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, Bern, Switzerland.,Radiation Oncology, Department for BioMedical Research, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Michaela Medová
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, Bern, Switzerland.,Radiation Oncology, Department for BioMedical Research, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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32
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Hood FE, Klinger B, Newlaczyl AU, Sieber A, Dorel M, Oliver SP, Coulson JM, Blüthgen N, Prior IA. Isoform-specific Ras signaling is growth factor dependent. Mol Biol Cell 2019; 30:1108-1117. [PMID: 30785867 PMCID: PMC6724511 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e18-10-0676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
HRAS, NRAS, and KRAS isoforms are almost identical proteins that are ubiquitously expressed and activate a common set of effectors. In vivo studies have revealed that they are not biologically redundant; however, the isoform specificity of Ras signaling remains poorly understood. Using a novel panel of isogenic SW48 cell lines endogenously expressing wild-type or G12V-mutated activated Ras isoforms, we have performed a detailed characterization of endogenous isoform-specific mutant Ras signaling. We find that despite displaying significant Ras activation, the downstream outputs of oncogenic Ras mutants are minimal in the absence of growth factor inputs. The lack of mutant KRAS-induced effector activation observed in SW48 cells appears to be representative of a broad panel of colon cancer cell lines harboring mutant KRAS. For MAP kinase pathway activation in KRAS-mutant cells, the requirement for coincident growth factor stimulation occurs at an early point in the Raf activation cycle. Finally, we find that Ras isoform-specific signaling was highly context dependent and did not conform to the dogma derived from ectopic expression studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fiona E Hood
- Division of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX, United Kingdom
| | - Bertram Klinger
- Institute of Pathology, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany.,Integrative Research Institute for the Life Sciences, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 10099 Berlin, Germany.,Institute for Theoretical Biology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Anna U Newlaczyl
- Division of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX, United Kingdom
| | - Anja Sieber
- Institute of Pathology, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany.,Integrative Research Institute for the Life Sciences, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 10099 Berlin, Germany.,Institute for Theoretical Biology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Mathurin Dorel
- Institute of Pathology, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany.,Integrative Research Institute for the Life Sciences, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 10099 Berlin, Germany.,Institute for Theoretical Biology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Simon P Oliver
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Chester, CH1 4BJ Chester, United Kingdom
| | - Judy M Coulson
- Division of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX, United Kingdom
| | - Nils Blüthgen
- Institute of Pathology, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany.,Integrative Research Institute for the Life Sciences, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 10099 Berlin, Germany.,Institute for Theoretical Biology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Ian A Prior
- Division of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX, United Kingdom
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Abstract
The three RAS genes - HRAS, NRAS and KRAS - are collectively mutated in one-third of human cancers, where they act as prototypic oncogenes. Interestingly, there are rather distinct patterns to RAS mutations; the isoform mutated as well as the position and type of substitution vary between different cancers. As RAS genes are among the earliest, if not the first, genes mutated in a variety of cancers, understanding how these mutation patterns arise could inform on not only how cancer begins but also the factors influencing this event, which has implications for cancer prevention. To this end, we suggest that there is a narrow window or 'sweet spot' by which oncogenic RAS signalling can promote tumour initiation in normal cells. As a consequence, RAS mutation patterns in each normal cell are a product of the specific RAS isoform mutated, as well as the position of the mutation and type of substitution to achieve an ideal level of signalling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siqi Li
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Allan Balmain
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center and Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Christopher M Counter
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA.
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34
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Neale C, García AE. Methionine 170 is an Environmentally Sensitive Membrane Anchor in the Disordered HVR of K-Ras4B. J Phys Chem B 2018; 122:10086-10096. [PMID: 30351122 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.8b07919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Ras protein colocalization at the plasma membrane is implicated in the activation of signaling cascades that promote cell growth, survival, and motility. However, the mechanisms that underpin Ras self-association remain unclear. We use molecular dynamics simulations to show how basic and hydrophobic components of the disordered C-terminal membrane tether of K-Ras4B combine to regulate its membrane interactions. Specifically, anionic lipids attract lysine residues to the membrane surface, thereby splitting the peptide population into two states that exchange on the microsecond time scale. These states differ in the membrane insertion of a methionine residue, which is influenced by local membrane composition. As a result, these states may impose context-dependent biases on the disposition of Ras' signaling domain, with possible implications for the accessibility of its effector binding surfaces. We investigate Ras' ability to nanocluster by fly-casting for patches of anionic lipids and find that while anionic lipids promote the intermolecular association of K-Ras4B membrane tethers, at short range this appears to be a passive process in which anionic lipids electrostatically screen these cationic peptides to mitigate their natural repulsion. Together with the sub-microsecond stability of interpeptide contacts, this result suggests that experimentally observed K-Ras4B nanoclustering is not driven by direct intermolecular contact of its membrane tethers.
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35
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Mo SP, Coulson JM, Prior IA. RAS variant signalling. Biochem Soc Trans 2018; 46:1325-1332. [PMID: 30287508 PMCID: PMC6195641 DOI: 10.1042/bst20180173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2018] [Revised: 08/17/2018] [Accepted: 08/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
RAS proteins are small GTPases that regulate signalling networks that control cellular proliferation and survival. They are frequently mutated in cancer and a commonly occurring group of developmental disorders called RASopathies. We discuss recent findings describing how RAS isoforms and different activating mutations differentially contribute to normal and disease-associated biology and the mechanisms that have been proposed to underpin this.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie P Mo
- Division of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX, U.K
| | - Judy M Coulson
- Division of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX, U.K
| | - Ian A Prior
- Division of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX, U.K.
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36
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Adhikari H, Counter CM. Interrogating the protein interactomes of RAS isoforms identifies PIP5K1A as a KRAS-specific vulnerability. Nat Commun 2018; 9:3646. [PMID: 30194290 PMCID: PMC6128905 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-05692-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 07/19/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In human cancers, oncogenic mutations commonly occur in the RAS genes KRAS, NRAS, or HRAS, but there are no clinical RAS inhibitors. Mutations are more prevalent in KRAS, possibly suggesting a unique oncogenic activity mediated by KRAS-specific interaction partners, which might be targeted. Here, we determine the specific protein interactomes of each RAS isoform by BirA proximity-dependent biotin identification. The combined interactomes are screened by CRISPR-Cas9 loss-of-function assays for proteins required for oncogenic KRAS-dependent, NRAS-dependent, or HRAS-dependent proliferation and censored for druggable proteins. Using this strategy, we identify phosphatidylinositol phosphate kinase PIP5K1A as a KRAS-specific interactor and show that PIP5K1A binds to a unique region in KRAS. Furthermore, PIP5K1A depletion specifically reduces oncogenic KRAS signaling and proliferation, and sensitizes pancreatic cancer cell lines to a MAPK inhibitor. These results suggest PIP5K1A as a potential target in KRAS signaling for the treatment of KRAS-mutant cancers. RAS isoforms are frequently mutated in cancer but their inhibition remains challenging. By comparing the protein interactomes of the highly similar isoforms HRAS, NRAS and KRAS, the authors here identify PIP5K1A as a KRAS-specific interactor and a target to inhibit KRAS-driven cell growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hema Adhikari
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University Medical Center, DUMC-3813, Durham, NC, 27713, USA
| | - Christopher M Counter
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University Medical Center, DUMC-3813, Durham, NC, 27713, USA. .,Department of Radiation Oncology, Duke University Medical Center, DUMC-3813, Durham, NC, 27713, USA.
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37
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Mayor-Ruiz C, Olbrich T, Drosten M, Lecona E, Vega-Sendino M, Ortega S, Dominguez O, Barbacid M, Ruiz S, Fernandez-Capetillo O. ERF deletion rescues RAS deficiency in mouse embryonic stem cells. Genes Dev 2018; 32:568-576. [PMID: 29650524 PMCID: PMC5959239 DOI: 10.1101/gad.310086.117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2017] [Accepted: 03/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Mayor-Ruiz et al. show that deletion of ERF rescues the proliferative defects of RAS-devoid mESCs and restores their capacity to differentiate. MEK inhibition in combination with a glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK3β) inhibitor, referred as the 2i condition, favors pluripotency in embryonic stem cells (ESCs). However, the mechanisms by which the 2i condition limits ESC differentiation and whether RAS proteins are involved in this phenomenon remain poorly understood. Here we show that RAS nullyzygosity reduces the growth of mouse ESCs (mESCs) and prohibits their differentiation. Upon RAS deficiency or MEK inhibition, ERF (E twenty-six 2 [Ets2]-repressive factor), a transcriptional repressor from the ETS domain family, translocates to the nucleus, where it binds to the enhancers of pluripotency factors and key RAS targets. Remarkably, deletion of Erf rescues the proliferative defects of RAS-devoid mESCs and restores their capacity to differentiate. Furthermore, we show that Erf loss enables the development of RAS nullyzygous teratomas. In summary, this work reveals an essential role for RAS proteins in pluripotency and identifies ERF as a key mediator of the response to RAS/MEK/ERK inhibition in mESCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Mayor-Ruiz
- Genomic Instability Group, Spanish National Cancer Research Centre (CNIO), Madrid 28029, Spain
| | - Teresa Olbrich
- Genomic Instability Group, Spanish National Cancer Research Centre (CNIO), Madrid 28029, Spain
| | - Matthias Drosten
- Experimental Oncology Group, Spanish National Cancer Research Centre (CNIO), Madrid 28029, Spain
| | - Emilio Lecona
- Genomic Instability Group, Spanish National Cancer Research Centre (CNIO), Madrid 28029, Spain
| | - Maria Vega-Sendino
- Genomic Instability Group, Spanish National Cancer Research Centre (CNIO), Madrid 28029, Spain
| | - Sagrario Ortega
- Transgenic Unit, Spanish National Cancer Research Centre (CNIO), Madrid 28029, Spain
| | - Orlando Dominguez
- Genomics Unit, Spanish National Cancer Research Centre (CNIO), Madrid 28029, Spain
| | - Mariano Barbacid
- Experimental Oncology Group, Spanish National Cancer Research Centre (CNIO), Madrid 28029, Spain
| | - Sergio Ruiz
- Genomic Instability Group, Spanish National Cancer Research Centre (CNIO), Madrid 28029, Spain
| | - Oscar Fernandez-Capetillo
- Genomic Instability Group, Spanish National Cancer Research Centre (CNIO), Madrid 28029, Spain.,Science for Life Laboratory, Division of Genome Biology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institute, S-171 21 Stockholm, Sweden
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38
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Martín‐Sánchez P, Luengo A, Griera M, Orea MJ, López‐Olañeta M, Chiloeches A, Lara‐Pezzi E, Frutos S, Rodríguez–Puyol M, Calleros L, Rodríguez–Puyol D. H‐
ras
deletion protects against angiotensin II–induced arterial hypertension and cardiac remodeling through protein kinase G‐Iβ pathway activation. FASEB J 2018; 32:920-934. [DOI: 10.1096/fj.201700134rrrr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Paloma Martín‐Sánchez
- Department of Systems BiologyUniversidad de AlcaláMadridSpain
- Instituto Reina Sofía de Investigación en Neurológica (IRSIN)MadridSpain
- Red de Investigación Renal (REDinREN)Instituto de Salud Carlos IIIMadridSpain
| | - Alicia Luengo
- Department of Systems BiologyUniversidad de AlcaláMadridSpain
- Instituto Reina Sofía de Investigación en Neurológica (IRSIN)MadridSpain
- Red de Investigación Renal (REDinREN)Instituto de Salud Carlos IIIMadridSpain
| | - Mercedes Griera
- Department of Systems BiologyUniversidad de AlcaláMadridSpain
- Instituto Reina Sofía de Investigación en Neurológica (IRSIN)MadridSpain
- Red de Investigación Renal (REDinREN)Instituto de Salud Carlos IIIMadridSpain
| | | | - Marina López‐Olañeta
- Myocardial Pathophysiology AreaCentro Nacional de Investigaciones CardiovascularesMadridSpain
| | | | - Enrique Lara‐Pezzi
- Myocardial Pathophysiology AreaCentro Nacional de Investigaciones CardiovascularesMadridSpain
| | - Sergio Frutos
- Department of Systems BiologyUniversidad de AlcaláMadridSpain
- Instituto Reina Sofía de Investigación en Neurológica (IRSIN)MadridSpain
- Red de Investigación Renal (REDinREN)Instituto de Salud Carlos IIIMadridSpain
| | - Manuel Rodríguez–Puyol
- Department of Systems BiologyUniversidad de AlcaláMadridSpain
- Instituto Reina Sofía de Investigación en Neurológica (IRSIN)MadridSpain
- Red de Investigación Renal (REDinREN)Instituto de Salud Carlos IIIMadridSpain
| | - Laura Calleros
- Department of Systems BiologyUniversidad de AlcaláMadridSpain
- Instituto Reina Sofía de Investigación en Neurológica (IRSIN)MadridSpain
- Red de Investigación Renal (REDinREN)Instituto de Salud Carlos IIIMadridSpain
| | - Diego Rodríguez–Puyol
- Department of MedicineUniversidad de AlcaláMadridSpain
- Instituto Reina Sofía de Investigación en Neurológica (IRSIN)MadridSpain
- Red de Investigación Renal (REDinREN)Instituto de Salud Carlos IIIMadridSpain
- Nephrology SectionResearch Unit FoundationHospital Universitario Príncipe de AsturiasAlcalá de HenaresMadridSpain
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39
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Dorard C, Vucak G, Baccarini M. Deciphering the RAS/ERK pathway in vivo. Biochem Soc Trans 2017; 45:27-36. [PMID: 28202657 DOI: 10.1042/bst20160135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2016] [Revised: 11/03/2016] [Accepted: 11/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The RAS/ERK pathway has been intensely studied for about three decades, not least because of its role in human pathologies. ERK activation is observed in the majority of human cancers; in about one-third of them, it is driven by mutational activation of pathway components. The pathway is arguably one of the best targets for molecule-based pharmacological intervention, and several small-molecule inhibitors are in clinical use. Genetically engineered mouse models have greatly contributed to our understanding of signaling pathways in development, tissue homeostasis, and disease. In the specific case of the RAS/ERK pathway, they have revealed unique biological roles of structurally and functionally similar proteins, new kinase-independent effectors, and unsuspected relationships with other cascades. This short review summarizes the contribution of mouse models to our current understanding of the pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Coralie Dorard
- Max F. Perutz Laboratories, Center for Molecular Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna 1030, Austria
| | - Georg Vucak
- Max F. Perutz Laboratories, Center for Molecular Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna 1030, Austria
| | - Manuela Baccarini
- Max F. Perutz Laboratories, Center for Molecular Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna 1030, Austria
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40
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Quantification of spatiotemporal patterns of Ras isoform expression during development. Sci Rep 2017; 7:41297. [PMID: 28117393 PMCID: PMC5259795 DOI: 10.1038/srep41297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2016] [Accepted: 12/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Ras proteins are important signalling hubs frequently dysregulated in cancer and in a group of developmental disorders called Rasopathies. Three Ras genes encode four proteins that differentially contribute to these phenotypes. Using quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) we have measured the gene expression profiles of each of the Ras isoforms in a panel of mouse tissues derived from a full developmental time course spanning embryogenesis through to adulthood. In most tissues and developmental stages we observe a relative contribution of KRas4B > > NRas ≥ KRas4A > HRas to total Ras expression with KRas4B typically representing 60–99% of all Ras transcripts. KRas4A is the most dynamically regulated Ras isoform with significant up-regulation of expression observed pre-term in stomach, intestine, kidney and heart. The expression patterns assist interpretation of the essential role of KRas in development and the preponderance of KRas mutations in cancer.
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41
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Lechuga CG, Simón-Carrasco L, Jacob HKC, Drosten M. Genetic Validation of Cell Proliferation via Ras-Independent Activation of the Raf/Mek/Erk Pathway. Methods Mol Biol 2017; 1487:269-276. [PMID: 27924574 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-6424-6_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Signaling transmitted by the Ras family of small GTPases (H-, N-, and K-Ras) is essential for proliferation of mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs). However, constitutive activation of the downstream Raf/Mek/Erk pathway can bypass the requirement for Ras proteins and allow cells to proliferate in the absence of the three Ras isoforms. Here we describe a protocol for a colony formation assay that permits evaluating the role of candidate proteins that are positive or negative regulators of cell proliferation mediated via Ras-independent Raf/Mek/Erk pathway activation. K-Raslox (H-Ras -/-, N-Ras -/-, K-Ras lox/lox, RERTert/ert) MEFs are infected with retro- or lentiviral vectors expressing wild-type or constitutively activated candidate cDNAs, shRNAs, or sgRNAs in combination with Cas9 to ascertain the possibility of candidate proteins to function either as an activator or inhibitor of Ras-independent Raf/Mek/Erk activation. These cells are then seeded in the absence or presence of 4-Hydroxytamoxifen (4-OHT), which activates the resident CreERT2 alleles resulting in elimination of the conditional K-Ras alleles and ultimately generating Rasless cells. Colony formation in the presence of 4-OHT indicates cell proliferation via Ras-independent Raf/Mek/Erk activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen G Lechuga
- Molecular Oncology Programme,, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Oncológicas (CNIO), Melchor Fernández Almagro 3, Madrid, 28029, Spain
| | - Lucía Simón-Carrasco
- Molecular Oncology Programme,, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Oncológicas (CNIO), Melchor Fernández Almagro 3, Madrid, 28029, Spain
| | - Harrys K C Jacob
- Molecular Oncology Programme,, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Oncológicas (CNIO), Melchor Fernández Almagro 3, Madrid, 28029, Spain
| | - Matthias Drosten
- Molecular Oncology Programme,, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Oncológicas (CNIO), Melchor Fernández Almagro 3, Madrid, 28029, Spain.
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42
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Drosten M, Simón-Carrasco L, Hernández-Porras I, Lechuga CG, Blasco MT, Jacob HKC, Fabbiano S, Potenza N, Bustelo XR, Guerra C, Barbacid M. H-Ras and K-Ras Oncoproteins Induce Different Tumor Spectra When Driven by the Same Regulatory Sequences. Cancer Res 2016; 77:707-718. [PMID: 27872088 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-16-2925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2016] [Accepted: 10/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Genetic studies in mice have provided evidence that H-Ras and K-Ras proteins are bioequivalent. However, human tumors display marked differences in the association of RAS oncogenes with tumor type. Thus, to further assess the bioequivalence of oncogenic H-Ras and K-Ras, we replaced the coding region of the murine K-Ras locus with H-RasG12V oncogene sequences. Germline expression of H-RasG12V or K-RasG12V from the K-Ras locus resulted in embryonic lethality. However, expression of these genes in adult mice led to different tumor phenotypes. Whereas H-RasG12V elicited papillomas and hematopoietic tumors, K-RasG12V induced lung tumors and gastric lesions. Pulmonary expression of H-RasG12V created a senescence-like state caused by excessive MAPK signaling. Likewise, H-RasG12V but not K-RasG12V induced senescence in mouse embryonic fibroblasts. Label-free quantitative analysis revealed that minor differences in H-RasG12V expression levels led to drastically different biological outputs, suggesting that subtle differences in MAPK signaling confer nonequivalent functions that influence tumor spectra induced by RAS oncoproteins. Cancer Res; 77(3); 707-18. ©2016 AACR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Drosten
- Molecular Oncology Programme, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Oncológicas (CNIO), Madrid, Spain.
| | - Lucía Simón-Carrasco
- Molecular Oncology Programme, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Oncológicas (CNIO), Madrid, Spain
| | - Isabel Hernández-Porras
- Molecular Oncology Programme, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Oncológicas (CNIO), Madrid, Spain
| | - Carmen G Lechuga
- Molecular Oncology Programme, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Oncológicas (CNIO), Madrid, Spain
| | - María T Blasco
- Molecular Oncology Programme, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Oncológicas (CNIO), Madrid, Spain
| | - Harrys K C Jacob
- Molecular Oncology Programme, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Oncológicas (CNIO), Madrid, Spain
| | - Salvatore Fabbiano
- Centro de Investigación del Cáncer and Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer, CSIC-Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Cáncer (CIBERONC), Salamanca, Spain
| | - Nicoletta Potenza
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies (DiSTABiF), Second University of Naples, Caserta, Italy
| | - Xosé R Bustelo
- Centro de Investigación del Cáncer and Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer, CSIC-Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Cáncer (CIBERONC), Salamanca, Spain
| | - Carmen Guerra
- Molecular Oncology Programme, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Oncológicas (CNIO), Madrid, Spain
| | - Mariano Barbacid
- Molecular Oncology Programme, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Oncológicas (CNIO), Madrid, Spain.
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43
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Brock EJ, Ji K, Reiners JJ, Mattingly RR. How to Target Activated Ras Proteins: Direct Inhibition vs. Induced Mislocalization. Mini Rev Med Chem 2016; 16:358-69. [PMID: 26423696 DOI: 10.2174/1389557515666151001154002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2015] [Revised: 09/03/2015] [Accepted: 09/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Oncogenic Ras proteins are a driving force in a significant set of human cancers and wildtype, unmutated Ras proteins likely contribute to the malignant phenotype of many more. The overall challenge of targeting activated Ras proteins has great promise to treat cancer, but this goal has yet to be achieved. Significant efforts and resources have been committed to inhibiting Ras, but these energies have so far made little impact in the clinic. Direct attempts to target activated Ras proteins have faced many obstacles, including the fundamental nature of the gain-of-function oncogenic activity being produced by a loss-of-function at the biochemical level. Nevertheless, there has been very promising recent pre-clinical progress. The major strategy that has so far reached the clinic aimed to inhibit activated Ras indirectly through blocking its post-translational modification and inducing its mislocalization. While these efforts to indirectly target Ras through inhibition of farnesyl transferase (FTase) were rationally designed, this strategy suffered from insufficient attention to the distinctions between the isoforms of Ras. This led to subsequent failures in large-scale clinical trials targeting K-Ras driven lung, colon, and pancreatic cancers. Despite these setbacks, efforts to indirectly target activated Ras through inducing its mislocalization have persisted. It is plausible that FTase inhibitors may still have some utility in the clinic, perhaps in combination with statins or other agents. Alternative approaches for inducing mislocalization of Ras through disruption of its palmitoylation cycle or interaction with chaperone proteins are in early stages of development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Raymond R Mattingly
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, 540 East Canfield Ave, Detroit MI, USA.
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44
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Kano Y, Cook JD, Lee JE, Ohh M. New structural and functional insight into the regulation of Ras. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2016; 58:70-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2016.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2016] [Revised: 06/06/2016] [Accepted: 06/07/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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45
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Zhou B, Der CJ, Cox AD. The role of wild type RAS isoforms in cancer. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2016; 58:60-9. [PMID: 27422332 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2016.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2016] [Accepted: 07/12/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Mutationally activated RAS proteins are critical oncogenic drivers in nearly 30% of all human cancers. As with mutant RAS, the role of wild type RAS proteins in oncogenesis, tumour maintenance and metastasis is context-dependent. Complexity is introduced by the existence of multiple RAS genes (HRAS, KRAS, NRAS) and protein "isoforms" (KRAS4A, KRAS4B), by the ever more complicated network of RAS signaling, and by the increasing identification of numerous genetic aberrations in cancers that do and do not harbour mutant RAS. Numerous mouse model carcinogenesis studies and examination of patient tumours reveal that, in RAS-mutant cancers, wild type RAS proteins are likely to serve as tumour suppressors when the mutant RAS is of the same isoform. This evidence is particularly robust in KRAS mutant cancers, which often display suppression or loss of wild type KRAS, but is not as strong for NRAS. In contrast, although not yet fully elucidated, the preponderance of evidence indicates that wild type RAS proteins play a tumour promoting role when the mutant RAS is of a different isoform. In non-RAS mutant cancers, wild type RAS is recognized as a mediator of oncogenic signaling due to chronic activation of upstream receptor tyrosine kinases that feed through RAS. Additionally, in the absence of mutant RAS, activation of wild type RAS may drive cancer upon the loss of negative RAS regulators such as NF1 GAP or SPRY proteins. Here we explore the current state of knowledge with respect to the roles of wild type RAS proteins in human cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bingying Zhou
- Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7295, USA.
| | - Channing J Der
- Department of Pharmacology, Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7295, USA.
| | - Adrienne D Cox
- Department of Pharmacology, Department of Radiation Oncology, Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7295, USA.
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46
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Zhang F, Cheong JK. The renewed battle against RAS-mutant cancers. Cell Mol Life Sci 2016; 73:1845-58. [PMID: 26892781 PMCID: PMC11108322 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-016-2155-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2015] [Revised: 01/28/2016] [Accepted: 02/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The RAS genes encode for members of a large superfamily of guanosine-5'-triphosphate (GTP)-binding proteins that control diverse intracellular signaling pathways to promote cell proliferation. Somatic mutations in the RAS oncogenes are the most common activating lesions found in human cancers. These mutations invariably result in the gain-of-function of RAS by impairing GTP hydrolysis and are frequently associated with poor responses to standard cancer therapies. In this review, we summarize key findings of past and present landmark studies that have deepened our understanding of the RAS biology in the context of oncogenesis. We also discuss how emerging areas of research could further bolster a renewed global effort to target the largely undruggable oncogenic RAS and/or its activated downstream effector signaling cascades to achieve better treatment outcomes for RAS-mutant cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fuquan Zhang
- Programme in Cancer and Stem Cell Biology, Duke-NUS Medical School, 8 College Road, Singapore, 169857, Singapore
| | - Jit Kong Cheong
- Programme in Cancer and Stem Cell Biology, Duke-NUS Medical School, 8 College Road, Singapore, 169857, Singapore.
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47
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Damnernsawad A, Kong G, Wen Z, Liu Y, Rajagopalan A, You X, Wang J, Zhou Y, Ranheim EA, Luo HR, Chang Q, Zhang J. Kras is Required for Adult Hematopoiesis. Stem Cells 2016; 34:1859-71. [PMID: 26972179 DOI: 10.1002/stem.2355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2015] [Accepted: 02/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies indicate that Kras is dispensable for fetal liver hematopoiesis, but its role in adult hematopoiesis remains unclear. Here, we generated a Kras conditional knockout allele to address this question. Deletion of Kras in adult bone marrow (BM) is mediated by Vav-Cre or inducible Mx1-Cre. We find that loss of Kras leads to greatly reduced thrombopoietin (TPO) signaling in hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) and multipotent progenitors (MPPs), while stem cell factor-evoked ERK1/2 activation is not affected. The compromised TPO signaling is associated with reduced long term- and intermediate-term HSC compartments and a bias toward myeloid differentiation in MPPs. Although granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF)-evoked ERK1/2 activation is only moderately decreased in Kras(-/-) myeloid progenitors, it is blunted in neutrophils and neutrophil survival is significantly reduced in vitro. At 9-12 months old, Kras conditional knockout mice develop profound hematopoietic defects, including splenomegaly, an expanded neutrophil compartment, and reduced B cell number. In a serial transplantation assay, the reconstitution potential of Kras(-/-) BM cells is greatly compromised, which is attributable to defects in the self-renewal of Kras(-/-) HSCs and defects in differentiated hematopoietic cells. Our results demonstrate that Kras is a major regulator of TPO and GM-CSF signaling in specific populations of hematopoietic cells and its function is required for adult hematopoiesis. Stem Cells 2016;34:1859-1871.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alisa Damnernsawad
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Guangyao Kong
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Zhi Wen
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Yangang Liu
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Adhithi Rajagopalan
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Xiaona You
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Jinyong Wang
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Yun Zhou
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Erik A Ranheim
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Hongbo R Luo
- Department of Pathology, Harvard Medical School and Boston Children's Hospital, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Qiang Chang
- Department of Medical Genetics and Department of Neurology, Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Jing Zhang
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Wisconsin, USA
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48
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Wang MT, Holderfield M, Galeas J, Delrosario R, To MD, Balmain A, McCormick F. K-Ras Promotes Tumorigenicity through Suppression of Non-canonical Wnt Signaling. Cell 2016; 163:1237-1251. [PMID: 26590425 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2015.10.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2015] [Revised: 10/01/2015] [Accepted: 10/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
K-Ras and H-Ras share identical effectors and have similar properties; however, the high degree of tumor-type specificity associated with K-Ras and H-Ras mutations suggests that they have unique roles in oncogenesis. Here, we report that oncogenic K-Ras, but not H-Ras, suppresses non-canonical Wnt/Ca(2+) signaling, an effect that contributes strongly to its tumorigenic properties. K-Ras does this by binding to calmodulin and so reducing CaMKii activity and expression of Fzd8. Restoring Fzd8 in K-Ras mutant pancreatic cells suppresses malignancy, whereas depletion of Fzd8 in H-Ras(V12)-transformed cells enhances their tumor initiating capacity. Interrupting K-Ras-calmodulin binding using genetic means or by treatment with an orally active protein kinase C (PKC)-activator, prostratin, represses tumorigenesis in K-Ras mutant pancreatic cancer cells. These findings provide an alternative way to selectively target this "undruggable" protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Man-Tzu Wang
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, 1450 3(rd) Street, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Matthew Holderfield
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, 1450 3(rd) Street, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Jacqueline Galeas
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, 1450 3(rd) Street, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Reyno Delrosario
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, 1450 3(rd) Street, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Minh D To
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, 1450 3(rd) Street, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Allan Balmain
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, 1450 3(rd) Street, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Frank McCormick
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, 1450 3(rd) Street, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA.
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Muñoz-Félix JM, Fuentes-Calvo I, Cuesta C, Eleno N, Crespo P, López-Novoa JM, Martínez-Salgado C. Absence of K-Ras Reduces Proliferation and Migration But Increases Extracellular Matrix Synthesis in Fibroblasts. J Cell Physiol 2016; 231:2224-35. [PMID: 26873620 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.25340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2015] [Accepted: 02/10/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The involvement of Ras-GTPases in the development of renal fibrosis has been addressed in the last decade. We have previously shown that H- and N-Ras isoforms participate in the regulation of fibrosis. Herein, we assessed the role of K-Ras in cellular processes involved in the development of fibrosis: proliferation, migration, and extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins synthesis. K-Ras knockout (KO) mouse embryonic fibroblasts (K-ras(-/-) ) stimulated with transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) exhibited reduced proliferation and impaired mobility than wild-type fibroblasts. Moreover, an increase on ECM production was observed in K-Ras KO fibroblasts in basal conditions. The absence of K-Ras was accompanied by reduced Ras activation and ERK phosphorylation, and increased AKT phosphorylation, but no differences were observed in TGF-β1-induced Smad signaling. The MEK inhibitor U0126 decreased cell proliferation independently of the presence of K-ras but reduced migration and ECM proteins expression only in wild-type fibroblasts, while the PI3K-AKT inhibitor LY294002 decreased cell proliferation, migration, and ECM synthesis in both types of fibroblasts. Thus, our data unveil that K-Ras and its downstream effector pathways distinctively regulate key biological processes in the development of fibrosis. Moreover, we show that K-Ras may be a crucial mediator in TGF-β1-mediated effects in this cell type. J. Cell. Physiol. 231: 2224-2235, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- José M Muñoz-Félix
- Unidad de Fisiopatología Renal y Cardiovascular, Departamento de Fisiología y Farmacología, Instituto "Reina Sofía" de Investigación Nefrológica, Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain.,Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Salamanca (IBSAL), Salamanca, Spain
| | - Isabel Fuentes-Calvo
- Unidad de Fisiopatología Renal y Cardiovascular, Departamento de Fisiología y Farmacología, Instituto "Reina Sofía" de Investigación Nefrológica, Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain.,Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Salamanca (IBSAL), Salamanca, Spain
| | - Cristina Cuesta
- Unidad de Fisiopatología Renal y Cardiovascular, Departamento de Fisiología y Farmacología, Instituto "Reina Sofía" de Investigación Nefrológica, Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain.,Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Salamanca (IBSAL), Salamanca, Spain
| | - Nélida Eleno
- Unidad de Fisiopatología Renal y Cardiovascular, Departamento de Fisiología y Farmacología, Instituto "Reina Sofía" de Investigación Nefrológica, Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain.,Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Salamanca (IBSAL), Salamanca, Spain
| | - Piero Crespo
- Facultad de Medicina, Departamento de Biología Molecular, Instituto de Biomedicina y Biotecnología de Cantabria, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-IDICAN-Universidad de Cantabria, Santander, Spain
| | - José M López-Novoa
- Unidad de Fisiopatología Renal y Cardiovascular, Departamento de Fisiología y Farmacología, Instituto "Reina Sofía" de Investigación Nefrológica, Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain.,Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Salamanca (IBSAL), Salamanca, Spain
| | - Carlos Martínez-Salgado
- Unidad de Fisiopatología Renal y Cardiovascular, Departamento de Fisiología y Farmacología, Instituto "Reina Sofía" de Investigación Nefrológica, Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain.,Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Salamanca (IBSAL), Salamanca, Spain.,Instituto de Estudios de Ciencias de la Salud de Castilla y León (IECSCYL), Unidad de Investigación, Hospital Universitario de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
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50
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Fang B. RAS signaling and anti-RAS therapy: lessons learned from genetically engineered mouse models, human cancer cells, and patient-related studies. Acta Biochim Biophys Sin (Shanghai) 2016; 48:27-38. [PMID: 26350096 DOI: 10.1093/abbs/gmv090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2015] [Accepted: 07/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Activating mutations of oncogenic RAS genes are frequently detected in human cancers. The studies in genetically engineered mouse models (GEMMs) reveal that Kras-activating mutations predispose mice to early onset tumors in the lung, pancreas, and gastrointestinal tract. Nevertheless, most of these tumors do not have metastatic phenotypes. Metastasis occurs when tumors acquire additional genetic changes in other cancer driver genes. Studies on clinical specimens also demonstrated that KRAS mutations are present in premalignant tissues and that most of KRAS mutant human cancers have co-mutations in other cancer driver genes, including TP53, STK11, CDKN2A, and KMT2C in lung cancer; APC, TP53, and PIK3CA in colon cancer; and TP53, CDKN2A, SMAD4, and MED12 in pancreatic cancer. Extensive efforts have been devoted to develop therapeutic agents that target enzymes involved in RAS posttranslational modifications, that inhibit downstream effectors of RAS signaling pathways, and that kill RAS mutant cancer cells through synthetic lethality. Recent clinical studies have revealed that sorafenib, a pan-RAF and VEGFR inhibitor, has impressive benefits for KRAS mutant lung cancer patients. Combination therapy of MEK inhibitors with either docetaxel, AKT inhibitors, or PI3K inhibitors also led to improved clinical responses in some KRAS mutant cancer patients. This review discusses knowledge gained from GEMMs, human cancer cells, and patient-related studies on RAS-mediated tumorigenesis and anti-RAS therapy. Emerging evidence demonstrates that RAS mutant cancers are heterogeneous because of the presence of different mutant alleles and/or co-mutations in other cancer driver genes. Effective subclassifications of RAS mutant cancers may be necessary to improve patients' outcomes through personalized precision medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bingliang Fang
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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