Induction of the interleukin-2/15 receptor beta-chain by the EWS-WT1 translocation product

Single-cell multiomics profiling reveals heterogeneous transcriptional programs and microenvironment in DSRCTs

Desmoplastic small round cell tumor (DSRCT) is a rare, aggressive sarcoma driven by the EWSR1::WT1 chimeric transcription factor. Despite this unique oncogenic driver, DSRCT displays a polyphenotypic differentiation of unknown causality. Using single-cell multi-omics on 12 samples from five patients, we find that DSRCT tumor cells cluster into consistent subpopulations with partially overlapping lineage- and metabolism-related transcriptional programs. In vitro modeling shows that high EWSR1::WT1 DNA-binding activity associates with most lineage-related states, in contrast to glycolytic and profibrotic states. Single-cell chromatin accessibility analysis suggests that EWSR1::WT1 binding site variability may drive distinct lineage-related transcriptional programs, supporting some level of cell-intrinsic plasticity. Spatial transcriptomics reveals that glycolytic and profibrotic states specifically localize within hypoxic niches at the periphery of tumor cell islets, suggesting an additional role of tumor cell-extrinsic microenvironmental cues. We finally identify a single-cell transcriptomics-derived epithelial signature associated with improved patient survival, highlighting the clinical relevance of our findings.

Salt-Inducible Kinase 1 is a potential therapeutic target in Desmoplastic Small Round Cell Tumor

Desmoplastic Small Round Cell Tumor (DSRCT) is a rare and aggressive malignant cancer caused by a chromosomal translocation t(11;22)(p13;q12) that produces an oncogenic transcription factor, EWSR1-WT1. EWSR1-WT1 is essential for the initiation and progression of DSRCT. However, the precise mechanism by which EWSR1-WT1 drives DSRCT oncogenesis remains unresolved. Through our integrative gene expression analysis, we identified Salt Inducible Kinase 1 (SIK1) as a direct target of EWSR1-WT1. SIK1 as a member of the AMPK related kinase is involved in many biological processes. We showed that depletion of SIK1 causes inhibition of tumor cell growth, similar to the growth inhibition observed when EWSR1-WT1 is depleted. We further showed that silencing SIK1 leads to cessation of DNA replication in DSRCT cells and inhibition of tumor growth in vivo. Lastly, combined inhibition of SIK1 and CHEK1with small molecule inhibitors, YKL-05-099 and prexasertib, respectively, showed enhanced cytotoxicity in DSRCT cells compared to inhibition of either kinases alone. This work identified SIK1 as a new potential therapeutic target in DSRCT and the efficacy of SIK1 inhibition may be improved when combined with other intervention strategies.

Multi-site desmoplastic small round cell tumors are genetically related and immune-cold

Desmoplastic small round cell tumor (DSRCT) is a highly aggressive soft tissue sarcoma that is characterized by the EWSR1-WT1 fusion protein. Patients present with hundreds of tumor implants in their abdominal cavity at various sites. To determine the genetic relatedness among these sites, exome and RNA sequencing were performed on 22 DSRCT specimens from 14 patients, four of whom had specimens from various tissue sites. Multi-site tumors from individual DSRCT patients had a shared origin and were highly related. Other than the EWSR1-WT1 fusion, very few secondary cancer gene mutations were shared among the sites. Among these, ARID1A, was recurrently mutated, which corroborates findings by others in DSRCT patients. Knocking out ARID1A in JN-DSRCT cells using CRISPR/CAS9 resulted in significantly lower cell proliferation and increased drug sensitivity. The transcriptome data were integrated using network analysis and drug target database information to identify potential therapeutic opportunities in EWSR1-WT1-associated pathways, such as PI3K and mTOR pathways. Treatment of JN-DSRCT cells with the PI3K inhibitor alpelisib and mTOR inhibitor temsirolimus reduced cell proliferation. In addition, the low mutation burden was associated with an immune-cold state in DSRCT. Together, these data reveal multiple genomic and immune features of DSRCT and suggest therapeutic opportunities in patients.

Primary desmoplastic small round cell tumor of the submandibular gland: a case report and literature review

Background

Desmoplastic small round cell tumor (DSRCT) is a sporadic, highly malignant tumor with a poor prognosis. The abdomen and pelvis have been reported as the primary localization sites. However, to the best of our knowledge, there are few reports on primary DSRCT in the submandibular gland.

Case presentation

We report a case of a 26-year-old Chinese man with a mass in the right submandibular gland. Imaging studies showed a hypoechoic mass in the right submandibular region. Intraoperative pathology revealed that the tumor tissue was composed of small round tumor cells and a dense desmoplastic stroma. On immunostaining, the tumor cells showed markers of epithelial, mesenchymal, myogenic, and neural differentiation. The EWSR1 gene rearrangement was detected by fluorescence in situ hybridization. Based on the overall morphological features and immunohistochemical findings, a final diagnosis of DSRCT was made. The patient was treated with comprehensive anti-tumor therapy mainly based on radiotherapy and chemotherapy.

Conclusions

DSRCT is an uncommon malignant neoplasm with rare submandibular gland involvement. In this report, we have described a case of DSRCT in the submandibular gland and reviewed the literature on DSRCT over the past 5 years. Considering the importance of differential diagnosis between DSRCT, especially with rare extra-peritoneal involvement, and small round blue cell tumors, a full recognition of the clinicopathological features will help to better diagnose this neoplasm.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13000-021-01183-3.

An Immune-Related Long Non-Coding RNA Signature to Predict the Prognosis of Ewing's Sarcoma Based on a Machine Learning Iterative Lasso Regression

The aim of this study was to construct a new immune-associated long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) signature to predict the prognosis of Ewing sarcoma (ES) and explore its molecular mechanisms. We downloaded transcriptome and clinical prognosis data from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GSE17679, which included 88 ES samples and 18 matched normal skeletal muscle samples), and used it as a training set to identify immune-related lncRNAs with different expression levels in ES. Univariable Cox regression was used to screen immune-related lncRNAs related to ES prognosis, and an immune-related lncRNA signature was constructed based on machine learning iterative lasso regression. An external verification set was used to confirm the predictive ability of the signature. Clinical feature subgroup analysis was used to explore whether the signature was an independent prognostic factor. In addition, CIBERSORT was used to explore immune cell infiltration in the high- and low-risk groups, and to analyze the correlations between the lncRNA signature and immune cell levels. Gene set enrichment and variation analyses were used to explore the possible regulatory mechanisms of the immune-related lncRNAs in ES. We also analyzed the expression of 17 common immunotherapy targets in the high- and low-risk groups to identify any that may be regulated by immune-related lncRNAs. We screened 35 immune-related lncRNAs by univariate Cox regression. Based on this, an immune-related 11-lncRNA signature was generated by machine learning iterative lasso regression. Analysis of the external validation set confirmed its high predictive ability. DPP10 antisense RNA 3 was negatively correlated with resting dendritic cell, neutrophil, and γδ T cell infiltration, and long intergenic non-protein coding RNA 1398 was positively correlated with resting dendritic cells and M2 macrophages. These lncRNAs may affect ES prognosis by regulating GSE17721_CTRL_VS_PAM3CSK4_12H_BMDC_UP, GSE2770_IL4_ACT_VS_ACT_CD4_TCELL_48H_UP, GSE29615_CTRL_VS_DAY3_ LAIV_IFLU_VACCINE_PBMC_UP, complement signaling, interleukin 2-signal transducer and activator of transcription 5 signaling, and protein secretion. The immune-related 11-lncRNA signature may also have regulatory effects on the immunotherapy targets CD40 molecule, CD70 molecule, and CD276 molecule. In conclusion, we constructed a new immune-related 11-lncRNA signature that can stratify the prognoses of patients with ES.

Transcriptome analysis of desmoplastic small round cell tumors identifies actionable therapeutic targets: a report from the Children's Oncology Group

To further understand the molecular pathogenesis of desmoplastic small round cell tumor (DSRCT), a fatal malignancy occurring primarily in adolescent/young adult males, we used next-generation RNA sequencing to investigate the gene expression profiles intrinsic to this disease. RNA from DSRCT specimens obtained from the Children's Oncology Group was sequenced using the Illumina HiSeq 2000 system and subjected to bioinformatic analyses. Validation and functional studies included WT1 ChIP-seq, EWS-WT1 knockdown using JN-DSRCT-1 cells and immunohistochemistry. A panel of immune signature genes was also evaluated to identify possible immune therapeutic targets. Twelve of 14 tumor samples demonstrated presence of the diagnostic EWSR1-WT1 translocation and these 12 samples were used for the remainder of the analysis. RNA sequencing confirmed the lack of full-length WT1 in all fusion positive samples as well as the JN-DSRCT-1 cell line. ChIP-seq for WT1 showed significant overlap with genes found to be highly expressed, including IGF2 and FGFR4, which were both highly expressed and targets of the EWS-WT1 fusion protein. In addition, we identified CD200 and CD276 as potentially targetable immune checkpoints whose expression is independent of the EWS-WT1 fusion gene in cultured DSCRT cells. In conclusion, we identified IGF2, FGFR4, CD200, and CD276 as potential therapeutic targets with clinical relevance for patients with DSRCT.

Desmoplastic small round cell tumor is dependent on the EWS-WT1 transcription factor

Desmoplastic small round cell tumor (DSRCT) is a rare and aggressive soft-tissue malignancy with a poor overall survival and no effective therapeutic options. The tumor is believed to be dependent on the continued activity of the oncogenic EWS-WT1 transcription factor. However, the dependence of the tumor on EWS-WT1 has not been well established. In addition, there are no studies exploring the downstream transcriptional program across multiple cell lines. In this study, we have developed a novel approach to selectively silence EWS-WT1 without impacting either wild-type EWSR1 or WT1. We show a clear dependence of the tumor on EWS-WT1 in two different cell lines, BER and JN-DSCRT-1. In addition, we identify and validate important downstream target pathways commonly dysregulated in other translocation-positive sarcomas, including PRC2, mTOR, and TGFB. Surprisingly, there is striking overlap between the EWS-WT1 and EWS-FLI1 gene signatures, despite the fact that the DNA-binding domain of the fusion proteins, WT1 and FLI1, is structurally unique and classified as different types of transcription factors. This study provides important insight into the biology of this disease relative to other translocation-positive sarcomas, and the basis for the therapeutic targeting of EWS-WT1 for this disease that has limited therapeutic options.

Desmoplastic Small Round Blue Cell Tumor: A Review of Treatment and Potential Therapeutic Genomic Alterations

Desmoplastic small round blue cell tumors (DSRCTs) originate from a cell with multilineage potential. A molecular hallmark of DSRCT is the EWS-WT1 reciprocal translocation. Ewing sarcoma and DSRCT are treated similarly due to similar oncogene activation pathways, and DSRCT has been represented in very limited numbers in sarcoma studies. Despite aggressive therapy, median survival ranges from 17 to 25 months, and 5-year survival rates remain around 15%, with higher survival reported among those undergoing removal of at least 90% of tumor in the absence of extraperitoneal metastasis. Almost 100% of these tumors contain t(11;22) (p13;q12) translocation, and it is likely that EWS-WT1 functions as a transcription factor possibly through WT1 targets. While there is no standard protocol for this aggressive disease, treatment usually includes the neoadjuvant HD P6 regimen (high-dose cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, and vincristine (HD-CAV) alternating with ifosfamide and etoposide (IE) chemotherapy combined with aggressively attempted R0 resection). We aimed to review the molecular characteristics of DSRCTs to explore therapeutic opportunities for this extremely rare and aggressive cancer type.

Desmoplastic small round cell tumor 20 years after its discovery

Desmoplastic small round cell tumor (DSRCT) was proposed as a distinct disease entity by William L Gerald and Juan Rosai in 1991. Over 850 patients have been reported in the medical literature. A specific translocation, t(11;22)(p13;q12), is seen in almost all cases, juxtaposing the EWS gene to the WT1 tumor suppressor gene. DSRCT is composed of nests of small round cells with polyphenotypic differentiation, typically a mixture of epithelial, mesenchymal and neural features, surrounded by a prominent desmoplastic stroma. DSRCT has a predilection for adolescent and young adult males, and primarily involves the abdominal cavity and pelvis. Survival is low despite their initial response to multimodal treatment. Most patients relapse with disseminated disease that is unresponsive to further therapy.

WT1 Mutation in Childhood Cancer

In this chapter, the role of WT1 in childhood cancer is discussed, using the key examples Wilms' tumor, desmoplastic small round cell of childhood, and leukemia. The role of WT1 in each disease is described and mirrored to the role of WT1 in normal development.

EWS-WT1 oncoprotein activates neuronal reprogramming factor ASCL1 and promotes neural differentiation

The oncogenic fusion gene EWS-WT1 is the defining chromosomal translocation in desmoplastic small round-cell tumors (DSRCT), a rare but aggressive soft tissue sarcoma with a high rate of mortality. EWS-WT1 functions as an aberrant transcription factor that drives tumorigenesis, but the mechanistic basis for its pathogenic activity is not well understood. To address this question, we created a transgenic mouse strain that permits physiologic expression of EWS-WT1 under the native murine Ews promoter. EWS-WT1 expression led to a dramatic induction of many neuronal genes in embryonic fibroblasts and primary DSRCT, most notably the neural reprogramming factor ASCL1. Mechanistic analyses demonstrated that EWS-WT1 directly bound the proximal promoter of ASCL1, activating its transcription through multiple WT1-responsive elements. Conversely, EWS-WT1 silencing in DSRCT cells reduced ASCL1 expression and cell viability. Notably, exposure of DSRCT cells to neuronal induction media increased neural gene expression and induced neurite-like projections, both of which were abrogated by silencing EWS-WT1. Taken together, our findings reveal that EWS-WT1 can activate neural gene expression and direct partial neural differentiation via ASCL1, suggesting agents that promote neural differentiation might offer a novel therapeutic approach to treat DSRCT.

Interleukin-2 at the crossroads of effector responses, tolerance, and immunotherapy

Interleukin-2 (IL-2) is a pleiotropic cytokine produced after antigen activation that plays pivotal roles in the immune response. Discovered as a T cell growth factor, IL-2 additionally promotes CD8(+) T cell and natural killer cell cytolytic activity and modulates T cell differentiation programs in response to antigen, promoting naïve CD4(+) T cell differentiation into T helper 1 (Th1) and T helper 2 (Th2) cells while inhibiting T helper 17 (Th17) and T follicular helper (Tfh) cell differentiation. Moreover, IL-2 is essential for the development and maintenance of T regulatory cells and for activation-induced cell death, thereby mediating tolerance and limiting inappropriate immune reactions. In this review, we focus on the molecular mechanisms and complex cellular actions of IL-2, its cooperative and opposing effects with other cytokines, and how both promoting and blocking the actions of IL-2 are being utilized in clinical medicine.

Paratesticular desmoplastic small round cell tumour: an unusual tumour with an unusual fusion; cytogenetic and molecular genetic analysis combining RT-PCR and COBRA-FISH

Desmoplastic small round cell tumour is a rare malignant tumour with a male to female ratio of 4:1. It manifests mostly at serosal sites. Here we present a case of a 28-year-old male patient, who presented with a fast growing paratesticular mass. On biopsy nests and cords of small round cells, without a clear morphological lineage of differentiation were seen. Occasionally desmoplatic small round cell tumour shows different lines of differentiation. An unequivocal histological diagnosis might be difficult in such cases. Here we demonstrate by a combination of methods the characteristic immunohistochemical profile and - albeit unusual - molecular background and discuss the eventual link with Ewing sarcoma.Immunohistochemical studies showed a membranous staining of Keratine AE1/3 and a dot-like staining of Desmine, confirming its diagnosis. Using COBRA-FISH following a metaphase approach we demonstrated a balanced translocation, t(11;22)(p13;q12) and in RT-PCR formation of the EWSR1-WT1 fusion product, a specific translocation of desmoplastic round cell tumour. The fusion involves exon 9 of EWSR1 to exon 8 of WT1, an unusual fusion product, though earlier described in a case of a desmoplastic small round cell tumour of the hand. The EWSR1-WT1 chimera seems to function as an oncogenic transcription factor. Here the zinc finger domain of the WT1 acts with affinity with certain promoter domains influencing the expression of various downstream proteins such as: PDGFA, PAX2, insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor, epidermal growth factor receptor, IL2 receptor beta, BAIAP3, MLF1, TALLA-1, LRRC15 and ENT. We discuss their potential oncogenic roles and potential therapeutic consequences.

Wilms' tumor protein Wt1 regulates the Interleukin-10 (IL-10) gene

We identified the Wilms' tumor protein, Wt1, as a novel transcriptional activator of the immunosuppressant cytokine interleukin-10 (IL-10). Silencing of Wt1 by RNA interference reduced IL-10 mRNA levels by approximately 90%. IL-10 transcripts were increased more than 15-fold upon forced expression of Wt1. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay and chromatin immunoprecipitation revealed a cis-element that was responsible for activation of the IL-10 promoter by Wt1 in murine macrophages. Mutation of the Wt1 binding motif abrogated stimulation of the IL-10 promoter by tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα). These results suggest a novel immune regulatory function of Wt1 in controlling IL-10 gene expression.

The predominant WT1 isoform (+KTS) encodes a DNA-binding protein targeting the planar cell polarity gene Scribble in renal podocytes

WT1 encodes a tumor suppressor first identified by its inactivation in Wilms' Tumor. Although one WT1 splicing variant encodes a well-characterized zinc finger transcription factor, little is known about the function of the most prevalent WT1 isoform, whose DNA binding domain is disrupted by a three-amino acid (KTS) insertion. Using cells that conditionally express WT1(+KTS), we undertook a genome-wide chromatin immunoprecipitation and cloning analysis to identify candidate WT1(+KTS)-regulated promoters. We identified the planar cell polarity gene Scribble (SCRB) as the first WT1(+KTS) target gene in podocytes of the kidney. WT1 and SCRB expression patterns overlap precisely in developing renal glomeruli of mice, and WT1(+KTS) binds to a 33-nucleotide region within the Scribble promoter in mouse and human cell lines and kidneys. Together, our results support a role for the predominant WT1(+KTS) isoform in transcriptional regulation and suggest a link between the WT1-dependent tumor suppressor pathway and a key component of the planar cell polarity pathway.

Soft tissue tumors associated with EWSR1 translocation

The Ewing sarcoma breakpoint region 1 (EWSR1; also known as EWS) represents one of the most commonly involved genes in sarcoma translocations. In fact, it is involved in a broad variety of mesenchymal lesions which includes Ewing's sarcoma/peripheral neuroectodermal tumor, desmoplastic small round cell tumor,clear cell sarcoma, angiomatoid fibrous histiocytoma, extraskeletal myxoid chondrosarcoma, and a subset of myxoid liposarcoma. The fusion products between EWSR1 and partners usually results in fusion of the N-terminal transcription-activating domain of EWSR1 and the C-terminal DNA-binding domain of the fusion partner, eventually generating novel transcription factors. EWSR1 rearrangement can be visualized by the means of fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). As soft tissue sarcomas represent a diagnostically challenging group, FISH analysis is an extremely useful confirmatory diagnostic tool. However, as in most instances a split-apart approach is used, the results of molecular genetics must be evaluated in context with morphology.

Adenosine transporter ENT4 is a direct target of EWS/WT1 translocation product and is highly expressed in desmoplastic small round cell tumor

Background

Desmoplastic Small Round Cell Tumor (DSRCT) is a highly aggressive malignancy that affects mainly adolescents and young adults. A defining characteristic of DSRCT is a specific chromosomal translocation, t(11;22)(p13;q12), that fuses EWS with WT1, leading to a production of two isoforms of chimeric transcription factor, EWS/WT1(−KTS) and EWS/WT1(+KTS). The chimeric proteins are thought to play critical roles in various stages of oncogenesis through aberrant transcription of different genes, but only a few of these genes have been identified.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We report the identification of a new target of EWS/WT1, ENT4 (equilibrative nucleoside transporter 4) which encodes a pH-dependent adenosine transporter. ENT4 is transcriptionally activated by both isoforms of EWS/WT1 as evidenced by promoter-reporter and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) analyses. Furthermore, ENT4 is highly and specifically expressed in primary tumors of DSRCT as well as in a DSRCT cell line, JN-DSRCT-1. Treatment of JN-DSRCT-1 cells with adenosine analogs, such as 2-chloro-2′-deoxyadenosine (2-CdA), resulted in an increased cytotoxic response in dose- and pH-dependent manner.

Conclusions/Significance

Our detailed analyses of a novel target of EWS/WT1 in DSRCT reveal an insight into the oncogenic mechanism of EWS-fusion chromosomal translocation gene products and provide a new marker for DSRCT. Furthermore, identification of ENT4 as a highly expressed transcript in DSRCT may represent an attractive pathway for targeting chemotherapeutic drugs into DSRCT.

Sarcomas: genetics, signalling, and cellular origins. Part 1: The fellowship of TET

Sarcomas comprise some of the most aggressive solid tumours that, for the most part, respond poorly to chemo- and radiation therapy and are associated with a sombre prognosis when surgical removal cannot be performed or is incomplete. Partly because of their lower frequency, sarcomas have not been studied as intensively as carcinomas and haematopoietic malignancies, and the molecular mechanisms that underlie their pathogenesis are only beginning to be understood. Even more enigmatic is the identity of the primary cells from which these tumours originate. Over the past 25 years, however, several non-random chromosomal translocations have been found to be associated with defined sarcomas. Each of these translocations generates a fusion gene believed to be directly related to the pathogenesis of the sarcoma in which it is expressed. The corresponding fusion proteins provide a unique tool not only to study the process of sarcoma development, but also to identify cells that are permissive for their putative oncogenic properties. This is the first of two reviews that cover the mechanisms whereby specific fusion/mutant gene products participate in sarcoma development and the cellular context that may provide the necessary permissiveness for their expression and oncogenicity. Part 1 of the review focuses on sarcomas that express fusion genes containing TET gene family products, including EWSR1, TLS/FUS, and TAFII68. Part 2 (J Pathol 2007; DOI: 10.1002/path.2008) summarizes our current understanding of the genetic and cellular origins of sarcomas expressing fusion genes exclusive of TET family members; it also covers soft tissue malignancies harbouring specific mutations in RTK-encoding genes, the prototype of which are gastrointestinal stromal tumours (GIST).

Spindle cell tumor with EWS-WT1 transcript and a favorable clinical course: a variant of DSCT, a variant of leiomyosarcoma, or a new entity? Report of 2 pediatric cases

We report 2 intra-abdominal tumors originally diagnosed as leiomyosarcomas, occurring in adolescents, one as a second malignancy after a Hodgkin lymphoma. Both tumors exhibited unusual morphologic features characterized by spindle cells arranged in sheets or in fascicles, devoid of the typical desmoplastic stroma. Cytokeratins and mesenchymal markers, including smooth muscle actin, desmin, and muscle specific actin, were coexpressed in the tumor cells, whereas EMA was negative. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis showed an EWS-WT1 fusion transcript. Both patients are alive and in complete remission at 3 and 13 years after diagnosis, respectively. These tumors raise a variety of diagnostic possibilities. They could represent intra-abdominal desmoplastic small round cell tumor, with histologic features of epithelioid leiomyosarcoma or an unusual subtype of leiomyosarcoma with an EWS-WT1 transcript. Alternatively, they could represent an unrecognized subgroup of tumors with spindle cell morphology, bearing the same translocation as desmoplastic small round cell tumor, but characterized by a more favorable clinical course.

Coexpression of an unusual form of the EWS-WT1 fusion transcript and interleukin 2/15 receptor betamRNA in a desmoplastic small round cell tumour

BACKGROUND

The beta chain of the interleukin 2/15 receptor (IL-2/15Rbeta) is induced by the expression of the EWS-WT1. A case of desmoplastic small round cell tumour (DSRCT) expressing only an unusual EWS-WT1 treated by us is reported here.

AIM

To characterise an unusual form of EWS-WT1.

METHODS

Frozen tissue sections of the axillary tumour were examined using a laser-assisted microdissection technique and reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction.

RESULTS

The novel fusion of exon 8 of EWS and the defective exon 10 of WT1 (-KTS) was detected. Although it was an unusual form, the coexpression of the present EWS-WT1, IL-2/15Rbeta and Janus kinase (JAK1) mRNA was detected in the tumour cells. IL-2 and signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT5) mRNA were detected in both tumour and stromal cells.

CONCLUSION

The induction of the IL-2/15 receptor signalling pathway may contribute to tumorigenesis in DSRCT through a paracrine or an autocrine system, even though the EWS-WT1 was an unusual form.

Both integrated and differential regulation of components of the IL-2/IL-2 receptor system

Interleukin-2 was discovered in 1976 as a T-cell growth factor. It was the first type I cytokine cloned and the first for which a receptor component was cloned. Its importance includes its multiple actions, therapeutic potential, and lessons for receptor biology, with three components differentially combining to form high, intermediate, and low-affinity receptors. IL-2Ralpha and IL-2Rbeta, respectively, are markers for double-negative thymocytes and regulatory T-cells versus memory cells. gamma(c), which is shared by six cytokines, is mutated in patients with X-linked severe-combined immunodeficiency. We now cover an under-reviewed area-the regulation of genes encoding IL-2 and IL-2R components, with an effort to integrate/explain this knowledge.

Chromosome translocations in sarcomas and the emergence of oncogenic transcription factors

A subset of sarcomas is characterised by recurrent chromosome translocations that generate novel fusion oncoproteins. One or both of the genes involved in these translocations often encode transcription factors, and the resulting fusion proteins have aberrant transcriptional function compared to their wild-type counterparts. These fusion transcription factors disrupt multiple biological pathways by altering expression of target genes, and thereby result in a variety of altered cellular properties that contribute to the tumourigenic process. However, experimental data indicate that the fusion gene alone is not sufficient for transformation in primary cells (EWS-FLI1) or tumourigenesis in the mouse (PAX3-FKHR, FUS-CHOP), suggesting that additional collaborating genetic alterations are required. In addition to improving our understanding of the etiology of these tumours, this accumulating knowledge of the oncogenic properties of these fusion proteins, their downstream targets, and cooperating genetic alterations will permit the development of a variety of novel approaches to improve the therapy of these cancers.

Wilms' tumour: connecting tumorigenesis and organ development in the kidney

Wilms' tumour, or nephroblastoma, is a common childhood tumour that is intimately linked to early kidney development and is often associated with persistent embryonic renal tissue and other kidney abnormalities. WT1, the first gene found to be inactivated in Wilms' tumour, encodes a transcription factor that functions as both a tumour suppressor and a critical regulator of renal organogenesis. Our understanding of the roles of WT1 in tumour formation and organogenesis have advanced in parallel, providing a striking example of the intersection between tumour biology, cellular differentiation and normal organogenesis.

The EWS–WT1 gene fusion in desmoplastic small round cell tumor

Desmoplastic small round cell tumor (DSRCT) is a poorly understood neoplasm with distinctive clinical, histologic and immunophenotypic features. It is associated with a novel, specific chromosomal abnormality, t(11;22)(p13;q12) that fuses EWS with WT1 leading to production of a chimeric protein with transcriptional regulatory activity. This chimeric transcription factor has unique DNA-binding properties and regulates expression of specific target genes. Several of these have been identified and their biological role characterized. The dysregulated expression of EWS-WT1 targets contribute to the malignant phenotype of DSRCT and provide valuable insight regarding the molecular mechanisms underlying the development and progression of this distinct translocation associated tumor.

PDGF-A, PDGF-Rbeta, TGFbeta3 and bone morphogenic protein-4 in desmoplastic small round cell tumors with EWS-WT1 gene fusion product and their role in stromal desmoplasia: an immunohistochemical study

Histologically, desmoplastic small round cell tumor is composed of the characteristic neoplastic small round cells with divergent differentiation, and distinct desmoplastic stroma. Genetically, the tumor shows a characteristic 11;22 translocation, involving the EWS gene on chromosome 22 and the WT1gene on chromosome 11 to produce an EWS-WT1 fusion gene which generates a chimeric protein functioning as a novel transcription factor that activates expression of target genes such as PDGF-A. Expression of PDGF-A, a potent growth factor for fibroblasts, has been detected in desmoplastic small round cell tumors and has been linked to the characteristic desmoplasia in these tumors. Bone morphogenic proteins, which are members of the TGFbeta superfamily play a complex role in regulating cell growth and differentiation and bone formation but have not been evaluated in desmoplastic small round cell tumors. In all, 24 desmoplastic small round cell tumors with EWS-WT1 fusion product confirmed by RT-PCR analysis were evaluated for expression of PDGF-A, PDGF-Rbeta, TGFbeta3 and bone morphogenic protein-4 by standard immunohistochemical methods with antigen retrieval on paraffin sections. Immunoreactivity was evaluated semiquantitively. Tumor-associated desmoplasia was quantified using a three-tier scale on hematoxylin- and eosin-stained sections. Desmoplastic small round cell tumors showed variable immunoreactivity with TGFbeta3 (21/24), BMP4 (14/21), PDGF-A (19/24) and PDGF-Rbeta (16/22). Less frequently, the stromal cells showed reactivity with TGFbeta3, PDGF-Rbeta and PDGF-A. Tumor-associated desmoplasia was prominent in eight, intermediate in seven and weak in nine cases. There was no correlation between tumor-associated desmoplasia and the markers tested except PDGF-A. In contrast to a previous study, our study showed that the level of PDGF-A expression inversely correlated with tumor-associated desmoplasia. Other targets of the EWS-WT1 transcription factor other than PDGF-A may be directly responsible for the prominent tumor-associated desmoplasia seen in desmoplastic small round cell tumor.

VDUP1 Is Required for the Development of Natural Killer Cells

Vitamin D3 upregulated protein 1 (VDUP1) is a stress-response gene that is upregulated by 1,25(OH)2D3 in tumor cells. The in vivo roles of VDUP1 were investigated by producing mice lacking VDUP1 (VDUP1-/- mice). VDUP1-/- mice showed minimal changes in the development of T and B cells, but there was a profound reduction in the numbers of natural killer (NK) cells. As well, these mice showed decreased NK activity. In the VDUP1-/- mice, the expression of CD122 was reduced, demonstrating that VDUP1 is required for CD122 expression and NK maturation. In addition, severe lymphoid hyperplasia in the small intestine was observed in VDUP1-/- mice. Taken together, these results suggest that VDUP1 is a critical factor for the development and function of NK cells in vivo.

Results of multimodal treatment for desmoplastic small round cell tumors

PURPOSE

Desmoplastic small round cell tumors (DSRCTs) are rare aggressive neoplasms that frequently present with large symptomatic intraabdominal masses. We examined the effects of multimodal therapy including induction chemotherapy, aggressive surgical debulking, and external beam radiotherapy on patients with DSRCT.

METHODS

Institutional Review Board permission was obtained. Sixty-six patients were diagnosed by histology, immunohistochemistry, and or cytogenetics as having DSRCT at our institution from July 1, 1972, to July 1, 2003. Data were collected on patient demographics, presenting symptoms, tumor location and extent, treatment regimen, and overall survival.

RESULTS

A majority of patients were male (91%), Caucasian (85%), and with a median age of 19 (7-58) years old at diagnosis. The most common presenting complaint was an intraabdominal mass (64%). In 63 patients (96%), the primary tumor was located in the abdomen or pelvis. Thirty-three (50%) had positive lymph nodes and 27 (41%) had distant parenchymal metastases at diagnosis. Overall, 3- and 5-year survivals were 44% and 15%, respectively. Twenty-nine of these patients (44%) underwent induction chemotherapy (P6), surgical debulking, and radiotherapy. Three-year survival was 55% in those receiving chemotherapy, surgery, and radiotherapy vs 27% when all 3 modalities were not used (P < .02). Gross tumor resection was highly significant in prolonging overall survival; 3-year survival was 58% in patients treated with gross tumor resection compared to no survivors past 3 years in the nonresection cohort (P < .00001). Ten patients (15%) have no evidence of disease with a median follow-up of 2.4 years (range, 0.4-11.2 years).

CONCLUSIONS

Multimodal therapy results in improved survival in patients with DSRCT. Aggressive surgical resection of these extensive intraabdominal neoplasms correlates with improved patient outcome.

Interleukin-2 (IL-2) receptor-βγ signalling is activated by c-Kit in the absence of IL-2, or by exogenous IL-2 via JAK3/STAT5 in human papillomavirus-associated cervical cancer

Activation of the interleukin-2 receptor (IL-2R) induces signalling cascades promoting T cell proliferation. However, signal transduction pathways triggered in IL-2R-expressing solid tumours are unknown. This report shows that human papillomavirus (HPV)-associated cervical cancer cells express an IL-2R composed of beta and gamma chains (IL-2Rbetagamma), and that IL-2-mediated activation increases the phosphorylation of JAK3 and STAT5, stimulating cell proliferation. Interestingly, endogenous IL-2 is not produced by these cells, suggesting the activation of IL-2Rbetagamma by an alternative mechanism. Accordingly, we found that Stem Cell Factor (SCF)-activated c-Kit induces phosphorylation of the IL-2Rbeta chain in the absence of IL-2. Moreover, inhibition of IL-2Rbeta phosphorylation by blocking c-Kit tyrosine kinase activity abolishes both, IL-2 and SCF-mediated proliferation. Thus, these results demonstrate that IL-2 triggers a JAK3/STAT5 cascade in HPV-associated cervical cancer cells expressing IL-2Rbetagamma, and that this receptor can be alternatively activated by SCF-activated c-Kit in the absence of IL-2.

A tetraspanin-family protein, T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia-associated antigen 1, is induced by the Ewing's sarcoma-Wilms' tumor 1 fusion protein of desmoplastic small round-cell tumor

Recurrent chromosomal translocations in neoplasms often generate hybrid genes that play critical roles in tumorigenesis. Desmoplastic small round-cell tumor (DSRCT) is an aggressive malignancy associated with the chromosomal translocation t(11;22)(p13;q12). This translocation generates a chimeric transcription factor, EWS-WT1, which consists of the transcriptional activation domain of the Ewing's sarcoma (EWS) protein and the DNA binding domain of the Wilms' tumor 1 (WT1) protein. One of the splice variants, EWS-WT1(-KTS) lacks three amino acid residues (Lys-Thr-Ser) in the DNA binding domain and transforms NIH3T3 cells. Therefore, it is likely that aberrant gene expression caused by EWS-WT1(-KTS) is involved in the malignant phenotype of DSRCT. Microarray analysis of 9600 human genes revealed that a gene encoding a tetraspanin-family protein, T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia-associated antigen 1 (TALLA-1), was induced in EWS-WT1(-KTS)-expressing cell clones. This induction was EWS-WT1(-KTS)-specific, and more importantly, TALLA-1 protein was expressed in the three independent cases of DSRCT. Tetraspanin-family genes encode transmembrane proteins that regulate various cell processes such as cell adhesion, migration and metastasis. Our findings provide a novel insight into the malignant phenotype of DSRCT, suggesting that TALLA-1 is a useful marker for diagnosis and a potential target for the therapy of DSRCT.

Identification of a DNA-binding site and transcriptional target for the EWS-WT1(+KTS) oncoprotein

Desmoplastic small round cell tumor (DSRCT) is defined by a chimeric transcription factor, resulting from fusion of the N-terminal domain of the Ewing's sarcoma gene EWS to the three C-terminal zinc fingers of the Wilms' tumor suppressor WT1. Although DNA-binding sites have been defined for the uninterrupted WT1 zinc finger domains, the most prevalent isoforms of both WT1 and EWS-WT1 have an insertion of three amino acids [lysine, threonine, and serine (KTS)], which abrogates binding to known consensus sequences and transactivation of known target genes. Here, we used cDNA subtractive hybridization to identify an endogenous gene, LRRC15, which is specifically up-regulated after inducible expression of EWS-WT1(+KTS) in cancer cell lines, and is expressed within primary DSRCT cells. The chimeric protein binds in vitro and in vivo to a specific element upstream of LRRC15, leading to dramatic transcriptional activation. Mutagenesis studies define the optimal binding site of the (+KTS) isoform of EWS-WT1 as 5'-GGAGG(A/G)-3'. LRRC15 encodes a leucine-rich transmembrane protein, present at the leading edge of migrating cells, the expression of which in normal tissues is restricted to the invasive cytotrophoblast layer of the placenta; small interfering (siRNA)-mediated suppression of LRRC15 expression in breast cancer cells leads to abrogation of invasiveness in vitro. Together, these observations define the consequence of (KTS) insertion within WT1-derived zinc fingers, and identify a novel EWS-WT1 transcriptional target implicated in tumor invasiveness.

Formation of an active form of the interleukin-2/15 receptor beta-chain by insertion of the intracisternal A particle in a radiation-induced mouse thymic lymphoma and its role in tumorigenesis

Although many reports suggest that aberrant regulation of cytokine signaling pathways via the interleukin-2 receptor (IL-2R) induces tumorigenic transformation, constitutively active IL-2R in tumors has not been reported. We searched for genomic alteration of the IL-2/15R beta-subunit gene (IL-2/15R beta) in cytokine-independent cell lines established from radiation-induced mouse thymic lymphomas. In the TL34 cell line and its primary tumor, one of the IL-2/15R beta alleles was rearranged by the insertion of an intracisternal A particle (IAP) retrotransposon. The IAP-IL2/15R beta chimeric gene expressed chimeric mRNA in which IAP-coding Gag-Pol mRNA was fused to IL-2/15R beta mRNA and coded for Gag-Pol-IL-2/15R beta chimeric protein. Forced expression of the Gag-Pol-IL-2/15R beta chimeric cDNA in a mouse cytotoxic T-cell line (CTLL-2) converted IL-2-dependent cell growth to IL-2-independent growth, suggesting that the chimeric protein activates some of the IL-2 signaling pathways necessary for cell proliferation. Downregulation of the expression of the Gag-Pol-IL-2/15R beta chimeric protein in TL34 by antisense RNA inhibited cell growth, and concomitantly reduced the level of c-myc protein. These results suggest that the Gag-Pol-IL-2/15R beta is a constitutively active form that transmits proliferative signals by expressing downstream target genes, including c-myc. Thus, we demonstrated that the chimeric receptor gene produced by the insertion of an IAP functions as an oncogene by providing IL-2-independent autonomous growth potential.

Induction of BAIAP3 by the EWS-WT1 chimeric fusion implicates regulated exocytosis in tumorigenesis

Desmoplastic small round cell tumor (DSRCT) is defined genetically by the chimeric fusion of the Ewing's sarcoma and Wilms' tumor genes, generating a novel transcription factor, EWS-WT1. By using cells with inducible EWS-WT1 to screen high-density microarrays, we identified BAIAP3 as a transcriptional target of the chimera. The BAIAP3 promoter is specifically bound in vivo by the (-KTS) isoform of EWS-WT1, consistent with its activation in reporter assays. BAIAP3 encodes a protein implicated in regulated exocytosis, which is colocalized with a secreted growth factor within cytoplasmic organelles. Ectopic expression of BAIAP3 in tumor cells dramatically enhances growth in low serum and colony formation in soft agar. BAIAP3 therefore encodes a transcriptional target of an oncogenic fusion protein that implicates the regulated exocytotic pathway in cancer cell proliferation.

A putative link between exocytosis and tumor development

Desmoplastic small round cell tumor (DSRCT) is characterized by a t(11;22)(p13;q12) translocation breakpoint. In this issue of Cancer Cell, now show that the resulting EWS-WT1 gene-fusion product leads to overexpression of BAIAP3, a protein implicated in regulated exocytosis.