Xentry, a new class of cell-penetrating peptide uniquely equipped for delivery of drugs

Shining New Light on Biological Systems: Luminescent Transition Metal Complexes for Bioimaging and Biosensing Applications

Luminescence imaging is a powerful and versatile technique for investigating cell physiology and pathology in living systems, making significant contributions to life science research and clinical diagnosis. In recent years, luminescent transition metal complexes have gained significant attention for diagnostic and therapeutic applications due to their unique photophysical and photochemical properties. In this Review, we provide a comprehensive overview of the recent development of luminescent transition metal complexes for bioimaging and biosensing applications, with a focus on transition metal centers with a d6, d8, and d10 electronic configuration. We elucidate the structure-property relationships of luminescent transition metal complexes, exploring how their structural characteristics can be manipulated to control their biological behavior such as cellular uptake, localization, biocompatibility, pharmacokinetics, and biodistribution. Furthermore, we introduce the various design strategies that leverage the interesting photophysical properties of luminescent transition metal complexes for a wide variety of biological applications, including autofluorescence-free imaging, multimodal imaging, organelle imaging, biological sensing, microenvironment monitoring, bioorthogonal labeling, bacterial imaging, and cell viability assessment. Finally, we provide insights into the challenges and perspectives of luminescent transition metal complexes for bioimaging and biosensing applications, as well as their use in disease diagnosis and treatment evaluation.

Correlative light and X-ray tomography jointly unveil the critical role of connexin43 channels on inflammation-induced cellular ultrastructural alterations

Non-junctional connexin43 (Cx43) plasma membrane hemichannels have been implicated in several inflammatory diseases, particularly playing a role in ATP release that triggers activation of the inflammasome. Therapies targeting the blocking of the hemichannels to prevent the pathological release or uptake of ions and signalling molecules through its pores are of therapeutic interest. To date, there is no close-to-native, high-definition documentation of the impact of Cx43 hemichannel-mediated inflammation on cellular ultrastructure, neither is there a robust account of the ultrastructural changes that occur following treatment with selective Cx43 hemichannel blockers such as Xentry-Gap19 (XG19). A combination of same-sample correlative high-resolution three-dimensional fluorescence microscopy and soft X-ray tomography at cryogenic temperatures, enabled in the identification of novel 3D molecular interactions within the cellular milieu when comparing behaviour in healthy states and during the early onset or late stages under inflammatory conditions. Notably, our findings suggest that XG19 blockage of connexin hemichannels under pro-inflammatory conditions may be crucial in preventing the direct degradation of connexosomes by lysosomes, without affecting connexin protein translation and trafficking. We also delineated fine and gross cellular phenotypes, characteristic of inflammatory insult or road-to-recovery from inflammation, where XG19 could indirectly prevent and reverse inflammatory cytokine-induced mitochondrial swelling and cellular hypertrophy through its action on Cx43 hemichannels. Our findings suggest that XG19 might have prophylactic and therapeutic effects on the inflammatory response, in line with functional studies.

Peptide nanostructures-based delivery of DNA nanomaterial therapeutics for regulating gene expression

Self-assembled branched DNA (bDNA) nanomaterials have exhibited their functionality in various biomedical and diagnostic applications. However, the anionic cellular membrane has restricted the movement of bDNA nanostructures. Recently, amphiphilic peptides have been investigated as cationic delivery agents for nucleic acids. Herein, we demonstrate a strategy for delivering functional bDNA nanomaterials into mammalian cells using self-assembled linear peptides. In this study, antisense oligonucleotides of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) were inserted in the overhangs of bDNAs. Novel linear peptides have been synthesized and the peptide-bound bDNA complex formation was examined using various biophysical experiments. Interestingly, the W4R4-bound bDNAs were found to be exceptionally stable against DNase I compared to other complexes. The delivery of fluorescent-labeled bDNAs into the mammalian cells confirmed the potential of peptide transporters. Furthermore, the functional efficacy of the peptide-bound bDNAs has been examined through RT-PCR and western blot analysis. The observed results revealed that W4R4 peptides exhibited excellent internalization of antisense bDNAs and significantly suppressed (3- to 4-fold) the transcripts and translated product of VEGF compared to the control. In summary, the results highlight the potential use of peptide-based nanocarrier for delivering bDNA nanostructures to regulate the gene expression in cell lines.

Macroscopic Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging for Monitoring of Drug-Target Engagement

Precision medicine promises to improve therapeutic efficacy while reducing adverse effects, especially in oncology. However, despite great progresses in recent years, precision medicine for cancer treatment is not always part of routine care. Indeed, the ability to specifically tailor therapies to distinct patient profiles requires still significant improvements in targeted therapy development as well as decreases in drug treatment failures. In this regard, preclinical animal research is fundamental to advance our understanding of tumor biology, and diagnostic and therapeutic response. Most importantly, the ability to measure drug-target engagement accurately in live and intact animals is critical in guiding the development and optimization of targeted therapy. However, a major limitation of preclinical molecular imaging modalities is their lack of capability to directly and quantitatively discriminate between drug accumulation and drug-target engagement at the pathological site. Recently, we have developed Macroscopic Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging (MFLI) as a unique feature of optical imaging to quantitate in vivo drug-target engagement. MFLI quantitatively reports on nanoscale interactions via lifetime-sensing of Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) in live, intact animals. Hence, MFLI FRET acts as a direct reporter of receptor dimerization and target engagement via the measurement of the fraction of labeled-donor entity undergoing binding to its respective receptor. MFLI is expected to greatly impact preclinical imaging and also adjacent fields such as image-guided surgery and drug development.

Synthesis and DNA interaction studies of Ru(II) cell penetrating peptide (CPP) bioconjugates

The synthesis of the first bioconjugates of a set of ruthenium(II) dipyridophenazine complexes with two different cell penetrating peptides (CPPs) is described. The CPPs, an arginine rich TAT-9 (RKKRRQRRR) sequence and the Xentry peptide (LCLRPVG), were synthesized using standard SPPS protocols, and the bioconjugates were obtained by the microwave-assisted coupling of the HOBt/TBTU preactivated metal complexes with the respective peptides on Wang resin. The racemic metal complexes were obtained by modified literature procedures. The bioconjugates were cleaved from the resin, purified by semi-preparative HPLC and characterized by analytical HPLC, high resolution mass spectrometry (HR-MS), and NMR spectroscopy. Despite the bioconjugation of the peptides to the dppz ligand, DNA intercalation was observed by CD spectroscopy, viscometry and the characteristic switch-on fluorescence of this class of compounds. Furthermore, the cellular uptake of the Xentry bioconjugates was confirmed by live cell imaging. Like the parent metal complexes, the bioconjugates show low in vitro cytotoxicity (IC50 > 80 μM), which is similar to the respective metal complexes alone.

Cell-penetrating peptides in the intracellular delivery of viral nanoparticles

Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are a promising tool for the intracellular delivery of cargo. Due to their ability to cross membranes while also cotransporting various cargoes, they offer great potential for biomedical applications. Several CPPs have been derived from viral proteins with natural roles in the viral replication cycle that require them to breach or fuse to cellular membranes. Additionally, the ability of viruses to cross membranes makes viruses and virus-based particles a convenient model for research on nanoparticle delivery and nanoparticle-mediated gene therapy. In this chapter, we aim to characterize CPPs derived from both structural and nonstructural viral proteins. Their function as enhancers of viral infection and transduction by viral nanoparticles as well as the main features of viral CPPs employed in intracellular cargo delivery are summarized to emphasize their potential use in nanomedicine.

Development of novel GnRH and Tat48-60 based luminescent probes with enhanced cellular uptake and bioimaging profile

There is a clear need to develop photostable chromophores for bioimaging with respect to the classically utilized green fluorescent dye fluorescein. Along these lines, we utilized a phosphorescent carboxy-substituted ruthenium(ii) polypyridyl [Ru(bipy)2(mcb)]2+ (bipy = 2,2'-bipyridyl and mcb = 4-carboxy-4'-methyl-2,2'-bipyridyl) complex. We developed two luminescent peptide conjugates of the cell-penetrating peptide Tat48-60 consisting of either [Ru(bipy)2(mcb)]2+ or 5(6)-carboxyfluorescein (5(6)-FAM) tethered on the Lys50 of the peptide through amide bond. We confirmed the efficient cellular uptake of both bioconjugates in HeLa cells by confocal microscopy and flow cytometry and proved that the ruthenium-based chromophore possesses enhanced photostability compared to a 5(6)-FAM-based peptide, after continuous laser scanning. Furthermore, we designed and developed a luminescent agent with high photostability, based on the ruthenium core, that could be selectively localized in cancer cells overexpressing the GnRH receptor (GnRH-R). To achieve this, we took advantage of the tumor-homing character of d-Lys6-GnRH which selectively recognizes the GnRH-R. The [Ru(bipy)2(mcb)]2+-d-Lys6-GnRH peptide conjugate was synthesized, and its cellular uptake was evaluated through flow cytometric analysis and live-cell imaging in HeLa and T24 bladder cancer cells as negative and positive controls of GnRH-R, respectively. Besides the selective targeting that the specific conjugate could offer, we also recorded high internalization levels in T24 bladder cancer cells. The ruthenium(ii) polypyridyl peptide-based conjugates we developed is an intriguing approach that offers targeted cell imaging in the Near Infrared region, and simultaneously paves the way for further advancements in the dynamic studies on cellular imaging.

Xentry-Gap19 inhibits Connexin43 hemichannel opening especially during hypoxic injury

Hypoxic injury results in cell death, tissue damage and activation of inflammatory pathways. This is mediated by pathological Connexin43 (Cx43) hemichannel (HC) opening resulting in osmotic and ionic imbalances as well as cytokine production perpetuating the inflammatory environment. Gap19 is an intracellularly acting Cx43 mimetic peptide that blocks HC opening and thus promotes cell survival. However, native Gap19, which must enter the cell in order to function, exhibits low cell permeability. In this study, Gap19 was conjugated to the cell-penetrating peptide, Xentry, to investigate if cellular uptake could be improved while maintaining peptide function. Cellular uptake of Xentry-Gap19 (XG19) was much greater than that of native Gap19 even under normal cell culture conditions. Peptide function was maintained post uptake as shown by reduced ethidium homodimer influx and ATP release due to Cx43 HC block. While XG19 blocked pathologic HC opening though, normal gap junction communication required for cell repair and survival mechanisms was not affected as shown in a dye scrape-load assay. Under hypoxic conditions, increased expression of Syndecan-4, a plasma membrane proteoglycan targeted by Xentry, enabled even greater XG19 uptake leading to higher inhibition of ATP release and greater cell survival. This suggests that XG19, which is targeted specifically to hypoxic cells, can efficiently and safely block Cx43 HC and could therefore be a novel treatment for hypoxic and inflammatory diseases.

Macrophage-preferable delivery of the leucine-rich repeat domain of NLRX1 ameliorates lethal sepsis by regulating NF-κB and inflammasome signaling activation

Sepsis is an acute systemic inflammatory disease triggered by bacterial infection leading organ dysfunctions that macrophages are responsible for major triggering of systemic inflammation. Treatment options are limited to antibiotics and drugs to manage the symptoms of sepsis, but there are currently no molecular-targeted therapies. Here, we identified a novel macrophage-preferable delivery peptide, C10, which we conjugated to truncated domains of NLRX1 (leucine-rich repeat region (LRR), and nucleotide binding domain (NBD)) to obtain C10-LRR and C10-NBD. Leucine rich amino acid of C10 enables macrophage preferable moieties that efficiently deliver a cargo protein into macrophages in vitro and in vivo. C10-LRR but not C10-NBD significantly improved survival in an LPS-mediated lethal endotoxemia sepsis model. C10-LRR efficiently inhibited IL-6 production in peritoneal macrophages via prevention of IκB degradation and p65 phosphorylation. In addition, C10-LRR negatively regulated IL-1β production by preventing caspase-1 activation with a sustained mitochondrial MAVS level. Finally, co-treatment with anti-TNFα antibody and C10-LRR had a synergistic effect in an LPS-induced sepsis model. Collectively, these findings indicate that C10-LRR could be an effective therapeutic agent to treat systemic inflammation in sepsis by regulating both NF-κB and inflammasome signaling activation.

Syndecan-4 as a Pathogenesis Factor and Therapeutic Target in Cancer

Cancer is an important cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Advances in research on the biology of cancer revealed alterations in several key pathways underlying tumorigenesis and provided molecular targets for developing new and improved existing therapies. Syndecan-4, a transmembrane heparan sulfate proteoglycan, is a central mediator of cell adhesion, migration and proliferation. Although several studies have demonstrated important roles of syndecan-4 in cell behavior and its interactions with growth factors, extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules and cytoskeletal signaling proteins, less is known about its role and expression in multiple cancer. The data summarized in this review demonstrate that high expression of syndecan-4 is an unfavorable biomarker for estrogen receptor-negative breast cancer, glioma, liver cancer, melanoma, osteosarcoma, papillary thyroid carcinoma and testicular, kidney and bladder cancer. In contrast, in neuroblastoma and colorectal cancer, syndecan-4 is downregulated. Interestingly, syndecan-4 expression is modulated by anticancer drugs. It is upregulated upon treatment with zoledronate and this effect reduces invasion of breast cancer cells. In our recent work, we demonstrated that the syndecan-4 level was reduced after trastuzumab treatment. Similarly, syndecan-4 levels are also reduced after panitumumab treatment. Together, the data found suggest that syndecan-4 level is crucial for understanding the changes involving in malignant transformation, and also demonstrate that syndecan-4 emerges as an important target for cancer therapy and diagnosis.

Cell-penetrating peptide-mediated cell entry of H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus

H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV) poses a huge threat to public health and the global economy. These viruses cause systemic infection in poultry and accidental human infection leads to severe pneumonia, associated with high mortality rates. The hemagglutinin (HA) of H5N1 HPAIV possesses multiple basic amino acids, as in the sequence RERRRKKR at the cleavage site; however, the role of this motif is not fully understood. Here, we showed that a 33-amino acid long peptide derived from HA of H5N1 HPAIV (HA314-46) has the potential to penetrate various cells and lung tissue through a sialic acid-independent endocytotic pathway. Mutant peptide analyses revealed that the cysteine residue at position 318 and multiple basic amino acids were essential for the cell-penetrating activity. Moreover, reassortant viruses possessing H5 HA could enter sialic acid-deficient cells, and virus internalisation was facilitated by cleavage with recombinant furin. Thus, our findings demonstrate that the HA314-46 motif exhibits cell-penetrating activity through a sialic acid-independent cell entry mechanism.

Activatable cell-penetrating peptides: 15 years of research

An important hurdle for the intracellular delivery of large cargo is the cellular membrane, which protects the cell from exogenous substances. Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) can cross this barrier but their use as drug delivery vehicles is hampered by their lack of cell type specificity. Over the past years, several approaches have been explored to control the activity of CPPs that can be primed for cellular uptake. Since the first report on such activatable CPPs (ACPPs) in 2004, various methods of activation have been developed. Here, we provide an overview of the different ACPPs strategies known to date and summarize the benefits, drawbacks, and future directions.

Advances in oligonucleotide drug delivery

Oligonucleotides can be used to modulate gene expression via a range of processes including RNAi, target degradation by RNase H-mediated cleavage, splicing modulation, non-coding RNA inhibition, gene activation and programmed gene editing. As such, these molecules have potential therapeutic applications for myriad indications, with several oligonucleotide drugs recently gaining approval. However, despite recent technological advances, achieving efficient oligonucleotide delivery, particularly to extrahepatic tissues, remains a major translational limitation. Here, we provide an overview of oligonucleotide-based drug platforms, focusing on key approaches - including chemical modification, bioconjugation and the use of nanocarriers - which aim to address the delivery challenge.

The peptide PROTAC modality: a novel strategy for targeted protein ubiquitination

Despite dramatic advances in drug discovery over the decades, effective therapeutic strategies for cancers treatment are still in urgent demands. PROteolysis TArgeting Chimera (PROTAC), a novel therapeutic modality, has been vigorously promoted in preclinical and clinical applications. Unlike small molecule PROTAC, peptide PROTAC (p-PROTAC) with advantages of high specificity and low toxicity, while avoiding the limitations of shallow binding pockets through large interacting surfaces, provides promising substitutions for E3 ubiquitin ligase complex-mediated ubiquitination of "undruggable proteins". It is worth noting that successful applications of p-PROTAC still have some obstacles, including low stability and poor membrane permeability. Hence, we highlight that p-PROTAC combined with cell-penetrating peptides, constrained conformation technique, and targeted delivery systems could be the future efforts for potential translational research.

Peptide-based targeting of connexins and pannexins for therapeutic purposes

INTRODUCTION

Connexin and pannexin (hemi)channels play an important role in paracrine and autocrine signaling pathways. The opening of these cellular pores is linked to a wide range of diseases. Therefore, pharmacological closing of connexin and pannexin (hemi)channels seems a promising therapeutic strategy. However, the currently available inhibitors cope with recurring problems concerning selectivity, specificity, stability and/or solubility.

AREAS COVERED

A number of peptides that mimic specific regions in the native sequence of connexins and pannexins have the potential to overcome some of these hurdles. In this paper, an overview is provided on these peptide-based inhibitors of connexin and pannexin (hemi)channels for therapeutic purposes. The authors also provide the reader with their expert perspectives on the future of these peptide-based inhibitors.

EXPERT OPINION

Peptide mimetics can become valuable tools in the treatment of connexin-related and pannexin-related diseases. This can be made possible provided that available peptides are optimized, and new peptide mimetics are designed based on knowledge of the mechanisms underlying the gating control of connexin and pannexin (hemi)channels.

Antibody Structure and Function: The Basis for Engineering Therapeutics

Antibodies and antibody-derived macromolecules have established themselves as the mainstay in protein-based therapeutic molecules (biologics). Our knowledge of the structure–function relationships of antibodies provides a platform for protein engineering that has been exploited to generate a wide range of biologics for a host of therapeutic indications. In this review, our basic understanding of the antibody structure is described along with how that knowledge has leveraged the engineering of antibody and antibody-related therapeutics having the appropriate antigen affinity, effector function, and biophysical properties. The platforms examined include the development of antibodies, antibody fragments, bispecific antibody, and antibody fusion products, whose efficacy and manufacturability can be improved via humanization, affinity modulation, and stability enhancement. We also review the design and selection of binding arms, and avidity modulation. Different strategies of preparing bispecific and multispecific molecules for an array of therapeutic applications are included.

Sulfated Glycoaminoglycans and Proteoglycan Syndecan-4 Are Involved in Membrane Fixation of LL-37 and Its Pro-Migratory Effect in Breast Cancer Cells

Initially characterized by its antimicrobial activities, LL-37 has also been shown to significantly contribute to tumor development. On breast cancer cell lines, LL-37 increases intracellular calcium via the TRPV2 channel and their migration via the activation of PI3K/AKT signaling. Its all-d enantiomer d-LL-37 induces similar effects, which excludes a protein-protein interaction of LL-37 in a classic ligand-receptor manner. Its net charge of +6 gave rise to the hypothesis that the peptide uses the negative charges of sulfoglycans or sialic acids to facilitate its attachment to the cell membrane and to induce its activities. Whereas several vegetal lectins, specifically attaching to sialylated or sulfated structures, blocked the activities of LL-37 on both calcium increase and cell migration, several sialidases had no effect. However, the competitive use of free sulfated glycoaminoglycans (GAGs) as chrondroitin and heparin, or treatment of the cell surface with chondroitinase and heparinase resulted in an activity loss of 50–100% for LL-37. Concordant results were obtained by blocking the synthesis of GAGs with 4-Methylumbelliferyl-β-d-xyloside, and by suppression of glycan sulfatation by sodium chlorate. Using a candidate approach by suppressing proteoglycan synthesis using RNA interference, syndecan-4 was shown to be required for the activities of LL-37 and its binding to the cell surface. This leads to the conclusion that syndecan-4, by means of sulfated GAGs, could act as a receptor for LL-37.

Approaches to CNS Drug Delivery with a Focus on Transporter-Mediated Transcytosis

Drug delivery to the central nervous system (CNS) conferred by brain barriers is a major obstacle in the development of effective neurotherapeutics. In this review, a classification of current approaches of clinical or investigational importance for the delivery of therapeutics to the CNS is presented. This classification includes the use of formulations administered systemically that can elicit transcytosis-mediated transport by interacting with transporters expressed by transvascular endothelial cells. Neurotherapeutics can also be delivered to the CNS by means of surgical intervention using specialized catheters or implantable reservoirs. Strategies for delivering drugs to the CNS have evolved tremendously during the last two decades, yet, some factors can affect the quality of data generated in preclinical investigation, which can hamper the extension of the applications of these strategies into clinically useful tools. Here, we disclose some of these factors and propose some solutions that may prove valuable at bridging the gap between preclinical findings and clinical trials.

Cell-penetrating peptide sequence and modification dependent uptake and subcellular distribution of green florescent protein in different cell lines

Protein therapy holds great promise for treating a variety of diseases. To act on intracellular targets, therapeutic proteins must cross the plasma membrane. This has previously been achieved by covalent attachment to a variety of cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs). However, there is limited information on the relative performance of CPPs in delivering proteins to cells, specifically the cytosol and other intracellular locations. Here we use green fluorescent protein (GFP) as a model cargo to compare delivery capacity of five CPP sequences (Penetratin, R8, TAT, Transportan, Xentry) and cyclic derivatives in different human cell lines (HeLa, HEK, 10T1/2, HepG2) representing different tissues. Confocal microscopy analysis indicates that most fusion proteins when incubated with cells at 10 µM localise to endosomes. Quantification of cellular uptake by flow cytometry reveals that uptake depends on both cell type (10T1/2 > HepG2 > HeLa > HEK), and CPP sequence (Transportan > R8 > Penetratin≈TAT > Xentry). CPP sequence cyclisation or addition of a HA-sequence increased cellular uptake, but fluorescence was still contained in vesicles with no evidence of endosomal escape. Our results provide a guide to select CPP for endosomal/lysosomal delivery and a basis for developing more efficient CPPs in the future.

Peptides with the multibasic cleavage site of the hemagglutinin from highly pathogenic influenza viruses act as cell-penetrating via binding to heparan sulfate and neuropilins

Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) show promise as an attractive delivery vehicle for therapeutic molecules-including nucleic acids, peptides, proteins, and even particulates-into several cell types. It is important to identify new CPPs and select the optimal CPP for each application, because CPPs differ in their internalized efficiency and internalization mechanisms. Here, we identified new CPPs derived from the peptides with the hemagglutinin cleavage site (pHACS) of highly pathogenic influenza viruses. We compared the potential of peptides from the pHACS of four subtypes of influenza A virus (H1, H3, H5, and H7) and an influenza B virus (H1-pHACS, H3-pHACS, H5-pHACS, H7-pHACS, and B-pHACS, respectively) to serve as CPPs. H5-pHACS and H7-pHACS, but not the other peptides, bound to mouse dendritic cells and human epithelial cells and were internalized efficiently into these cells. H5-pHACS and H7-pHACS required glycosaminoglycans, especially heparan sulfate and neuropilins, to bind to the cells. In addition, we designed a mutant H7-pHACS with superior cell-binding capability by changing a single amino acid. Furthermore, when conjugated with antigen, H5-pHACS and H7-pHACS induced antigen-specific antibody responses, demonstrating the usefulness of this antigen-delivery vehicle. Our results will improve our understanding of the mechanisms of CPPs and facilitate the development of novel drug-delivery vehicles designed to improve therapeutic efficacy.

An Integrated Chemical Cytometry Method: Shining a Light on Akt Activity in Single Cells

Tools to evaluate oncogenic kinase activity in small clinical samples have the power to guide precision medicine in oncology. Existing platforms have demonstrated impressive insights into the activity of protein kinases, but these technologies are unsuitable for the study of kinase behavior in large numbers of primary human cells. To address these limitations, we developed an integrated analysis system that utilizes a light-programmable, cell-permeable reporter deliverable simultaneously to many cells. The reporter's ability to act as a substrate for Akt, a key oncogenic kinase, was masked by a 2-4,5-dimethoxy 2-nitrobenzyl (DMNB) moiety. Upon exposure to ultraviolet light and release of the masking moiety, the substrate sequence enabled programmable reaction times within the cell cytoplasm. When coupled to automated single-cell capillary electrophoresis, statistically significant numbers of primary human cells were readily evaluated for Akt activity.

mRNA transfection by a Xentry-protamine cell-penetrating peptide is enhanced by TLR antagonist E6446

Messenger RNA (mRNA) transfection is a developing field that has applications in research and gene therapy. Potentially, mRNA transfection can be mediated efficiently by cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) as they may be modified to target specific tissues. However, whilst CPPs are well-documented to transfect oligonucleotides and plasmids, mRNA transfection by CPPs has barely been explored. Here we report that peptides, including a truncated form of protamine and the same peptide fused to the CPP Xentry (Xentry-protamine; XP), can transfect mRNAs encoding reporter genes into human cells. Further, this transfection is enhanced by the anti-malarial chloroquine (CQ) and the toll-like receptor antagonist E6446 (6-[3-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)propoxy)-2-(4-(3-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)propoxy)phenyl]benzo[d]oxazole), with E6446 being >5-fold more potent than CQ at enhancing this transfection. Finally, E6446 facilitated the transfection by XP of mRNA encoding the cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator, the protein mutated in cystic fibrosis. As such, these findings introduce E6446 as a novel transfection enhancer and may be of practical relevance to researchers seeking to improve the mRNA transfection efficiency of their preferred CPP.

Intracellular oligonucleotide delivery using the cell penetrating peptide Xentry

The current study investigated the use of two cationic peptides, Xentry-KALA (XK) and Xentry-Protamine (XP), for intracellular delivery of Connexin43 antisense oligonucleotides (Cx43AsODN). The charge and size of Cx43AsODN:XK and Cx43AsODN:XP complexes was determined by Zetasizer analysis. The earliest positive zeta potential reading was obtained at a 1:2 and 1:1.2 charge ratio of Cx43AsODN:XK and Cx43AsODN:XP respectively, with Cx43AsODN:XK resulting in overall larger complexes than Cx43AsODN:XP. Gel shift mobility assays revealed complete complex formation at a 1:2.5 and 1:2.2 charge ratio of Cx43AsODN:XK and Cx43AsODN:XP, respectively. Cellular uptake studies were carried out in ARPE-19 cells. While both complexes were able to enter the cells, Cx43AsODN:XK uptake appeared punctate and circular indicative of endosomal containment. Cx43AsODN:XP uptake, in contrast, resulted in diffuse appearance inside the cell suggesting endosomal escape of the cargo. Finally, western blot analysis confirmed that Cx43AsODN:XP was able to knockdown Cx43 expression in these cells under normal and hypoxic conditions.

Breaking in and busting out: cell-penetrating peptides and the endosomal escape problem

Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) have long held great promise for the manipulation of living cells for therapeutic and research purposes. They allow a wide array of biomolecules from large, oligomeric proteins to nucleic acids and small molecules to rapidly and efficiently traverse cytoplasmic membranes. With few exceptions, if a molecule can be associated with a CPP, it can be delivered into a cell. However, a growing realization in the field is that CPP-cargo fusions largely remain trapped in endosomes and are eventually targeted for degradation or recycling rather than released into the cytoplasm or trafficked to a desired subcellular destination. This 'endosomal escape problem' has confounded efforts to develop CPP-based delivery methods for drugs, enzymes, plasmids, etc. This review provides a brief history of CPP research and discusses current issues in the field with a primary focus on the endosomal escape problem, for which several promising potential solutions have been developed. Are we on the verge of developing technologies to deliver therapeutics such as siRNA, CRISPR/Cas complexes and others that are currently failing because of an inability to get into cells, or are we just chasing after another promising but unworkable technology? We make the case for optimism.

Macrocyclized Extended Peptides: Inhibiting the Substrate-Recognition Domain of Tankyrase

We report a double-click macrocyclization approach for the design of constrained peptide inhibitors having non-helical or extended conformations. Our targets are the tankyrase proteins (TNKS), poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARP) that regulate Wnt signaling by targeting Axin for degradation. TNKS are deregulated in many different cancer types, and inhibition of TNKS therefore represents an attractive therapeutic strategy. However, clinical development of TNKS-specific PARP catalytic inhibitors is challenging due to off-target effects and cellular toxicity. We instead targeted the substrate-recognition domain of TNKS, as it is unique among PARP family members. We employed a two-component strategy, allowing peptide and linker to be separately engineered and then assembled in a combinatorial fashion via click chemistry. Using the consensus substrate-peptide sequence as a starting point, we optimized the length and rigidity of the linker and its position along the peptide. Optimization was further guided by high-resolution crystal structures of two of the macrocyclized peptides in complex with TNKS. This approach led to macrocyclized peptides with submicromolar affinities for TNKS and high proteolytic stability that are able to disrupt the interaction between TNKS and Axin substrate and to inhibit Wnt signaling in a dose-dependent manner. The peptides therefore represent a promising starting point for a new class of substrate-competitive inhibitors of TNKS with potential for suppressing Wnt signaling in cancer. Moreover, by demonstrating the application of the double-click macrocyclization approach to non-helical, extended, or irregularly structured peptides, we greatly extend its potential and scope, especially given the frequency with which such motifs mediate protein-protein interactions.

Intelligent substance delivery into cells using cell-penetrating peptides

Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are oligopeptides that can permeate the cell membrane. The use of a CPP-mediated transport system could be an excellent method for delivering cell-impermeable substances such as proteins, antibodies, antisense oligonucleotides, siRNAs, plasmids, drugs, fluorescent compounds, and nanoparticles as covalently or noncovalently conjugated cargo into cells. Nonetheless, the mechanisms through which CPPs are internalized remain unclear. Endocytosis and direct translocation through the membrane are the generally accepted routes. Internalization via both pathways can occur simultaneously, depending on cellular conditions. However, the peculiar property of CPPs has attracted many researchers, especially in drug discovery or development, who intend to deliver impermeable substances into cells through the cell membrane. The delivery of drugs using CPPs may non-invasively solve the problem of drug penetration into cells with the added benefit of low cytotoxicity. Moreover, macromolecules can also be delivered by this transport system. In this review, I discuss the possibilities and advantages of substance delivery into cells using CPPs.

Non-viral nucleic acid delivery methods

INTRODUCTION

Delivery of nucleic acid-based molecules in human cells is a highly studied approach for the treatment of several disorders including monogenic diseases and cancers. Non-viral vectors for DNA and RNA transfer, although in general less efficient than virus-based systems, are particularly well adapted mostly due to the absence of biosafety concerns. Non-viral methods could be classified in two main groups: physical and vector-assisted delivery systems. Both groups comprise several different methods, none of them universally applicable. The choice of the optimal method depends on the predefined objectives and the features of targeted micro-environment. Areas covered: In this review, the authors discuss non-viral techniques and present recent therapeutic achievements in ex vivo and in vivo nucleic acid delivery by most commonly used techniques while emphasizing the role of 'biological particles', namely peptide transduction domains, virus like particles, gesicles and exosomes. Expert opinion: The number of available non-viral transfection techniques used for human therapy increased rapidly, followed by still moderate success in efficacy. The prospects are to be found in design of multifunctional hybrid systems that reflect the viral efficiency. In this respect, biological particles are very promising.

Inhibition of regulated cell death by cell-penetrating peptides

Development of the means to efficiently and continuously renew missing and non-functional proteins in diseased cells remains a major goal in modern molecular medicine. While gene therapy has the potential to achieve this, substantial obstacles must be overcome before clinical application can be considered. A promising alternative approach is the direct delivery of non-permeant active biomolecules, such as oligonucleotides, peptides and proteins, to the affected cells with the purpose of ameliorating an advanced disease process. In addition to receptor-mediated endocytosis, cell-penetrating peptides are widely used as vectors for rapid translocation of conjugated molecules across cell membranes into intracellular compartments and the delivery of these therapeutic molecules is generally referred to as novel prospective protein therapy. As a broad coverage of the enormous amount of published data in this field is unrewarding, this review will provide a brief, focused overview of the technology and a summary of recent studies of the most commonly used protein transduction domains and their potential as therapeutic agents for the treatment of cellular damage and the prevention of regulated cell death.

Transportan 10 improves the anticancer activity of cisplatin

The aim of this paper was to examine whether cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) such as transportan 10 (TP10) or protein transduction domain (PTD4) may improve the anticancer activity of cisplatin (cPt). The complexes of TP10 or PTD4 with cPt were used in the experiments. They were carried out on two non-cancer (HEK293 (human embryonic kidney) and HEL299 (human embryo lung)) and two cancer (HeLa (human cervical cancer) and OS143B (human osteosarcoma 143B)) cell lines. Both complexes were tested (MTT assay) with respect to their anticancer or cytotoxic actions. TAMRA (fluorescent dye)-stained preparations were visualized in a fluorescence microscope. The long-term effect of TP10 + cPt and its components on non-cancer and cancer cell lines was observed in inverted phase contrast microscopy. In the MTT test (cell viability assay), the complex of TP10 + cPt produced a more potent effect on the cancer cell lines (HeLa, OS143B) in comparison to that observed after separate treatment with TP10 or cPt. At the same time, the action of the complex and its components was rather small on non-cancer cell lines. On the other hand, a complex of another CPP with cPt, i.e., PTD4 + cPt, was without a significant effect on the cancer cell line (OS143B). The images of the fluorescent microscopy showed TAMRA-TP10 or TAMRA-TP10 + cPt in the interior of the HeLa cells. In the case of TAMRA-PTD4 or TAMRA-PTD4 + cPt, only the first compound was found inside the cancer cell line. In contrast, none of the tested compounds gained access to the interior of the non-cancer cells (HEK293, HEL299). Long-term incubation with the TP10 + cPt (estimated by inverted phase contrast microscopy) lead to an enhanced action of the complex on cell viability (decrease in the number of cells and change in their morphology) as compared with that produced by each single agent. With regard to the tested CPPs, only TP10 improved the anticancer activity of cisplatin if both compounds were used in the form of a complex. Additionally, the complex was relatively safe for non-cancer cells. What is more, TP10 also produced an anticancer effect on HeLa and OS143B cell lines.

Highly Efficient Delivery of Functional Cargoes by a Novel Cell-Penetrating Peptide Derived from SP140-Like Protein

Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) have been successfully applied to deliver various functional macromolecules into cells in recent times. Here, we describe a novel CPP designated as hPP3 (KPKRKRRKKKGHGWSR), which were derived from human nuclear body protein SP140-like protein. The location of hPP3-FITC in cells was investigated using the fluorescence microscopy, and the internalization of hPP3 was quantitatively measured using a fluorescence spectrophotometer. The results showed that hPP3-FITC could enter into culturing cells, following a concentration-, incubation time-, serum-, and temperature-dependent manner. Uptake of hPP3-FITC into cells was significantly enhanced by DMSO pretreatment, and inhibited by heparin and the endocytosis inhibitors (chlorpromazine and sodium azide), while the potent lysosomotropic agent, chloroquine, showed small positive effects on hPP3-FITC penetrating. Moreover, hPP3 could mediate functional GFP, KLA, or NBD penetration. The findings of this study showed that human origin peptide hPP3 has the potential to act as a macromolecular carrier penetrating cellular membranes and promising delivery peptide as drug delivery vectors.

Overcoming doxorubicin resistance of cancer cells by Cas9-mediated gene disruption

In this study, Cas9 system was employed to down-regulate mdr1 gene for overcoming multidrug resistance of cancer cells. Disruption of the MDR1 gene was achieved by delivery of the Cas9-sgRNA plasmid or the Cas9-sgRNA ribonucleoprotein complex using a conventional gene transfection agent and protein transduction domain (PTD). Doxorubicin showed considerable cytotoxicity to the drug-resistant breast cancer cells pre-treated with the RNA-guided endonuclease (RGEN) systems, whereas virtually non-toxic to the untreated cells. The potency of drug was enhanced in the cells treated with the protein-RNA complex as well as in those treated with plasmids, suggesting that mutation of the mdr1 gene by intracellular delivery of Cas9-sgRNA complex using proper protein delivery platforms could recover the drug susceptibility. Therefore, Cas9-mediated disruption of the drug resistance-related gene can be considered as a promising way to overcome multidrug resistance in cancer cells.

Transportan 10 improves the anticancer activity of cisplatin

The aim of this paper was to examine whether cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) such as transportan 10 (TP10) or protein transduction domain (PTD4) may improve the anticancer activity of cisplatin (cPt). The complexes of TP10 or PTD4 with cPt were used in the experiments. They were carried out on two non-cancer (HEK293 (human embryonic kidney) and HEL299 (human embryo lung)) and two cancer (HeLa (human cervical cancer) and OS143B (human osteosarcoma 143B)) cell lines. Both complexes were tested (MTT assay) with respect to their anticancer or cytotoxic actions. TAMRA (fluorescent dye)-stained preparations were visualized in a fluorescence microscope. The long-term effect of TP10 + cPt and its components on non-cancer and cancer cell lines was observed in inverted phase contrast microscopy. In the MTT test (cell viability assay), the complex of TP10 + cPt produced a more potent effect on the cancer cell lines (HeLa, OS143B) in comparison to that observed after separate treatment with TP10 or cPt. At the same time, the action of the complex and its components was rather small on non-cancer cell lines. On the other hand, a complex of another CPP with cPt, i.e., PTD4 + cPt, was without a significant effect on the cancer cell line (OS143B). The images of the fluorescent microscopy showed TAMRA-TP10 or TAMRA-TP10 + cPt in the interior of the HeLa cells. In the case of TAMRA-PTD4 or TAMRA-PTD4 + cPt, only the first compound was found inside the cancer cell line. In contrast, none of the tested compounds gained access to the interior of the non-cancer cells (HEK293, HEL299). Long-term incubation with the TP10 + cPt (estimated by inverted phase contrast microscopy) lead to an enhanced action of the complex on cell viability (decrease in the number of cells and change in their morphology) as compared with that produced by each single agent. With regard to the tested CPPs, only TP10 improved the anticancer activity of cisplatin if both compounds were used in the form of a complex. Additionally, the complex was relatively safe for non-cancer cells. What is more, TP10 also produced an anticancer effect on HeLa and OS143B cell lines.

Breakable Hybrid Organosilica Nanocapsules for Protein Delivery

The direct delivery of specific proteins to live cells promises a tremendous impact for biological and medical applications, from therapeutics to genetic engineering. However, the process mostly involves tedious techniques and often requires extensive alteration of the protein itself. Herein we report a straightforward approach to encapsulate native proteins by using breakable organosilica matrices that disintegrate upon exposure to a chemical stimulus. The biomolecule-containing capsules were tested for the intracellular delivery of highly cytotoxic proteins into C6 glioma cells. We demonstrate that the shell is broken, the release of the active proteins occurs, and therefore our hybrid architecture is a promising strategy to deliver fragile biomacromolecules into living organisms.

Cell-Penetrating Peptides Selectively Cross the Blood-Brain Barrier In Vivo

Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are a group of peptides, which have the ability to cross cell membrane bilayers. CPPs themselves can exert biological activity and can be formed endogenously. Fragmentary studies demonstrate their ability to enhance transport of different cargoes across the blood-brain barrier (BBB). However, comparative, quantitative data on the BBB permeability of different CPPs are currently lacking. Therefore, the in vivo BBB transport characteristics of five chemically diverse CPPs, i.e. pVEC, SynB3, Tat 47-57, transportan 10 (TP10) and TP10-2, were determined. The results of the multiple time regression (MTR) analysis revealed that CPPs show divergent BBB influx properties: Tat 47-57, SynB3, and especially pVEC showed very high unidirectional influx rates of 4.73 μl/(g × min), 5.63 μl/(g × min) and 6.02 μl/(g × min), respectively, while the transportan analogs showed a negligible to low brain influx. Using capillary depletion, it was found that 80% of the influxed peptides effectively reached the brain parenchyma. Except for pVEC, all peptides showed a significant efflux out of the brain. Co-injection of pVEC with radioiodinated bovine serum albumin (BSA) did not enhance the brain influx of radiodionated BSA, indicating that pVEC does not itself significantly alter the BBB properties. A saturable mechanism could not be demonstrated by co-injecting an excess dose of non-radiolabeled CPP. No significant regional differences in brain influx were observed, with the exception for pVEC, for which the regional variations were only marginal. The observed BBB influx transport properties cannot be correlated with their cell-penetrating ability, and therefore, good CPP properties do not imply efficient brain influx.

A general strategy for generating intact, full-length IgG antibodies that penetrate into the cytosol of living cells

Full-length IgG antibodies cannot cross cell membranes of living cells; this limits their use for direct targeting of cytosolic proteins. Here, we describe a general strategy for the generation of intact, full-length IgG antibodies, herein called cytotransmabs, which internalize into living cells and localize in the cytosol. We first generated a humanized light chain variable domain (VL) that could penetrate into the cytosol of living cells and was engineered for association with various subtypes of human heavy chain variable domains (VHs). When light chains with humanized VL were co-expressed with 3 heavy chains (HCs), including 2 HCs of the clinically approved adalimumab (Humira®) and bevacizumab (Avastin®), all 3 purified IgG antibodies were internalized into the cytoplasm of living cells. Cytotransmabs primarily internalized into living cells by the clathrin-mediated endocytic pathway through interactions with heparin sulfate proteoglycan that was expressed on the cell surface. The cytotransmabs escaped into the cytosol from early endosomes without being further transported into other cellular compartments, like the lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and nucleus. Furthermore, we generated a cytotransmab that co-localized with the targeted cytosolic protein when it was incubated with living cells, demonstrating that the cytotransmab can directly target cytosolic proteins. Internalized cytotransmabs did not show any noticeable cytotoxicity and remained in the cytosol for more than 6 h before being degraded by proteosomes. These results suggest that cytotransmabs, which efficiently enter living cells and reach the cytosolic space, will find widespread uses as research, diagnostic, and therapeutic agents.

Cell-penetrating peptides and their analogues as novel nanocarriers for drug delivery

INTRODUCTION

The impermeability of biological membranes is a major obstacle in drug delivery; however, some peptides have transition capabilities of biomembranes. In recent decades, cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) have been introduced as novel biocarriers that are able to translocate into the cells. CPPs are biologically potent tools for non-invasive cellular internalization of cargo molecules. Nevertheless, the non-specificity of these peptides presents a restriction for targeting drug delivery; therefore, a peptidic nanocarrier sensitive to matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) has been prepared, called activatable cell-penetrating peptide (ACPP). In addition to the cell-penetrating peptide dendrimer (DCPP), other analogues of CPPs have been synthesized.

METHODS

In this study, the most recent literature in the field of biomedical application of CPPs and their analogues, ACPP and DCCP, were reviewed.

RESULTS

This review focuses on CPP and its analogues, ACPP and DCPP, as novel nanocarriers for drug delivery. In addition, nanoconjugates and bioconjugates of these peptide sequences are discussed.

CONCLUSION

DCCP, branched CPPs, compared to linear peptides have advantages such as resistance to rapid biodegradation, high loading capacities and large-scale production capability.

Prediction and analysis of cell-penetrating peptides using pseudo-amino acid composition and random forest models

Cell-penetrating peptides, a group of short peptides, can traverse cell membranes to enter cells and thus facilitate the uptake of various molecular cargoes. Thus, they have the potential to become powerful drug delivery systems. The correct identification of peptides as cell-penetrating or non-cell-penetrating would accelerate this application. In this study, we determined which features were important for a peptide to be cell-penetrating or non-cell-penetrating and built a predictive model based on the key features extracted from this analysis. The investigated peptides were retrieved from a previous study, and each was encoded as a numeric vector according to six properties of amino acids-amino acid frequency, codon diversity, electrostatic charge, molecular volume, polarity, and secondary structure-by the pseudo-amino acid composition method. Methods of minimum redundancy maximum relevance and incremental feature selection were then employed to analyze these features, and some were found to be key determinants of cell penetration. In parallel, an optimal random forest prediction model was built. We hope that our findings will provide new resources for the study of cell-penetrating peptides.

Preparation of cell-permeable Cre recombinase by expressed protein ligation

Background

Protein transduction is safer than viral vector-mediated transduction for the delivery of a therapeutic protein into a cell. Fusion proteins with an arginine-rich cell-penetrating peptide have been produced in E. coli, but the low solubility of the fusion protein expressed in E. coli impedes the large-scale production of fusion proteins from E. coli.

Results

Expressed protein ligation is a semisynthetic method to ligate a bacterially expressed protein with a chemically synthesized peptide. In this study, we developed expressed protein ligation-based techniques to conjugate synthetic polyarginine peptides to Cre recombinase. The conjugation efficiency of this technique was higher than 80%. Using this method, we prepared semisynthetic Cre with poly-L-arginine (ssCre-R9), poly-D-arginine (ssCre-dR9) and biotin (ssCre-dR9-biotin). We found that ssCre-R9 was delivered to the cell to a comparable level or more efficiently compared with Cre-R11 and TAT-Cre expressed as recombinant fusion proteins in E. coli. We also found that the poly-D-arginine cell-penetrating peptide was more effective than the poly-L-arginine cell-penetrating peptide for the delivery of Cre into cell. We visualized the cell transduced with ssCre-dR9-biotin using avidin-FITC.

Conclusions

Collectively, the results demonstrate that expressed protein ligation is an excellent technique for the production of cell-permeable Cre recombinase with polyarginine cell-penetrating peptides. In addition, this approach will extend the use of cell-permeable proteins to more sophisticated applications, such as cell imaging.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12896-015-0126-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Enhanced serum proteolysis resistance of cell-penetrating peptides

Aim: Before starting preclinical studies, we have analyzed the integrity in serum of DPT-C9h, a promising therapeutic peptide, and performed modifications in order to improve its stability. Materials & methods: Mutant peptides exchanging arginine 8 for either lysine, asparagine or alanine were synthesized and compared with the parental peptide. Results: All mutants clearly improved peptide stability while keeping their functional activity. PK studies showed an enhanced stability, being Mut3DPT-C9h the most promising candidate. Biodistribution studies demonstrate that the modified peptide is able to reach the targeted tumor and accumulate there at higher concentration than the parental peptide. Discussion: Small modifications in the peptide sequence result in improvements allowing the selection of better candidates for preclinical studies.

Determining the Effects of Membrane-Interacting Peptides on Membrane Integrity

In the study of cell-penetrating and membrane-translocating peptides, a fundamental question occurs as to the contribution arising from fundamental peptide-membrane interactions, relative to the contribution arising from the biology and energy of the cell, mostly occurring in the form of endocytosis and subsequent events. A commonly used approach to begin addressing these mechanistic questions is to measure the degree to which peptides can interact with, and physically disrupt, the integrity of synthetic lipid bilayers. Here, we describe a set of experimental methods that can be used to measure the potency, kinetics, transience, and the effective size of peptide-induced membrane disruption.

The PDB database is a rich source of alpha-helical anti-microbial peptides to combat disease causing pathogens

The therapeutic potential of α-helical anti-microbial peptides (AH-AMP) to combat pathogens is fast gaining prominence. Based on recently published open access software for characterizing α-helical peptides (PAGAL), we elucidate a search methodology (SCALPEL) that leverages the massive structural data pre-existing in the PDB database to obtain AH-AMPs belonging to the host proteome. We provide in vitro validation of SCALPEL on plant pathogens ( Xylella fastidiosa, Xanthomonas arboricola and Liberibacter crescens) by identifying AH-AMPs that mirror the function and properties of cecropin B, a well-studied AH-AMP. The identified peptides include a linear AH-AMP present within the existing structure of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PPC20), and an AH-AMP mimicing the properties of the two α-helices of cecropin B from chitinase (CHITI25). The minimum inhibitory concentration of these peptides are comparable to that of cecropin B, while anionic peptides used as control failed to show any inhibitory effect on these pathogens. Substitute therapies in place of conventional chemotherapies using membrane permeabilizing peptides like these might also prove effective to target cancer cells. The use of native structures from the same organism largely ensures that administration of such peptides will be better tolerated and not elicit an adverse immune response. We suggest a similar approach to target Ebola epitopes, enumerated using PAGAL recently, by selecting suitable peptides from the human proteome, especially in wake of recent reports of cationic amphiphiles inhibiting virus entry and infection.