1
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Robinson ML, Weber MG, Freedman MG, Jordan E, Ashlock SR, Yonenaga J, Strauss SY. Macroevolution of protective coloration across caterpillars reflects relationships with host plants. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20222293. [PMID: 36651051 PMCID: PMC9845978 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.2293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
A critical function of animal coloration is avoiding attack, either by warning predators or reducing detectability. Evolution of these divergent strategies may depend on prey palatability and apparency to predators: conspicuous coloration may be favoured if species are distasteful, or habitats make hiding difficult; by contrast, camouflage may be effective if prey lack defences or environments are visually complex. For insect herbivores, host plants provide both chemical defence and the background against which they are detected or obscured; thus, plant traits may be key to coloration in these foundational terrestrial organisms. We use 1808 species of larval Lepidoptera to explore macroevolution of protective coloration strategy. We find that colour and pattern evolve jointly in caterpillars, similar to an array of species across the animal kingdom, while individual elements of coloration evolve closely with diet ecology. Consistent with key tenets of plant defence and plant-herbivore coevolutionary theory, conspicuous colours are associated with herbaceous host plants-thought to be defended by toxins-while camouflage colours and patterns are associated with woody plants and grasses. Contrary to theory, dietary specialization is not associated with conspicuous coloration. Our results add valuable insights into the evolutionary forces shaping colour and pattern in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moria L. Robinson
- Center for Population Biology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA,Department of Biology, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, USA
| | - Marjorie G. Weber
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Micah G. Freedman
- Center for Population Biology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA,Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Evan Jordan
- Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California, CA 95616, USA
| | - Sarah R. Ashlock
- Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California, CA 95616, USA
| | - Jenna Yonenaga
- Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California, CA 95616, USA
| | - Sharon Y. Strauss
- Center for Population Biology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA,Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, Berlin, 14193, Germany,Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California, CA 95616, USA
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2
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Ottocento C, Winters AE, Rojas B, Mappes J, Burdfield‐Steel E. Not just the sum of its parts: Geographic variation and nonadditive effects of pyrazines in the chemical defence of an aposematic moth. J Evol Biol 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2022] [Revised: 09/06/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Ottocento
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences University of Helsinki Helsinki Finland
- Department of Biology and Environmental Science University of Jyväskylä Jyväskylä Finland
| | - Anne E. Winters
- Department of Biology and Environmental Science University of Jyväskylä Jyväskylä Finland
- College Life and Environmental Sciences, Penryn Campus University of Exeter Penryn UK
| | - Bibiana Rojas
- Department of Biology and Environmental Science University of Jyväskylä Jyväskylä Finland
- Department of Interdisciplinary Life Sciences Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna Vienna Austria
| | - Johanna Mappes
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences University of Helsinki Helsinki Finland
- Department of Biology and Environmental Science University of Jyväskylä Jyväskylä Finland
| | - Emily Burdfield‐Steel
- Department of Biology and Environmental Science University of Jyväskylä Jyväskylä Finland
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics University of Amsterdam Amsterdam The Netherlands
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3
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Mattila ALK, Jiggins CD, Saastamoinen M. Condition dependence in biosynthesized chemical defenses of an aposematic and mimetic
Heliconius
butterfly. Ecol Evol 2022; 12:e9041. [PMID: 35784031 PMCID: PMC9227709 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.9041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Revised: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Aposematic animals advertise their toxicity or unpalatability with bright warning coloration. However, acquiring and maintaining chemical defenses can be energetically costly, and consequent associations with other important traits could shape chemical defense evolution. Here, we have tested whether chemical defenses are involved in energetic trade‐offs with other traits, or whether the levels of chemical defenses are condition dependent, by studying associations between biosynthesized cyanogenic toxicity and a suite of key life‐history and fitness traits in a Heliconius butterfly under a controlled laboratory setting. Heliconius butterflies are well known for the diversity of their warning color patterns and widespread mimicry and can both sequester the cyanogenic glucosides of their Passiflora host plants and biosynthesize these toxins de novo. We find energetically costly life‐history traits to be either unassociated or to show a general positive association with biosynthesized cyanogenic toxicity. More toxic individuals developed faster and had higher mass as adults and a tendency for increased lifespan and fecundity. These results thus indicate that toxicity level of adult butterflies may be dependent on individual condition, influenced by genetic background or earlier conditions, with maternal effects as one strong candidate mechanism. Additionally, toxicity was higher in older individuals, consistent with previous studies indicating accumulation of toxins with age. As toxicity level at death was independent of lifespan, cyanogenic glucoside compounds may have been recycled to release resources relevant for longevity in these long‐living butterflies. Understanding the origins and maintenance of variation in defenses is necessary in building a more complete picture of factors shaping the evolution of aposematic and mimetic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anniina L. K. Mattila
- Research Centre for Ecological Change, Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme University of Helsinki Helsinki Finland
- HiLIFE – Helsinki Institute of Life Science University of Helsinki Helsinki Finland
- Finnish Museum of Natural History (LUOMUS) University of Helsinki Helsinki Finland
| | | | - Marjo Saastamoinen
- Research Centre for Ecological Change, Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme University of Helsinki Helsinki Finland
- HiLIFE – Helsinki Institute of Life Science University of Helsinki Helsinki Finland
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4
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How Diet Leads to Defensive Dynamism: Effect of the Dietary Quality on Autogenous Alkaloid Recovery Rate in a Chemically Defended Beetle. J Chem Ecol 2021; 48:99-107. [PMID: 34799770 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-021-01326-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2021] [Revised: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/17/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The impact of different diets on chemical defense has been extensively studied in animals that sequester defensive chemicals from food. However, there are fewer studies of diet-mediated variation in autogenously produced defenses. Ladybird beetles, which use autogenously synthesized defensive alkaloids, are used as models in a wide diversity of studies of chemical defense, specifically in studies of intraspecific variation in color pattern and chemical defense. Many aphidophagous ladybirds consume a wide diversity of aphid prey, which vary in quality and thus could affect the synthesis of chemical defense. We measured alkaloid recovery rate after reflex bleeding by the ladybird Adalia bipunctata on two different aphid diets, the high quality Acyrthosiphon pisum and the lower quality Aphis fabae. Alkaloids reaccumulated in ladybirds more slowly when they were fed A. fabae than when they were fed A. pisum and females generally had more alkaloid than males, but reaccumulated alkaloid more slowly. Recovery times were more than 12 days. There appeared to be a weak positive relationship between alkaloid level and time since reflex bleeding for eggs of A. pisum- but not A. fabae-fed females. Our findings on diet and alkaloid synthesis in ladybirds suggest that chemical defense levels are very dynamic, indicating that studies conducted at a single point in time, such as those focused on ladybird color pattern, fail to consider a wide diversity of temporal variation that occurs in the field. This is likely true for many autogenously produced chemical defense systems in a diversity of other organisms.
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5
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Franklin AM, Rankin KJ, Ospina Rozo L, Medina I, Garcia JE, Ng L, Dong C, Wang L, Aulsebrook AE, Stuart‐Fox D. Cracks in the mirror hypothesis: High specularity does not reduce detection or predation risk. Funct Ecol 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.13963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Amanda M. Franklin
- School of BioSciences The University of Melbourne Parkville Vic. Australia
| | - Katrina J. Rankin
- School of BioSciences The University of Melbourne Parkville Vic. Australia
| | - Laura Ospina Rozo
- School of BioSciences The University of Melbourne Parkville Vic. Australia
| | - Iliana Medina
- School of BioSciences The University of Melbourne Parkville Vic. Australia
| | - Jair E. Garcia
- Bio‐Inspired Digital Sensing Lab RMIT University Melbourne Vic. Australia
| | - Leslie Ng
- School of BioSciences The University of Melbourne Parkville Vic. Australia
| | - Caroline Dong
- School of BioSciences The University of Melbourne Parkville Vic. Australia
| | - Lu‐Yi Wang
- School of BioSciences The University of Melbourne Parkville Vic. Australia
| | - Anne E. Aulsebrook
- School of BioSciences The University of Melbourne Parkville Vic. Australia
| | - Devi Stuart‐Fox
- School of BioSciences The University of Melbourne Parkville Vic. Australia
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6
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Zúñiga-Vega JJ, Pruett JA, Ossip-Drahos AG, Campos SM, Seddon RJ, Price SL, Romero-Diaz C, Rivera JA, Vital-García C, Hews DK, Martins EP. Information out of the blue: phenotypic correlates of abdominal color patches in Sceloporus lizards. ZOOLOGY 2021; 149:125961. [PMID: 34592493 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2021.125961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Revised: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Colorful ornaments are important visual signals for animal communication that can provide critical information about the quality of the signaler. In this study, we focused on different color characteristics of the abdominal patches of males of six lizard species from the genus Sceloporus. We addressed three main objectives. First, we examined if size, brightness, saturation, and conspicuousness of these ornaments are indicative of body size, condition, immune function, or levels of testosterone and corticosterone. Second, we evaluated if the distinct components of these abdominal patches (blue or green patches and black stripes) transmit similar information about the signaler, which would support the redundant signal hypothesis, or if these components are related to different phenotypic traits, which would support the multiple message hypothesis. Third, we compared the phenotypic correlates of these ornaments among our six species to understand the degree of conservatism in the signaling patterns or to find species-specific signals. Using data collected from males in natural conditions and a multi-model inference framework, we found that in most species the area of the patches and the brightness of the blue component are positively related to body size. Thus, these color characteristics are presumably indicative of the physical strength and competitive ability of males and these shared signals were likely inherited from a common ancestor. In half of the species, males in good body condition also exhibit relatively larger blue and black areas, suggesting that the expression of these ornaments is condition-dependent. Abdominal patches also provide information about immunocompetence of the males as indicated by different correlations between certain color characteristics and ectoparasite load, counts of heterophils, and the heterophil:lymphocyte ratio. Our findings reveal that area and brightness of the abdominal patches signal the size and body condition of males, whereas blue saturation and conspicuousness with respect to the surrounding substrate are indicative of immune condition, thus supporting the multiple message hypothesis. However, some of these correlations were not shared by all species and, hence, point to intriguing species-specific signals.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Jaime Zúñiga-Vega
- Departamento de Ecología y Recursos Naturales, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacán, Mexico City, 04510, Mexico.
| | - Jake A Pruett
- Department of Biology, Indiana State University, Science Building Room 283, 600 North Chestnut Street, Terre Haute, IN 47809, USA; Department of Biological Sciences, Southeastern Oklahoma State University, 425 W. University Boulevard, Durant, OK 74701, USA.
| | - Alison G Ossip-Drahos
- Department of Chemistry and Physical Sciences, Marian University, 3200 Cold Springs Road, Indianapolis, IN 46222, USA.
| | - Stephanie M Campos
- Biology Department, Swarthmore College, 500 College Avenue, Swarthmore, PA 19081, USA.
| | - Ryan J Seddon
- Department of Biology, Indiana State University, Science Building Room 283, 600 North Chestnut Street, Terre Haute, IN 47809, USA; Center for Global Communication Strategies, University of Tokyo, 3-8-4 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 153-8902, Japan.
| | - Savannah L Price
- Department of Biology, Indiana State University, Science Building Room 283, 600 North Chestnut Street, Terre Haute, IN 47809, USA.
| | - Cristina Romero-Diaz
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, 427 East Tyler Mall, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA.
| | - Julio A Rivera
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, 427 East Tyler Mall, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA.
| | - Cuauhcihuatl Vital-García
- Departamento de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez, Anillo Envolvente y Estocolmo s/n, Colonia Progresista, Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, 32310, Mexico.
| | - Diana K Hews
- Department of Biology, Indiana State University, Science Building Room 283, 600 North Chestnut Street, Terre Haute, IN 47809, USA.
| | - Emília P Martins
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, 427 East Tyler Mall, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA.
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7
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Increased burrow oxygen levels trigger defensive burrow-sealing behavior by plateau zokors. Sci Rep 2021; 11:19088. [PMID: 34580363 PMCID: PMC8476587 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-98551-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Defensive behaviors are a response to immediate and potential threats in the environment, including abiotic and biotic threats. Subterranean rodents exhibit morphological and physiological adaptions for life underground, and they will seal with mounds and additional plugs when their burrow opened. However, little is known about the factors driving this defensive behavior. In this study, we selected a subterranean rodent, plateau zokor (Myospalax fontanieri), as a species to investigate (both in the laboratory and in the field) the possible factors responsible for burrow-sealing behavior. Our results showed that: (1) In the laboratory, the burrow-sealing frequency of plateau zokor in response to five factors were as follows: oxygen (52.63%) > light (34.58%) > temperature (20.24%) > gas flow (6.48%) > sound/control (0%). Except for light, the burrow-sealing frequency in response to other factors was significantly lower than that in response to oxygen (P < 0.05). (2) Burrow-sealing behavior in response to each treatment did not differ significantly between males and females in the laboratory experiment. (3) In the field, during the animal’s active periods in both the cold and warm season, the burrow-sealing frequency under the oxygen treatment was higher than that under the light and temperature treatments. Plateau zokors were found not to be sensitive to these treatments during their inactive periods during both the cold and warm season. (4) The latency to reseal the burrow showed no obvious differences between each treatment both in the laboratory and in the field. In conclusion, the main factor that influences the burrow-sealing behavior of plateau zokors is the variation in oxygen concentration, and this defensive behavior is related to their activity rhythm.
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8
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Appearance matters: multiple functional signals of body colours in a weevil. Anim Behav 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2021.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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9
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Mattila ALK, Jiggins CD, Opedal ØH, Montejo-Kovacevich G, Pinheiro de Castro ÉC, McMillan WO, Bacquet C, Saastamoinen M. Evolutionary and ecological processes influencing chemical defense variation in an aposematic and mimetic Heliconius butterfly. PeerJ 2021; 9:e11523. [PMID: 34178447 PMCID: PMC8216171 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.11523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Chemical defences against predators underlie the evolution of aposematic coloration and mimicry, which are classic examples of adaptive evolution. Surprisingly little is known about the roles of ecological and evolutionary processes maintaining defence variation, and how they may feedback to shape the evolutionary dynamics of species. Cyanogenic Heliconius butterflies exhibit diverse warning color patterns and mimicry, thus providing a useful framework for investigating these questions. We studied intraspecific variation in de novo biosynthesized cyanogenic toxicity and its potential ecological and evolutionary sources in wild populations of Heliconius erato along environmental gradients, in common-garden broods and with feeding treatments. Our results demonstrate substantial intraspecific variation, including detectable variation among broods reared in a common garden. The latter estimate suggests considerable evolutionary potential in this trait, although predicting the response to selection is likely complicated due to the observed skewed distribution of toxicity values and the signatures of maternal contributions to the inheritance of toxicity. Larval diet contributed little to toxicity variation. Furthermore, toxicity profiles were similar along steep rainfall and altitudinal gradients, providing little evidence for these factors explaining variation in biosynthesized toxicity in natural populations. In contrast, there were striking differences in the chemical profiles of H. erato from geographically distant populations, implying potential local adaptation in the acquisition mechanisms and levels of defensive compounds. The results highlight the extensive variation and potential for adaptive evolution in defense traits for aposematic and mimetic species, which may contribute to the high diversity often found in these systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anniina L K Mattila
- Research Centre for Ecological Change, Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Helsinki Life Science Institute, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Current affiliation: Finnish Museum of Natural History (LUOMUS), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Chris D Jiggins
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Marjo Saastamoinen
- Research Centre for Ecological Change, Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Helsinki Life Science Institute, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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10
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Sculfort O, McClure M, Nay B, Elias M, Llaurens V. Assessing the Role of Developmental and Environmental Factors in Chemical Defence Variation in Heliconiini Butterflies. J Chem Ecol 2021; 47:577-587. [PMID: 34003420 PMCID: PMC8217024 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-021-01278-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 04/21/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Chemical defences in animals are both incredibly widespread and highly diverse. Yet despite the important role they play in mediating interactions between predators and prey, extensive differences in the amounts and types of chemical compounds can exist between individuals, even within species and populations. Here we investigate the potential role of environment and development on the chemical defences of warningly coloured butterfly species from the tribe Heliconiini, which can both synthesize and sequester cyanogenic glycosides (CGs). We reared 5 Heliconiini species in captivity, each on a single species-specific host plant as larvae, and compared them to individuals collected in the wild to ascertain whether the variation in CG content observed in the field might be the result of differences in host plant availability. Three of these species were reared as larvae on the same host plant, Passiflora riparia, to further test how species, sex, and age affected the type and amount of different defensive CGs, and how they affected the ratio of synthesized to sequestered compounds. Then, focusing on the generalist species Heliconius numata, we specifically explored variation in chemical profiles as a result of the host plant consumed by caterpillars and their brood line, using rearing experiments carried out on two naturally co-occurring host plants with differing CG profiles. Our results show significant differences in both the amount of synthesized and sequestered compounds between butterflies reared in captivity and those collected in the field. We also found a significant effect of species and an effect of sex in some, but not all, species. We show that chemical defences in H. numata continue to increase throughout their life, likely because of continued biosynthesis, and we suggest that variation in the amount of synthesized CGs in this species does not appear to stem from larval host plants, although this warrants further study. Interestingly, we detected a significant effect of brood lines, consistent with heritability influencing CG concentrations in H. numata. Altogether, our results point to multiple factors resulting in chemical defence variation in Heliconiini butterflies and highlight the overlooked effect of synthesis capabilities, which may be genetically determined to some extent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ombeline Sculfort
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), Muséum National D'Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, Sorbonne-Université, EPHE, Université Des Antilles, 45 rue Buffon, 75005, Paris, France. .,Unité Molécules de Communication Et Adaptations Des Micro-Organismes (MCAM), Muséum National D'Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, 57 rue Cuvier (BP 54), 75005, Paris, France. .,Laboratoire Écologie, Évolution, Interactions Des Systèmes Amazoniens (LEEISA), Université de Guyane, CNRS, IFREMER, 97300, Cayenne, France.
| | - Melanie McClure
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), Muséum National D'Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, Sorbonne-Université, EPHE, Université Des Antilles, 45 rue Buffon, 75005, Paris, France.,Laboratoire Écologie, Évolution, Interactions Des Systèmes Amazoniens (LEEISA), Université de Guyane, CNRS, IFREMER, 97300, Cayenne, France
| | - Bastien Nay
- Unité Molécules de Communication Et Adaptations Des Micro-Organismes (MCAM), Muséum National D'Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, 57 rue Cuvier (BP 54), 75005, Paris, France.,Laboratoire de Synthèse Organique, Ecole Polytechnique, CNRS, ENSTA, Route de Saclay, 91128, Palaiseau Cedex, France
| | - Marianne Elias
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), Muséum National D'Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, Sorbonne-Université, EPHE, Université Des Antilles, 45 rue Buffon, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Violaine Llaurens
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), Muséum National D'Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, Sorbonne-Université, EPHE, Université Des Antilles, 45 rue Buffon, 75005, Paris, France
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11
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White TE, Umbers KDL. Meta-analytic evidence for quantitative honesty in aposematic signals. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20210679. [PMID: 33906408 PMCID: PMC8080005 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.0679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The combined use of noxious chemical defences and conspicuous warning colours is a ubiquitous anti-predator strategy. That such signals advertise the presence of defences is inherent to their function, but their predicted potential for quantitative honesty-the positive scaling of signal salience with the strength of protection-is the subject of enduring debate. Here, we systematically synthesized the available evidence to test this prediction using meta-analysis. We found evidence for a positive correlation between warning colour expression and the extent of chemical defences across taxa. Notably, this relationship held at all scales; among individuals, populations and species, though substantial between-study heterogeneity remains unexplained. Consideration of the design of signals revealed that all visual features, from colour to contrast, were equally informative of the extent of prey defence. Our results affirm a central prediction of honesty-based models of signal function and narrow the scope of possible mechanisms shaping the evolution of aposematism. They suggest diverse pathways to the encoding and exchange of information, while highlighting the need for deeper knowledge of the ecology of chemical defences to enrich our understanding of this widespread anti-predator adaptation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas E. White
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2106, Australia
| | - Kate D. L. Umbers
- School of Science, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales 2751, Australia
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales 2751, Australia
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12
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Motyka M, Kusy D, Masek M, Bocek M, Li Y, Bilkova R, Kapitán J, Yagi T, Bocak L. Conspicuousness, phylogenetic structure, and origins of Müllerian mimicry in 4000 lycid beetles from all zoogeographic regions. Sci Rep 2021; 11:5961. [PMID: 33727670 PMCID: PMC7971032 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-85567-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Biologists have reported on the chemical defences and the phenetic similarity of net-winged beetles (Coleoptera: Lycidae) and their co-mimics. Nevertheless, our knowledge has remained fragmental, and the evolution of mimetic patterns has not been studied in the phylogenetic context. We illustrate the general appearance of ~ 600 lycid species and ~ 200 co-mimics and their distribution. Further, we assemble the phylogeny using the transcriptomic backbone and ~ 570 species. Using phylogenetic information, we closely scrutinise the relationships among aposematically coloured species, the worldwide diversity, and the distribution of aposematic patterns. The emitted visual signals differ in conspicuousness. The uniform coloured dorsum is ancestral and was followed by the evolution of bicoloured forms. The mottled patterns, i.e. fasciate, striate, punctate, and reticulate, originated later in the course of evolution. The highest number of sympatrically occurring patterns was recovered in New Guinea and the Andean mountain ecosystems (the areas of the highest abundance), and in continental South East Asia (an area of moderate abundance but high in phylogenetic diversity). Consequently, a large number of co-existing aposematic patterns in a single region and/or locality is the rule, in contrast with the theoretical prediction, and predators do not face a simple model-like choice but cope with complex mimetic communities. Lycids display an ancestral aposematic signal even though they sympatrically occur with differently coloured unprofitable relatives. We show that the highly conspicuous patterns evolve within communities predominantly formed by less conspicuous Müllerian mimics and, and often only a single species displays a novel pattern. Our work is a forerunner to the detailed research into the aposematic signalling of net-winged beetles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal Motyka
- grid.10979.360000 0001 1245 3953Laboratory of Diversity and Molecular Evolution, CATRIN-CRH, Palacky University, 17. listopadu 50, 771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Dominik Kusy
- grid.10979.360000 0001 1245 3953Laboratory of Diversity and Molecular Evolution, CATRIN-CRH, Palacky University, 17. listopadu 50, 771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Michal Masek
- grid.10979.360000 0001 1245 3953Laboratory of Diversity and Molecular Evolution, CATRIN-CRH, Palacky University, 17. listopadu 50, 771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Matej Bocek
- grid.10979.360000 0001 1245 3953Laboratory of Diversity and Molecular Evolution, CATRIN-CRH, Palacky University, 17. listopadu 50, 771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Yun Li
- grid.10979.360000 0001 1245 3953Laboratory of Diversity and Molecular Evolution, CATRIN-CRH, Palacky University, 17. listopadu 50, 771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - R. Bilkova
- grid.10979.360000 0001 1245 3953Laboratory of Diversity and Molecular Evolution, CATRIN-CRH, Palacky University, 17. listopadu 50, 771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Josef Kapitán
- grid.10979.360000 0001 1245 3953Department of Optics, Faculty of Science, Palacky University, 17. listopadu 12, 771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Takashi Yagi
- grid.261455.10000 0001 0676 0594Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka Prefecture University, 1-2 Gakuen-cho, Naka-ku, Sakai, Osaka 599-8570 Japan
| | - Ladislav Bocak
- grid.10979.360000 0001 1245 3953Laboratory of Diversity and Molecular Evolution, CATRIN-CRH, Palacky University, 17. listopadu 50, 771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic
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Mora-Castro R, Alfaro-Córdoba M, Hernández-Jiménez M, Fernández Otárola M, Méndez-Rivera M, Ramírez-Morales D, Rodríguez-Rodríguez CE, Durán-Rodríguez A, Hanson PE. First evidence for an aposematic function of a very common color pattern in small insects. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0237288. [PMID: 33571212 PMCID: PMC7877781 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0237288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Many small parasitoid wasps have a black head, an orange mesosoma and a black metasoma (BOB color pattern), which is usually present in both sexes. A likely function of this widespread pattern is aposematic (warning) coloration, but this has never been investigated. To test this hypothesis, we presented spider predators (Lyssomanes jemineus), both field-captured and bred in captivity from eggs, to four wasp genera (Baryconus, Chromoteleia, Macroteleia and Scelio), each genus being represented by a BOB morphospecies and black morphospecies. We also used false prey, consisting of lures made of painted rice grains. Behavioral responses were analyzed with respect to presence or absence of the BOB pattern. In order to better understand the results obtained, two additional studies were performed. First, the reflection spectrum of the cuticle of the wasp and a theoretical visual sensibility of the spider were used to calculate a parameter we called "absorption contrast" that allows comparing the perception contrast between black and orange in each wasp genus as viewed by the spider. Second, acute toxicity trials with the water flea, Daphnia magna, were performed to determine toxicity differences between BOB and non-BOB wasps. At least some of the results suggest that the BOB color pattern may possibly play an aposematic role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebeca Mora-Castro
- Centro de Investigación en Biología Celular y Molecular, University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
- Centro de Investigación en Ciencia e Ingeniería de Materiales, University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
- Escuela de Biología, University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
- * E-mail:
| | - Marcela Alfaro-Córdoba
- Centro de Investigación en Matemática Pura y Aplicada, University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
- Escuela de Estadística, University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Marcela Hernández-Jiménez
- Centro de Investigación en Ciencia e Ingeniería de Materiales, University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
- Escuela de Física, University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Mauricio Fernández Otárola
- Escuela de Biología, University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
- Centro de Investigación en Biodiversidad y Ecología Tropical (CIBET), University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Michael Méndez-Rivera
- Centro de Investigación en Contaminación Ambiental (CICA), University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Didier Ramírez-Morales
- Centro de Investigación en Contaminación Ambiental (CICA), University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | | | | | - Paul E. Hanson
- Escuela de Biología, University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
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14
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Santiago C, Green NF, Hamilton N, Endler JA, Osorio DC, Marshall NJ, Cheney KL. Does conspicuousness scale linearly with colour distance? A test using reef fish. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20201456. [PMID: 32933449 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.1456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
To be effective, animal colour signals must attract attention-and therefore need to be conspicuous. To understand the signal function, it is useful to evaluate their conspicuousness to relevant viewers under various environmental conditions, including when visual scenes are cluttered by objects of varying colour. A widely used metric of colour difference (ΔS) is based on the receptor noise limited (RNL) model, which was originally proposed to determine when two similar colours appear different from one another, termed the discrimination threshold (or just noticeable difference). Estimates of the perceptual distances between colours that exceed this threshold-termed 'suprathreshold' colour differences-often assume that a colour's conspicuousness scales linearly with colour distance, and that this scale is independent of the direction in colour space. Currently, there is little behavioural evidence to support these assumptions. This study evaluated the relationship between ΔS and conspicuousness in suprathreshold colours using an Ishihara-style test with a coral reef fish, Rhinecanthus aculeatus. As our measure of conspicuousness, we tested whether fish, when presented with two colourful targets, preferred to peck at the one with a greater ΔS - from the average distractor colour. We found the relationship between ΔS and conspicuousness followed-- a sigmoidal function, with high ΔS colours perceived as equally conspicuous. We found that the relationship between ΔS and conspicuousness varied across colour space (i.e. for different hues). The sigmoidal detectability curve was little affected by colour variation in the background or when colour distance was calculated using a model that does not incorporate receptor noise. These results suggest that the RNL model may provide accurate estimates for perceptual distance for small suprathreshold distance colours, even in complex viewing environments, but must be used with caution with perceptual distances exceeding- -10 ΔS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl Santiago
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072 Australia
| | - Naomi F Green
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072 Australia.,Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072 Australia
| | - Nadia Hamilton
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072 Australia
| | - John A Endler
- Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Waurn Ponds, Victoria 3216, Australia
| | - Daniel C Osorio
- School of Life Sciences, The University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9QG, UK
| | - N Justin Marshall
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072 Australia
| | - Karen L Cheney
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072 Australia.,Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072 Australia
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15
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Interactions in multi-pattern Müllerian communities support origins of new patterns, false structures, imperfect resemblance and mimetic sexual dimorphism. Sci Rep 2020; 10:11193. [PMID: 32641709 PMCID: PMC7343875 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-68027-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Mimicry is a hot spot of evolutionary research, but de novo origins of aposematic patterns, the persistence of multiple patterns in Müllerian communities, and the persistence of imperfect mimics still need to be investigated. Local mimetic assemblages can contain up to a hundred of species, their structure can be a result of multiple dispersal events, and the gradual build-up of the communities. Here, we investigate the structure of lowland and mountain mimetic communities of net-winged beetles by sampling the Crocker Range in north-eastern Borneo and neighbouring regions. The local endemics evolved from the Bornean lowland fauna which is highly endemic at the species level. We inferred that metriorrhynchine net-winged beetles evolved in high elevations yellow/black and reticulate aposematic high-contrast signals from a widespread low-contrast brown/black pattern. As the mountain range is ~ 6 million years old, and these patterns do not occur elsewhere, we assume their in situ origins. We demonstrate that a signal with increased internal contrast can evolve de novo in a mimetic community and can persist despite its low frequency. Additionally, a similar aposematic signal evolves from different structures and its similarity is imperfect. The community with multiple patterns sets conditions for the evolution of aposematic sexual dimorphism as demonstrated by the yellow/black male and reticulate female pattern of Micronychus pardus. These insights elucidate the complex character of the evolution of mimetic signalling in the dynamically diversifying biota of high tropical mountains.
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16
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Nielsen ME, Mappes J. Out in the open: behavior's effect on predation risk and thermoregulation by aposematic caterpillars. Behav Ecol 2020; 31:1031-1039. [PMID: 32760178 PMCID: PMC7390994 DOI: 10.1093/beheco/araa048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2019] [Revised: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 05/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Warning coloration should be under strong stabilizing selection but often displays considerable intraspecific variation. Opposing selection on color by predators and temperature is one potential explanation for this seeming paradox. Despite the importance of behavior for both predator avoidance and thermoregulation, its role in mediating selection by predators and temperature on warning coloration has received little attention. Wood tiger moth caterpillars, Arctia plantaginis, have aposematic coloration, an orange patch on the black body. The size of the orange patch varies considerably: individuals with larger patches are safer from predators, but having a small patch is beneficial in cool environments. We investigated microhabitat preference by these caterpillars and how it interacted with their coloration. We expected caterpillar behavior to reflect a balance between spending time exposed to maximize basking and spending time concealed to avoid detection by predators. Instead, we found that caterpillars preferred exposed locations regardless of their coloration. Whether caterpillars were exposed or concealed had a strong effect on both temperature and predation risk, but caterpillars in exposed locations were both much warmer and less likely to be attacked by a bird predator (great tits, Parus major). This shared optimum may explain why we observed so little variation in caterpillar behavior and demonstrates the important effects of behavior on multiple functions of coloration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew E Nielsen
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Survontie 9 C, Jyväskylä, Finland
- Department of Zoology, Stockholm University, Svante Arrhenius väg 18b, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Johanna Mappes
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Survontie 9 C, Jyväskylä, Finland
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17
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Trade-off Between Thermal Quality and Predation Risk at Timber Rattlesnake Gestation Sites. J HERPETOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1670/18-073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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18
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19
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Mora-Castro R, Hernández-Jiménez M, Alfaro-Córdoba M, Avendano E, Hanson-Snortum P. Spectral measure of color variation of black-orange-black (BOB) pattern in small parasitoid wasps (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae), a statistical approach. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0218061. [PMID: 31647807 PMCID: PMC6812806 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0218061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2019] [Accepted: 09/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Small parasitoid wasps are abundant and extremely diverse, yet their colors have not been analyzed. One of the more common color patterns observed in these wasps is a black-orange-black pattern, which is especially common among neotropical species of Scelionidae ranging in size from 2 to 10 mm. Due to the methodological challenges involved in extracting and analyzing pigments from small-sized insects, other methods for examining colors need to be explored. In this work, we propose the use of microspectrophotometry in combination with statistical analysis methods in order to 8 study the spectral properties in such cases. We examined 8 scelionid genera and 1 genus from a distantly related family (Evaniidae), all showing the black-orange-black pattern. Functional Data Analysis and statistical analysis of Euclidean distances for color components were applied to study color differences both between and within genera. The Functional Data Analysis proved to be a better method for treating the reflectance data because it gave a better representation of the physical information. Also, the reflectance spectra were separated into spectral color component contributions and each component was labeled according to its own dominant wavelength at the maximum of the spectrum: Red, Green and Blue. When comparing spectral components curves, the spectral blue components of the orange and black colors, independent of the genera being compared, result almost identical, suggesting that there is a common compound for the pigments. The results also suggest that cuticle from different genera, but with the same color might have a similar chemical composition. This is the first time that the black and orange colors in small parasitoid wasps has been analyzed and our results provide a basis for future research on the color patterns of an abundant but neglected group of insects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebeca Mora-Castro
- Centro de Investigación en Biología Celular y Molecular, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
- Centro de Investigación en Ciencia e Ingeniería de Materiales, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
- Escuela de Biología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Marcela Hernández-Jiménez
- Centro de Investigación en Ciencia e Ingeniería de Materiales, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
- Escuela de Física, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Marcela Alfaro-Córdoba
- Centro de Investigación en Matemática Pura y Aplicada, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
- Escuela de Estadística, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Esteban Avendano
- Centro de Investigación en Ciencia e Ingeniería de Materiales, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
- Escuela de Física, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
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20
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Directed chemical spray of the peppermint stick insect (Megacrania batesii) is induced when predation risk is at its highest. J ETHOL 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s10164-019-00619-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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21
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Svenson GJ, Rodrigues HM. A novel form of wasp mimicry in a new species of praying mantis from the Amazon rainforest, Vespamantoida wherleyi gen. nov. sp. nov. (Mantodea, Mantoididae). PeerJ 2019; 7:e7886. [PMID: 31656699 PMCID: PMC6812689 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.7886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 09/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A wasp mimicking praying mantis (Mantodea) of the early evolving Mantoididae family was discovered in 2013 at a research station near the Amazon River in Northern Peru. This adult specimen exhibited a striking bright red/orange and black coloration pattern that was undocumented in all known praying mantis species. We tested the status of this new specimen using external morphology, male genital dissections, and geographic distribution. Our findings demonstrate the specimen to represent a new species, Vespamantoida wherleyi gen. nov. sp. nov., that is closely allied with a recently described species, Mantoida toulgoeti Roy, 2010, both of which are included within the newly erected genus. To support our actions, we present high resolution images of museum preserved and living specimens, morphological illustrations, a generic-level distribution map, and recorded video of the behavior of the holotype taken in the field at the time of collection. The bright red/orange coloration contrasted with black markings, the general appearance of a hymenopteran that includes a narrowed wasp waist, and the locomotory patterns and antennal movements mark this newly discovered species as unique among all hymenopteran mimicking Mantoididae as well as all other praying mantises.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gavin J. Svenson
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Cleveland Museum of Natural History, Cleveland, OH, USA
- Department of Biology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Henrique M. Rodrigues
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Cleveland Museum of Natural History, Cleveland, OH, USA
- Department of Biology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
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22
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Lindstedt C, Suisto K, Mappes J. Appearance before performance? Nutritional constraints on life-history traits, but not warning signal expression in aposematic moths. J Anim Ecol 2019; 89:494-505. [PMID: 31538333 PMCID: PMC7027542 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2019] [Accepted: 07/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Trade-offs have been shown to play an important role in the divergence of mating strategies and sexual ornamentation, but their importance in explaining warning signal diversity has received less attention. In aposematic organisms, allocation costs of producing the conspicuous warning signal pigmentation under nutritional stress could potentially trade-off with life-history traits and maintain variation in warning coloration. We studied this with an aposematic herbivore Arctia plantaginis (Arctiidae), whose larvae and adults show extensive variation in aposematic coloration. In larvae, less melanic coloration (i.e. larger orange patterns) produces a more efficient warning signal against predators, whereas high amounts of melanism (smaller orange pattern) enhance thermoregulation, correlate with better immunity and make individuals harder to detect for naïve predators. We conducted a factorial rearing experiment with larvae originating from lines selected for either small or large orange signal size, which were reared on an artificial diet that had either low or high protein content. Protein content of the diet is critical for melanin production. We measured the effects of diet on individual coloration, life-history traits, immune defence and reproductive output. We also compared the responses to dietary conditions between the small and large larval signal genotypes. Protein content of the diet did not affect warning coloration in the larval stage, but larval signal sizes differed significantly among selection lines, confirming that its variation is mainly genetically determined. In adults, signal line or diet did not affect coloration in hindwings, but males' forewings had more melanin on the high than on low protein diet. Contrary to coloration, diet quality had a stronger impact on life-history traits: individuals developed for longer had smaller hindwing sizes in females and lower immune defence on the low protein content diet compared with the high. These costs were higher for more melanic larval signal genotypes in terms of development time and female hindwing size. We conclude that low plasticity in warning signal characteristics makes signal expression robust under varying dietary conditions. Therefore, variation in diet quality is not likely to constrain signal expression, but can have a bigger impact on performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carita Lindstedt
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyvaskyla, Finland
| | - Kaisa Suisto
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyvaskyla, Finland
| | - Johanna Mappes
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyvaskyla, Finland
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23
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Preißler K, Gippner S, Lüddecke T, Krause ET, Schulz S, Vences M, Steinfartz S. More yellow more toxic? Sex rather than alkaloid content is correlated with yellow coloration in the fire salamander. J Zool (1987) 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- K. Preißler
- Zoological Institute Technische Universität Braunschweig Braunschweig Germany
- Institute of Biology, Molecular Evolution and Systematics of Animals University of Leipzig Leipzig Germany
| | - S. Gippner
- Zoological Institute Technische Universität Braunschweig Braunschweig Germany
| | - T. Lüddecke
- Zoological Institute Technische Universität Braunschweig Braunschweig Germany
- Animal Venomics Research Group Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology Gießen Germany
| | - E. T. Krause
- Institute of Animal Welfare and Animal Husbandry Friedrich‐Loeffler‐Institut Celle Germany
| | - S. Schulz
- Institute of Organic Chemistry Technische Universität Braunschweig Braunschweig Germany
| | - M. Vences
- Zoological Institute Technische Universität Braunschweig Braunschweig Germany
| | - S. Steinfartz
- Zoological Institute Technische Universität Braunschweig Braunschweig Germany
- Institute of Biology, Molecular Evolution and Systematics of Animals University of Leipzig Leipzig Germany
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24
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Briolat ES, Burdfield‐Steel ER, Paul SC, Rönkä KH, Seymoure BM, Stankowich T, Stuckert AMM. Diversity in warning coloration: selective paradox or the norm? Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2019; 94:388-414. [PMID: 30152037 PMCID: PMC6446817 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2017] [Revised: 07/25/2018] [Accepted: 07/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Aposematic theory has historically predicted that predators should select for warning signals to converge on a single form, as a result of frequency-dependent learning. However, widespread variation in warning signals is observed across closely related species, populations and, most problematically for evolutionary biologists, among individuals in the same population. Recent research has yielded an increased awareness of this diversity, challenging the paradigm of signal monomorphy in aposematic animals. Here we provide a comprehensive synthesis of these disparate lines of investigation, identifying within them three broad classes of explanation for variation in aposematic warning signals: genetic mechanisms, differences among predators and predator behaviour, and alternative selection pressures upon the signal. The mechanisms producing warning coloration are also important. Detailed studies of the genetic basis of warning signals in some species, most notably Heliconius butterflies, are beginning to shed light on the genetic architecture facilitating or limiting key processes such as the evolution and maintenance of polymorphisms, hybridisation, and speciation. Work on predator behaviour is changing our perception of the predator community as a single homogenous selective agent, emphasising the dynamic nature of predator-prey interactions. Predator variability in a range of factors (e.g. perceptual abilities, tolerance to chemical defences, and individual motivation), suggests that the role of predators is more complicated than previously appreciated. With complex selection regimes at work, polytypisms and polymorphisms may even occur in Müllerian mimicry systems. Meanwhile, phenotypes are often multifunctional, and thus subject to additional biotic and abiotic selection pressures. Some of these selective pressures, primarily sexual selection and thermoregulation, have received considerable attention, while others, such as disease risk and parental effects, offer promising avenues to explore. As well as reviewing the existing evidence from both empirical studies and theoretical modelling, we highlight hypotheses that could benefit from further investigation in aposematic species. Finally by collating known instances of variation in warning signals, we provide a valuable resource for understanding the taxonomic spread of diversity in aposematic signalling and with which to direct future research. A greater appreciation of the extent of variation in aposematic species, and of the selective pressures and constraints which contribute to this once-paradoxical phenomenon, yields a new perspective for the field of aposematic signalling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuelle S. Briolat
- Centre for Ecology & Conservation, College of Life & Environmental SciencesUniversity of ExeterPenryn Campus, Penryn, Cornwall, TR10 9FEU.K.
| | - Emily R. Burdfield‐Steel
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biological and Environmental ScienceUniversity of JyväskyläJyväskylä, 40014Finland
| | - Sarah C. Paul
- Centre for Ecology & Conservation, College of Life & Environmental SciencesUniversity of ExeterPenryn Campus, Penryn, Cornwall, TR10 9FEU.K.
- Department of Chemical EcologyBielefeld UniversityUniversitätsstraße 25, 33615, BielefeldGermany
| | - Katja H. Rönkä
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biological and Environmental ScienceUniversity of JyväskyläJyväskylä, 40014Finland
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental SciencesUniversity of HelsinkiHelsinki, 00014Finland
| | - Brett M. Seymoure
- Department of BiologyColorado State UniversityFort CollinsCO 80525U.S.A.
- Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Conservation BiologyColorado State UniversityFort CollinsCO 80525U.S.A.
| | - Theodore Stankowich
- Department of Biological SciencesCalifornia State UniversityLong BeachCA 90840U.S.A.
| | - Adam M. M. Stuckert
- Department of BiologyEast Carolina University1000 E Fifth St, GreenvilleNC 27858U.S.A.
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25
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Arias M, Mappes J, Desbois C, Gordon S, McClure M, Elias M, Nokelainen O, Gomez D. Transparency reduces predator detection in mimetic clearwing butterflies. Funct Ecol 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.13315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mónica Arias
- Univ Montpellier, Univ Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, EPHE, IRD; CEFE; Montpellier France
| | - Johanna Mappes
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions; University of Jyväskylä; Jyväskylä Finland
| | - Charlotte Desbois
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), CNRS, MNHN, Sorbonne Université, EPHE; Université des Antilles; Paris France
| | - Swanne Gordon
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions; University of Jyväskylä; Jyväskylä Finland
| | - Melanie McClure
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), CNRS, MNHN, Sorbonne Université, EPHE; Université des Antilles; Paris France
| | - Marianne Elias
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), CNRS, MNHN, Sorbonne Université, EPHE; Université des Antilles; Paris France
| | - Ossi Nokelainen
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions; University of Jyväskylä; Jyväskylä Finland
| | - Doris Gomez
- Univ Montpellier, Univ Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, EPHE, IRD; CEFE; Montpellier France
- INSP, Sorbonne Université; CNRS; Paris France
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26
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Mora R, Hanson PE. Widespread Occurrence of Black-Orange-Black Color Pattern in Hymenoptera. JOURNAL OF INSECT SCIENCE (ONLINE) 2019; 19:13. [PMID: 30851035 PMCID: PMC6409494 DOI: 10.1093/jisesa/iez021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Certain color patterns in insects show convergent evolution reflecting potentially important biological functions, for example, aposematism and mimicry. This phenomenon has been most frequently documented in Lepidoptera and Coleoptera, but has been less well investigated in Hymenoptera. It has long been recognized that many hymenopterans, especially scelionids (Platygastridae), show a recurring pattern of black head, orange/red mesosoma, and black metasoma (BOB coloration). However, the taxonomic distribution of this striking color pattern has never been documented across the entire order. The main objective of our research was to provide a preliminary tabulation of this color pattern in Hymenoptera, through examination of museum specimens and relevant literature. We included 11 variations of the typical BOB color pattern but did not include all possible variations. These color patterns were found in species belonging to 23 families of Hymenoptera, and was most frequently observed in scelionids, evaniids, and mutillids, but was relatively infrequent in Cynipoids, Diaprioids, Chalcidoids, and Apoids. The widespread occurrence of this color pattern in Hymenoptera strongly suggests convergent evolution and a potentially important function. The BOB color pattern was found in species from all biogeographic regions and within a species it was usually present in both sexes (with a few notable exceptions). In better studied tropical regions, such as Costa Rica, this color pattern was more common in species occurring at lower elevations (below 2,000 m). The biology of the tabulated taxa encompasses both ecto- and endoparasitoids, idiobionts and koinobionts, from a diversity of hosts, as well as phytophagous sawflies.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Mora
- Universidad de Costa Rica, Centro de Investigación en Biología Celular y Molecular, Ciudad de la Investigación Postal, San Pedro de Montes de Oca, SJ, Costa Rica
- Universidad de Costa Rica, Escuela de Biología, Apartado Postal, San Pedro de Montes de Oca, SJ, Costa Rica
| | - P E Hanson
- Universidad de Costa Rica, Escuela de Biología, Apartado Postal, San Pedro de Montes de Oca, SJ, Costa Rica
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Benedek K, Mara G, Mehrparvar M, Bálint J, Loxdale HD, Balog A. Near-regular distribution of adult crimson tansy aphids,Uroleucon tanaceti(L.), increases aposematic signal honesty on different tansy plant chemotypes. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/bly180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Klára Benedek
- Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Technical and Human Science, Sapientia Hungarian University of Transylvania, Tirgu-Mures, Romania
| | - Gyöngyvér Mara
- Department of Biological Engineering, Faculty of Economics, Socio-Human Sciences and Engineering, Sapientia Hungarian University of Transylvania, Miercurea Ciuc, Romania
| | - Mohsen Mehrparvar
- Department of Biodiversity, Institute of Science and High Technology and Environmental Sciences, Graduate University of Advanced Technology, Kerman, Iran
| | - János Bálint
- Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Technical and Human Science, Sapientia Hungarian University of Transylvania, Tirgu-Mures, Romania
| | - Hugh D Loxdale
- School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, The Sir Martin Evans Building, Cardiff, UK
| | - Adalbert Balog
- Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Technical and Human Science, Sapientia Hungarian University of Transylvania, Tirgu-Mures, Romania
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28
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Boevé JL, Nyman T, Shinohara A, Schmidt S. Endogenous toxins and the coupling of gregariousness to conspicuousness in Argidae and Pergidae sawflies. Sci Rep 2018; 8:17636. [PMID: 30518939 PMCID: PMC6281571 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-35925-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2018] [Accepted: 11/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Phytophagous insects tend to be either cryptic and solitary, or brightly colored and gregarious, as a defense against vertebrate predators. Here, we tested whether potent defensive chemicals produced de novo by larvae of Argidae and Pergidae sawflies have influenced the evolutionary relationship between larval appearance and levels of gregariousness. Phylogeny-based correlation analyses indicated only a weak trend for solitary species to be cryptic, and for gregarious ones to be conspicuous. Numerous Argidae were cryptic-solitary or conspicuous-gregarious, whereas most Pergidae were conspicuous-gregarious. Both families also included not truly gregarious but aggregated species, i.e. with individuals more evenly distributed on the host plant. By considering two specific morphological traits, predominant body coloration and contrasting spots on body, each one was (weakly) associated with appearance but none with gregariousness, which reflects the functional relevance of appearance as a whole. Furthermore, Argidae can display alternate appearances during successive larval instars. Finally, an independent contrasts test showed no obvious correlation between two major toxic peptides. Our results point towards diversely combined patterns of linked ecological traits in these insects. By assuming that warning coloration is more warranted against vertebrate than invertebrate predators, we suggest that the occurrence itself of toxins allowed this diversity via differing predator guilds and environmental factors, to which these insects were confronted during evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Luc Boevé
- OD Taxonomy and Phylogeny, Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Rue Vautier 29, B-1000, Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Tommi Nyman
- Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101, Joensuu, Finland
- Department of Ecosystems in the Barents Region, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research, Svanhovd Research Station, NO-9925, Svanvik, Norway
| | - Akihiko Shinohara
- Department of Zoology, National Museum of Nature and Science, 4-1-1 Amakubo, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki, 305-0005, Japan
| | - Stefan Schmidt
- SNSB - Zoologische Staatssammlung München, Münchhausenstr. 21, 81247, Munich, Germany
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29
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Briolat ES, Zagrobelny M, Olsen CE, Blount JD, Stevens M. No evidence of quantitative signal honesty across species of aposematic burnet moths (Lepidoptera: Zygaenidae). J Evol Biol 2018; 32:31-48. [PMID: 30317689 PMCID: PMC6378400 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2018] [Revised: 10/03/2018] [Accepted: 10/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Many defended species use conspicuous visual warning signals to deter potential predators from attacking. Traditional theory holds that these signals should converge on similar forms, yet variation in visual traits and the levels of defensive chemicals is common, both within and between species. It is currently unclear how the strength of signals and potency of defences might be related: conflicting theories suggest that aposematic signals should be quantitatively honest, or, in contrast, that investment in one component should be prioritized over the other, while empirical tests have yielded contrasting results. Here, we advance this debate by examining the relationship between defensive chemicals and signal properties in a family of aposematic Lepidoptera, accounting for phylogenetic relationships and quantifying coloration from the perspective of relevant predators. We test for correlations between toxin levels and measures of wing colour across 14 species of day‐flying burnet and forester moths (Lepidoptera: Zygaenidae), protected by highly aversive cyanogenic glucosides, and find no clear evidence of quantitative signal honesty. Significant relationships between toxin levels and coloration vary between sexes and sampling years, and several trends run contrary to expectations for signal honesty. Although toxin concentration is positively correlated with increasing luminance contrast in forewing pattern in 1 year, higher toxin levels are also associated with paler and less chromatically salient markings, at least in females, in another year. Our study also serves to highlight important factors, including sex‐specific trends and seasonal variation, that should be accounted for in future work on signal honesty in aposematic species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuelle S Briolat
- Centre for Ecology & Conservation, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK
| | - Mika Zagrobelny
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory and Copenhagen Plant Science Centre, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Carl E Olsen
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory and Copenhagen Plant Science Centre, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jonathan D Blount
- Centre for Ecology & Conservation, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK
| | - Martin Stevens
- Centre for Ecology & Conservation, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK
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30
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Winters AE, Wilson NG, van den Berg CP, How MJ, Endler JA, Marshall NJ, White AM, Garson MJ, Cheney KL. Toxicity and taste: unequal chemical defences in a mimicry ring. Proc Biol Sci 2018; 285:20180457. [PMID: 29875302 PMCID: PMC6015865 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2018.0457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 05/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mimicry of warning signals is common, and can be mutualistic when mimetic species harbour equal levels of defence (Müllerian), or parasitic when mimics are undefended but still gain protection from their resemblance to the model (Batesian). However, whether chemically defended mimics should be similar in terms of toxicity (i.e. causing damage to the consumer) and/or unpalatability (i.e. distasteful to consumer) is unclear and in many studies remains undifferentiated. In this study, we investigated the evolution of visual signals and chemical defences in a putative mimicry ring of nudibranch molluscs. First, we demonstrated that the appearance of a group of red spotted nudibranchs molluscs was similar from the perspective of potential fish predators using visual modelling and pattern analysis. Second, using phylogenetic reconstruction, we demonstrated that this colour pattern has evolved multiple times in distantly related individuals. Third, we showed that these nudibranchs contained different chemical profiles used for defensive purposes. Finally, we demonstrated that although levels of distastefulness towards Palaemon shrimp remained relatively constant between species, toxicity levels towards brine shrimp varied significantly. We highlight the need to disentangle toxicity and taste when considering chemical defences in aposematic and mimetic species, and discuss the implications for aposematic and mimicry signal evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne E Winters
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Nerida G Wilson
- Molecular Systematics Unit, Western Australian Museum, 49 Kew St, Welshpool, Western Australia 6106, Australia
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia 6009, Australia
| | - Cedric P van den Berg
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Martin J How
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - John A Endler
- Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Life and Environmental Science, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria 3216, Australia
| | - N Justin Marshall
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Andrew M White
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Mary J Garson
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Karen L Cheney
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
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32
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Mayhew PJ. Comparative analysis of behavioural traits in insects. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2018; 27:52-60. [PMID: 30025635 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2018.02.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2018] [Revised: 02/21/2018] [Accepted: 02/22/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Comparative studies of insect behaviour based on evolutionary trees are currently blossoming, because of the increasing ease of phylogeny estimation, the availability of new trait data to analyze, and a vast and growing array of statistical techniques for exploring data and testing hypotheses. These studies address not only the selective forces and constraints on insect behaviour, which are the realm of traditional behavioural ecology, but also their ecological and evolutionary consequences. Recent studies have significantly increased our understanding of foraging behaviour, interspecific interactions, locomotion and dispersal, communication and signalling, mate choice and sexual selection, parental care and the evolution of sociality. The curating of trait data remains a significant challenge to maximize the future potential of insect comparative studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Mayhew
- Department of Biology, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, UK.
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33
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An Empirical Test Indicates Only Qualitatively Honest Aposematic Signaling Within a Population of Vertebrates. J HERPETOL 2018. [DOI: 10.1670/17-047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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34
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Briolat ES, Zagrobelny M, Olsen CE, Blount JD, Stevens M. Sex differences but no evidence of quantitative honesty in the warning signals of six-spot burnet moths (Zygaena filipendulae L.). Evolution 2018; 72:1460-1474. [PMID: 29767461 PMCID: PMC6099377 DOI: 10.1111/evo.13505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2018] [Revised: 04/22/2018] [Accepted: 05/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The distinctive black and red wing pattern of six-spot burnet moths (Zygaena filipendulae, L.) is a classic example of aposematism, advertising their potent cyanide-based defences. While such warning signals provide a qualitatively honest signal of unprofitability, the evidence for quantitative honesty, whereby variation in visual traits could provide accurate estimates of individual toxicity, is more equivocal. Combining measures of cyanogenic glucoside content and wing color from the perspective of avian predators, we investigate the relationship between coloration and defences in Z. filipendulae, to test signal honesty both within and across populations. There were no significant relationships between mean cyanogenic glucoside concentration and metrics of wing coloration across populations in males, yet in females higher cyanogenic glucoside levels were associated with smaller and lighter red forewing markings. Trends within populations were similarly inconsistent with quantitative honesty, and persistent differences between the sexes were apparent: larger females, carrying a greater total cyanogenic glucoside load, displayed larger but less conspicuous markings than smaller males, according to several color metrics. The overall high aversiveness of cyanogenic glucosides and fluctuations in color and toxin levels during an individual's lifetime may contribute to these results, highlighting generally important reasons why signal honesty should not always be expected in aposematic species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuelle Sophie Briolat
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, College of Life and Environmental SciencesUniversity of ExeterPenrynCornwall TR10 9FEUnited Kingdom
| | - Mika Zagrobelny
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory and Copenhagen Plant Science CentreDepartment of Plant and Environmental SciencesUniversity of Copenhagen40 Thorvaldsensvej, DK‐1871 Frederiksberg CCopenhagenDenmark
| | - Carl Erik Olsen
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory and Copenhagen Plant Science CentreDepartment of Plant and Environmental SciencesUniversity of Copenhagen40 Thorvaldsensvej, DK‐1871 Frederiksberg CCopenhagenDenmark
| | - Jonathan D. Blount
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, College of Life and Environmental SciencesUniversity of ExeterPenrynCornwall TR10 9FEUnited Kingdom
| | - Martin Stevens
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, College of Life and Environmental SciencesUniversity of ExeterPenrynCornwall TR10 9FEUnited Kingdom
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35
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Phylogeny and evolution of Müllerian mimicry in aposematic Dilophotes: evidence for advergence and size-constraints in evolution of mimetic sexual dimorphism. Sci Rep 2018; 8:3744. [PMID: 29487341 PMCID: PMC5829258 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-22155-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2017] [Accepted: 02/15/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple patterns and intraspecific polymorphism should not persist in mutualistic Müllerian systems due to purifying and frequency-dependent selection, but they are commonly identified in nature. We analysed molecular phylogeny and reconstructed dispersal history of 58 species of Dilophotes (Coleoptera: Lycidae) in Asia. Dilophotes colonized the Great Sundas and Malay Peninsula where they joined extensive mimetic communities of net-winged beetles. We identified the brightly bi-coloured males and females which adverged on five occasions to different autochthonous models. This is the first described case of Müllerian sexual dimorphism based on sex-specific body size. We propose that the constraint, i.e. the conservative sexual size dimorphism, forced the unprofitable prey to such complex adaptation in a multi-pattern environment. Although mimetic sexual dimorphism has frequently evolved in Dilophotes, a single pattern has been maintained by both sexes in multiple closely related, sympatrically occurring species. Some patterns may be suboptimal because they are rare, crudely resemble co-mimics, or are newly evolved, but they persist in Müllerian communities for a long time. We assume that failure to closely resemble the most common model can increase the diversity of large Müllerian communities and produce mimetic dimorphism.
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36
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Aluthwattha ST, Harrison RD, Ranawana KB, Xu C, Lai R, Chen J. Does spatial variation in predation pressure modulate selection for aposematism? Ecol Evol 2017; 7:7560-7572. [PMID: 28944039 PMCID: PMC5606884 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.3221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2017] [Revised: 05/25/2017] [Accepted: 05/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
It is widely believed that aposematic signals should be conspicuous, but in nature, they vary from highly conspicuous to near cryptic. Current theory, including the honest signal or trade‐off hypotheses of the toxicity–conspicuousness relationship, cannot explain why adequately toxic species vary substantially in their conspicuousness. Through a study of similarly toxic Danainae (Nymphalidae) butterflies and their mimics that vary remarkably in their conspicuousness, we show that the benefits of conspicuousness vary along a gradient of predation pressure. Highly conspicuous butterflies experienced lower avian attack rates when background predation pressure was low, but attack rates increased rapidly as background predation pressure increased. Conversely, the least conspicuous butterflies experienced higher attack rates at low predation pressures, but at high predation pressures, they appeared to benefit from crypsis. Attack rates of intermediately conspicuous butterflies remained moderate and constant along the predation pressure gradient. Mimics had a similar pattern but higher attack rates than their models and mimics tended to imitate the signal of less attacked model species along the predation pressure gradient. Predation pressure modulated signal fitness provides a possible mechanism for the maintenance of variation in conspicuousness of aposematic signals, as well as the initial survival of conspicuous signals in cryptic populations in the process of aposematic signal evolution, and an alternative explanation for the evolutionary gain and loss of mimicry.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Tharanga Aluthwattha
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden Chinese Academy of Sciences Mengla Yunnan China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing China
| | - Rhett D Harrison
- World Agroforestry Centre, East & Southern Africa Region Woodlands, Lusaka Zambia
| | | | - Cheng Xu
- Kunming Institute of Zoology Chinese Academy of Sciences Kunming Yunnan China
| | - Ren Lai
- Kunming Institute of Zoology Chinese Academy of Sciences Kunming Yunnan China
| | - Jin Chen
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden Chinese Academy of Sciences Mengla Yunnan China
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37
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Lindstedt C, Boncoraglio G, Cotter S, Gilbert J, Kilner RM. Aposematism in the burying beetle? Dual function of anal fluid in parental care and chemical defense. Behav Ecol 2017. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arx100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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38
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Polnaszek TJ, Rubi TL, Stephens DW. When it's good to signal badness: using objective measures of discriminability to test the value of being distinctive. Anim Behav 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2017.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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39
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Arenas LM, Stevens M. Diversity in warning coloration is easily recognized by avian predators. J Evol Biol 2017; 30:1288-1302. [PMID: 28338250 PMCID: PMC5518184 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2016] [Revised: 01/14/2017] [Accepted: 03/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Warning coloration is a widespread strategy to alert predators about prey unprofitability. The success of this strategy partly depends on predators being able to learn and recognize certain signals as indicators of toxicity, and theory predicts that this is easier if signals converge on similar colours. However, the diversity in warning signal form is astonishing, contradicting predictions. Here, we quantified ladybird signal diversity with respect to avian vision, measuring how unique and discernible each signal is from one another. In addition, we measured signal conspicuousness against a series of backgrounds, namely an average green, average brown, and where we collected each species, to determine whether signals are more contrasting against the ladybirds' local substrates than compared to average ones. This allowed us to establish whether there are local adaptations in conspicuousness that promote signal diversity. We found that while ladybird signals are unique and recognizable, specialist species are more contrasting against the background they are most commonly found on. However, overall our study suggests that warning signals have evolved to be effective against a wide range of natural backgrounds, partly explaining the success of this strategy in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- L M Arenas
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.,Centre for Ecology & Conservation, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall, UK
| | - M Stevens
- Centre for Ecology & Conservation, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall, UK
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40
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Pekár S, Petráková L, Bulbert MW, Whiting MJ, Herberstein ME. The golden mimicry complex uses a wide spectrum of defence to deter a community of predators. eLife 2017; 6. [PMID: 28170317 PMCID: PMC5295815 DOI: 10.7554/elife.22089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2016] [Accepted: 12/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mimicry complexes typically consist of multiple species that deter predators using similar anti-predatory signals. Mimics in these complexes are assumed to vary in their level of defence from highly defended through to moderately defended, or not defended at all. Here, we report a new multi-order mimicry complex that includes at least 140 different putative mimics from four arthropod orders including ants, wasps, bugs, tree hoppers and spiders. All members of this mimicry complex are characterised by a conspicuous golden body and an ant Gestalt, but vary substantially in their defensive traits. However, they were similarly effective at deterring predators - even mildly defended mimics were rarely eaten by a community of invertebrate and vertebrate predators both in the wild and during staged trials. We propose that despite the predominance of less defended mimics the three predatory guilds avoid the mimics because of the additive influence of the various defensive traits. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.22089.001 Many animals use bright colours to warn a potential predator that they can defend themselves. Wasps, for instance, are armed with a harmful sting and advertise this fact via their distinctive yellow and black stripes. Predators often learn to heed such warnings and avoid these unpalatable animals in future. As a result, animals that mimic another animal’s warning signals can reap the benefit of being left alone by predators even if they are otherwise undefended. Textbooks on evolution are typically full of different examples of mimicry. However, the specifics of these examples are often poorly understood. Ninety years ago a famous Australian entomologist, Alexander Nicholson, suggested the existence of large groups of mimics in the Australian wildlife. More of these so-called “mimetic complexes” have recently been recognized among several species of insect, but not previously in ants. Now, Pekár et al. have looked at all known ants and ant-like mimics in Australia and discovered over 140 species that use gold and black colours as a warning signal. Most of the species were ants, but the collection of mimics also includes wasps, spiders, true bugs and insects called treehoppers. Some of the mimics were less palatable than others, and they possessed a range of defences, including spines and foul-tasting chemicals. Pekár et al. then looked in the guts of 12 species of predators in the wild, and found that very few of them ate the mimics. When mimics were offered to three different predators (specifically a lizard and two species of spider), most avoided the mimics regardless of whether they were palatable or unpalatable. Instead, the predators preferred to eat a spider that was not a member of the group of mimics because it lacked the gold colouration. Further studies are now needed to continue to document the details of this and other mimetic complexes. For example, this includes revealing how the different defences protect the members of the complex from predators do not use vision to recognize their prey and so cannot see the warning colouration. All this is needed to understand evolutionary processes that have fascinated biologists for decades, and explain how such large mimetic complexes evolved and persisted in spite of the influence of the community of predators. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.22089.002
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Affiliation(s)
- Stano Pekár
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Lenka Petráková
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Matthew W Bulbert
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, Australia
| | - Martin J Whiting
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, Australia
| | - Marie E Herberstein
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, Australia
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43
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Summers K, Speed MP, Blount JD, Stuckert AMM. Are aposematic signals honest? A review. J Evol Biol 2015; 28:1583-99. [DOI: 10.1111/jeb.12676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2014] [Revised: 06/08/2015] [Accepted: 06/11/2015] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- K. Summers
- Department of Biology; East Carolina University; Greenville NC USA
| | - M. P. Speed
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Behaviour; University of Liverpool; Liverpool UK
| | - J. D. Blount
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, Biosciences; University of Exeter; Penryn UK
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