1
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Quinn CJ, Cartwright EJ, Trafford AW, Dibb KM. On the role of dysferlin in striated muscle: membrane repair, t-tubules and Ca 2+ handling. J Physiol 2024; 602:1893-1910. [PMID: 38615232 DOI: 10.1113/jp285103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 04/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Dysferlin is a 237 kDa membrane-associated protein characterised by multiple C2 domains with a diverse role in skeletal and cardiac muscle physiology. Mutations in DYSF are known to cause various types of human muscular dystrophies, known collectively as dysferlinopathies, with some patients developing cardiomyopathy. A myriad of in vitro membrane repair studies suggest that dysferlin plays an integral role in the membrane repair complex in skeletal muscle. In comparison, less is known about dysferlin in the heart, but mounting evidence suggests that dysferlin's role is similar in both muscle types. Recent findings have shown that dysferlin regulates Ca2+ handling in striated muscle via multiple mechanisms and that this becomes more important in conditions of stress. Maintenance of the transverse (t)-tubule network and the tight coordination of excitation-contraction coupling are essential for muscle contractility. Dysferlin regulates the maintenance and repair of t-tubules, and it is suspected that dysferlin regulates t-tubules and sarcolemmal repair through a similar mechanism. This review focuses on the emerging complexity of dysferlin's activity in striated muscle. Such insights will progress our understanding of the proteins and pathways that regulate basic heart and skeletal muscle function and help guide research into striated muscle pathology, especially that which arises due to dysferlin dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- C J Quinn
- Unit of Cardiac Physiology, Division of Cardiovascular Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, 3.14 Core Technology Facility, Manchester, UK
| | - E J Cartwright
- Unit of Cardiac Physiology, Division of Cardiovascular Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, 3.14 Core Technology Facility, Manchester, UK
| | - A W Trafford
- Unit of Cardiac Physiology, Division of Cardiovascular Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, 3.14 Core Technology Facility, Manchester, UK
| | - K M Dibb
- Unit of Cardiac Physiology, Division of Cardiovascular Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, 3.14 Core Technology Facility, Manchester, UK
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2
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Gerke V, Gavins FNE, Geisow M, Grewal T, Jaiswal JK, Nylandsted J, Rescher U. Annexins-a family of proteins with distinctive tastes for cell signaling and membrane dynamics. Nat Commun 2024; 15:1574. [PMID: 38383560 PMCID: PMC10882027 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-45954-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 02/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Annexins are cytosolic proteins with conserved three-dimensional structures that bind acidic phospholipids in cellular membranes at elevated Ca2+ levels. Through this they act as Ca2+-regulated membrane binding modules that organize membrane lipids, facilitating cellular membrane transport but also displaying extracellular activities. Recent discoveries highlight annexins as sensors and regulators of cellular and organismal stress, controlling inflammatory reactions in mammals, environmental stress in plants, and cellular responses to plasma membrane rupture. Here, we describe the role of annexins as Ca2+-regulated membrane binding modules that sense and respond to cellular stress and share our view on future research directions in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Volker Gerke
- Institute of Medical Biochemistry, Center for Molecular Biology of Inflammation (ZMBE), University of Münster, Von-Esmarch-Strasse 56, Münster, Germany.
| | - Felicity N E Gavins
- Department of Life Sciences, Centre for Inflammation Research and Translational Medicine (CIRTM), Brunel University London, Uxbridge, UK
| | - Michael Geisow
- The National Institute for Medical Research, Mill Hill, London, UK
- Delta Biotechnology Ltd, Nottingham, UK
| | - Thomas Grewal
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Jyoti K Jaiswal
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Research Institute, Children's National Research and Innovation Campus, Washington, DC, USA
- Department of Genomics and Precision Medicine, The George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Jesper Nylandsted
- Danish Cancer Institute, Strandboulevarden 49, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, J.B. Winsløws Vej 21-25, Odense, Denmark
| | - Ursula Rescher
- Research Group Cellular Biochemistry, Institute of Molecular Virology, Center for Molecular Biology of Inflammation (ZMBE), University of Münster, Von-Esmarch-Strasse 56, Münster, Germany.
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3
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Whitlock JM. Muscle Progenitor Cell Fusion in the Maintenance of Skeletal Muscle. Results Probl Cell Differ 2024; 71:257-279. [PMID: 37996682 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-37936-9_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2023]
Abstract
Skeletal muscle possesses a resident, multipotent stem cell population that is essential for its repair and maintenance throughout life. Here I highlight the role of this stem cell population in muscle repair and regeneration and review the genetic control of the process; the mechanistic steps of activation, migration, recognition, adhesion, and fusion of these cells; and discuss the novel recognition of the membrane signaling that coordinates myogenic cell-cell fusion, as well as the identification of a two-part fusogen system that facilitates it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jarred M Whitlock
- Section on Membrane Biology, Eunice Kennedy Shrive National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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4
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Role of calcium-sensor proteins in cell membrane repair. Biosci Rep 2023; 43:232522. [PMID: 36728029 PMCID: PMC9970828 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20220765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Revised: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2023] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Cell membrane repair is a critical process used to maintain cell integrity and survival from potentially lethal chemical, and mechanical membrane injury. Rapid increases in local calcium levels due to a membrane rupture have been widely accepted as a trigger for multiple membrane-resealing models that utilize exocytosis, endocytosis, patching, and shedding mechanisms. Calcium-sensor proteins, such as synaptotagmins (Syt), dysferlin, S100 proteins, and annexins, have all been identified to regulate, or participate in, multiple modes of membrane repair. Dysfunction of membrane repair from inefficiencies or genetic alterations in these proteins contributes to diseases such as muscular dystrophy (MD) and heart disease. The present review covers the role of some of the key calcium-sensor proteins and their involvement in membrane repair.
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5
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Roberts BM, Deemer SE, Smith DL, Mobley JA, Musi N, Plaisance EP. Effects of an exogenous ketone ester using multi-omics in skeletal muscle of aging C57BL/6J male mice. Front Nutr 2022; 9:1041026. [PMID: 36458175 PMCID: PMC9707703 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2022.1041026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Exogenous ketone ester supplementation provides a means to increase circulating ketone concentrations without the dietary challenges imposed by ketogenic diets. Our group has shown that oral R,S-1,3, butanediol diacetoacetate (BD-AcAc2) consumption results in body weight loss or maintenance with moderate increases in circulating ketones. We have previously shown a diet consisting of 25% BD-AcAc2 can maintain lean body mass (LBM) and induce fat mass (FM) loss in young, healthy male mice, but the underlying mechanisms are still unknown. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine if a diet consisting of 25% BD-AcAc2 (ketone ester, KE) would alter body composition, transcriptional regulation, the proteome, and the lipidome of skeletal muscle in aged mice. We hypothesized that the KE group would remain weight stable with improvements in body composition compared to controls, resulting in a healthy aging phenotype. Male C57BL/6J mice (n = 16) were purchased from Jackson Laboratories at 72 weeks of age. After 1 week of acclimation, mice were weighed and randomly assigned to one of two groups (n = 8 per group): control (CON) or KE. A significant group by time interaction was observed for body weight (P < 0.001), with KE fed mice weighing significantly less than CON. FM increased over time in the control group but was unchanged in the KE group. Furthermore, LBM was not different between CON and KE mice despite KE mice weighing less than CON mice. Transcriptional analysis of skeletal muscle identified 6 genes that were significantly higher and 21 genes that were significantly lower in the KE group compared to CON. Lipidomic analysis of skeletal muscle identified no differences between groups for any lipid species, except for fatty acyl chains in triacylglycerol which was 46% lower in the KE group. Proteomics analysis identified 44 proteins that were different between groups, of which 11 were lower and 33 were higher in the KE group compared to CON. In conclusion, 72-week-old male mice consuming the exogenous KE, BD-AcAc2, had lower age-related gains in body weight and FM compared to CON mice. Furthermore, transcriptional and proteomics data suggest a signature in skeletal muscle of KE-treated mice consistent with markers of improved skeletal muscle regeneration, improved electron transport chain utilization, and increased insulin sensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon M. Roberts
- Department of Human Studies, Division of Molecular and Translational Biomedicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - Sarah E. Deemer
- Department of Kinesiology, Health Promotion, and Recreation, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, United States
| | - Daniel L. Smith
- Department of Nutrition Sciences, Division of Molecular and Translational Biomedicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - James A. Mobley
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Division of Molecular and Translational Biomedicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - Nicolas Musi
- Barshop Institute for Longevity and Aging Studies, University of Texas Health Science Center San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States
- San Antonio Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, San Antonio, TX, United States
| | - Eric P. Plaisance
- Department of Human Studies, Division of Molecular and Translational Biomedicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
- *Correspondence: Eric P. Plaisance,
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6
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Activation of SIRT1 promotes membrane resealing via cortactin. Sci Rep 2022; 12:15328. [PMID: 36097021 PMCID: PMC9468153 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-19136-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Muscular dystrophies are inherited myopathic disorders characterized by progressive muscle weakness. Recently, several gene therapies have been developed; however, the treatment options are still limited. Resveratrol, an activator of SIRT1, ameliorates muscular function in muscular dystrophy patients and dystrophin-deficient mdx mice, although its mechanism is still not fully elucidated. Here, we investigated the effects of resveratrol on membrane resealing. We found that resveratrol promoted membrane repair in C2C12 cells via the activation of SIRT1. To elucidate the mechanism by which resveratrol promotes membrane resealing, we focused on the reorganization of the cytoskeleton, which occurs in the early phase of membrane repair. Treatment with resveratrol promoted actin accumulation at the injured site. We also examined the role of cortactin in membrane resealing. Cortactin accumulated at the injury site, and cortactin knockdown suppressed membrane resealing and reorganization of the cytoskeleton. Additionally, SIRT1 deacetylated cortactin and promoted the interaction between cortactin and F-actin, thus possibly enhancing the accumulation of cortactin at the injury site. Finally, we performed a membrane repair assay using single fiber myotubes from control and resveratrol-fed mice, where the oral treatment with resveratrol promoted membrane repair ex vivo. These findings suggest that resveratrol promotes membrane repair via the SIRT1/cortactin axis.
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7
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Suppression of annexin A1 and its receptor reduces herpes simplex virus 1 lethality in mice. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1010692. [PMID: 35939498 PMCID: PMC9359538 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1)-induced encephalitis is the most common cause of sporadic, fatal encephalitis in humans. HSV-1 has at least 10 different envelope glycoproteins, which can promote virus infection. The ligands for most of the envelope glycoproteins and the significance of these ligands in virus-induced encephalitis remain elusive. Here, we show that glycoprotein E (gE) binds to the cellular protein, annexin A1 (Anx-A1) to enhance infection. Anx-A1 can be detected on the surface of cells permissive for HSV-1 before infection and on virions. Suppression of Anx-A1 or its receptor, formyl peptide receptor 2 (FPR2), on the cell surface and gE or Anx-A1 on HSV-1 envelopes reduced virus binding to cells. Importantly, Anx-A1 knockout, Anx-A1 knockdown, or treatments with the FPR2 antagonist reduced the mortality and tissue viral loads of infected mice. Our results show that Anx-A1 is a novel enhancing factor of HSV-1 infection. Anx-A1-deficient mice displayed no evident physiology and behavior changes. Hence, targeting Anx-A1 and FPR2 could be a promising prophylaxis or adjuvant therapy to decrease HSV-1 lethality. Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1)-induced encephalitis is the most devastating consequence of HSV-1 infection, even in patients treated with anti-HSV-1 drugs. Moreover, encephalitis induced by drug-resistant HSV-1 has been reported in immunocompromised patients. Identifying the cellular factors in promoting HSV-1 replication, especially those increasing virus attachment and entry, could facilitate the development of alternative or adjuvant therapy. Here, we identified annexin A1 (Anx-A1) and its receptor, formyl peptide receptor 2 (FPR2), facilitating HSV-1 attachment to the cell surface. Suppression of Anx-A1 or blockage of FPR2 impaired HSV-1 attachment to cells, viral yields in cells, and HSV-1 lethality in mice. Moreover, blocking FPR2 decreased the replication of drug-resistant HSV-1 in BABL/c nude mice. Hence, targeting Anx-A1 and FPR2 could be alternative or adjuvant therapy for HSV-1 infection.
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8
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Demonbreun AR, Bogdanovic E, Vaught LA, Reiser NL, Fallon KS, Long AM, Oosterbaan CC, Hadhazy M, Page PG, Joseph PRB, Cowen G, Telenson AM, Khatri A, Sadleir KR, Vassar R, McNally EM. A conserved annexin A6-mediated membrane repair mechanism in muscle, heart, and nerve. JCI Insight 2022; 7:158107. [PMID: 35866481 PMCID: PMC9431694 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.158107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Membrane instability and disruption underlie myriad acute and chronic disorders. Anxa6 encodes the membrane-associated protein annexin A6 and was identified as a genetic modifier of muscle repair and muscular dystrophy. To evaluate annexin A6’s role in membrane repair in vivo, we inserted sequences encoding green fluorescent protein (GFP) into the last coding exon of Anxa6. Heterozygous Anxa6gfp mice expressed a normal pattern of annexin A6 with reduced annexin A6GFP mRNA and protein. High-resolution imaging of wounded muscle fibers showed annexin A6GFP rapidly formed a repair cap at the site of injury. Injured cardiomyocytes and neurons also displayed repair caps after wounding, highlighting annexin A6–mediated repair caps as a feature in multiple cell types. Using surface plasmon resonance, we showed recombinant annexin A6 bound phosphatidylserine-containing lipids in a Ca2+- and dose-dependent fashion with appreciable binding at approximately 50 μM Ca2+. Exogenously added recombinant annexin A6 localized to repair caps and improved muscle membrane repair capacity in a dose-dependent fashion without disrupting endogenous annexin A6 localization, indicating annexin A6 promotes repair from both intracellular and extracellular compartments. Thus, annexin A6 orchestrates repair in multiple cell types, and recombinant annexin A6 may be useful in additional chronic disorders beyond skeletal muscle myopathies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Elena Bogdanovic
- Center for Genetic Medicine.,Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Lauren A Vaught
- Center for Genetic Medicine.,Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Nina L Reiser
- Center for Genetic Medicine.,Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Katherine S Fallon
- Center for Genetic Medicine.,Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Ashlee M Long
- Center for Genetic Medicine.,Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Claire C Oosterbaan
- Center for Genetic Medicine.,Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Michele Hadhazy
- Center for Genetic Medicine.,Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | | | | | - Gabrielle Cowen
- Center for Genetic Medicine.,Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | | | - Ammaarah Khatri
- Department of Neurology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Katherine R Sadleir
- Department of Neurology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Robert Vassar
- Department of Neurology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Elizabeth M McNally
- Center for Genetic Medicine.,Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA
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9
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Chandra G, Sreetama SC, Mázala DAG, Charton K, VanderMeulen JH, Richard I, Jaiswal JK. Endoplasmic reticulum maintains ion homeostasis required for plasma membrane repair. J Cell Biol 2021; 220:211873. [PMID: 33688936 PMCID: PMC7953257 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.202006035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2020] [Revised: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Of the many crucial functions of the ER, homeostasis of physiological calcium increase is critical for signaling. Plasma membrane (PM) injury causes a pathological calcium influx. Here, we show that the ER helps clear this surge in cytoplasmic calcium through an ER-resident calcium pump, SERCA, and a calcium-activated ion channel, Anoctamin 5 (ANO5). SERCA imports calcium into the ER, and ANO5 supports this by maintaining electroneutrality of the ER lumen through anion import. Preventing either of these transporter activities causes cytosolic calcium overload and disrupts PM repair (PMR). ANO5 deficit in limb girdle muscular dystrophy 2L (LGMD2L) patient cells compromises their cytosolic and ER calcium homeostasis. By generating a mouse model of LGMD2L, we find that PM injury causes cytosolic calcium overload and compromises the ability of ANO5-deficient myofibers to repair. Addressing calcium overload in ANO5-deficient myofibers enables them to repair, supporting the requirement of the ER in calcium homeostasis in injured cells and facilitating PMR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Goutam Chandra
- Center of Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC
| | - Sen Chandra Sreetama
- Center of Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC
| | - Davi A G Mázala
- Center of Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC
| | - Karine Charton
- Généthon, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, U951, INTEGRARE Research Unit, University Paris-Saclay, Evry, France
| | - Jack H VanderMeulen
- Center of Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC
| | - Isabelle Richard
- Généthon, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, U951, INTEGRARE Research Unit, University Paris-Saclay, Evry, France
| | - Jyoti K Jaiswal
- Center of Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC.,Department of Genomics and Precision Medicine, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC
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10
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Grewal T, Rentero C, Enrich C, Wahba M, Raabe CA, Rescher U. Annexin Animal Models-From Fundamental Principles to Translational Research. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22073439. [PMID: 33810523 PMCID: PMC8037771 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22073439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Revised: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Routine manipulation of the mouse genome has become a landmark in biomedical research. Traits that are only associated with advanced developmental stages can now be investigated within a living organism, and the in vivo analysis of corresponding phenotypes and functions advances the translation into the clinical setting. The annexins, a family of closely related calcium (Ca2+)- and lipid-binding proteins, are found at various intra- and extracellular locations, and interact with a broad range of membrane lipids and proteins. Their impacts on cellular functions has been extensively assessed in vitro, yet annexin-deficient mouse models generally develop normally and do not display obvious phenotypes. Only in recent years, studies examining genetically modified annexin mouse models which were exposed to stress conditions mimicking human disease often revealed striking phenotypes. This review is the first comprehensive overview of annexin-related research using animal models and their exciting future use for relevant issues in biology and experimental medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Grewal
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia;
- Correspondence: (T.G.); (U.R.); Tel.: +61-(0)2-9351-8496 (T.G.); +49-(0)251-83-52121 (U.R.)
| | - Carles Rentero
- Departament de Biomedicina, Unitat de Biologia Cel·lular, Facultat de Medicina i Ciències de la Salut, Universitat de Barcelona, 08036 Barcelona, Spain; (C.R.); (C.E.)
- Centre de Recerca Biomèdica CELLEX, Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), 08036 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carlos Enrich
- Departament de Biomedicina, Unitat de Biologia Cel·lular, Facultat de Medicina i Ciències de la Salut, Universitat de Barcelona, 08036 Barcelona, Spain; (C.R.); (C.E.)
- Centre de Recerca Biomèdica CELLEX, Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), 08036 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mohamed Wahba
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia;
| | - Carsten A. Raabe
- Research Group Regulatory Mechanisms of Inflammation, Center for Molecular Biology of Inflammation (ZMBE) and Cells in Motion Interfaculty Center (CiM), Institute of Medical Biochemistry, University of Muenster, 48149 Muenster, Germany;
| | - Ursula Rescher
- Research Group Regulatory Mechanisms of Inflammation, Center for Molecular Biology of Inflammation (ZMBE) and Cells in Motion Interfaculty Center (CiM), Institute of Medical Biochemistry, University of Muenster, 48149 Muenster, Germany;
- Correspondence: (T.G.); (U.R.); Tel.: +61-(0)2-9351-8496 (T.G.); +49-(0)251-83-52121 (U.R.)
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11
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Flagging fusion: Phosphatidylserine signaling in cell-cell fusion. J Biol Chem 2021; 296:100411. [PMID: 33581114 PMCID: PMC8005811 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2021.100411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Revised: 02/08/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Formations of myofibers, osteoclasts, syncytiotrophoblasts, and fertilized zygotes share a common step, cell–cell fusion. Recent years have brought about considerable progress in identifying some of the proteins involved in these and other cell-fusion processes. However, even for the best-characterized cell fusions, we still do not know the mechanisms that regulate the timing of cell-fusion events. Are they fully controlled by the expression of fusogenic proteins or do they also depend on some triggering signal that activates these proteins? The latter scenario would be analogous to the mechanisms that control the timing of exocytosis initiated by Ca2+ influx and virus-cell fusion initiated by low pH- or receptor interaction. Diverse cell fusions are accompanied by the nonapoptotic exposure of phosphatidylserine at the surface of fusing cells. Here we review data on the dependence of membrane remodeling in cell fusion on phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylserine-recognizing proteins and discuss the hypothesis that cell surface phosphatidylserine serves as a conserved “fuse me” signal regulating the time and place of cell-fusion processes.
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12
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Markworth JF, Brown LA, Lim E, Floyd C, Larouche J, Castor-Macias JA, Sugg KB, Sarver DC, Macpherson PC, Davis C, Aguilar CA, Maddipati KR, Brooks SV. Resolvin D1 supports skeletal myofiber regeneration via actions on myeloid and muscle stem cells. JCI Insight 2020; 5:137713. [PMID: 32750044 PMCID: PMC7526543 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.137713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Specialized proresolving mediators (SPMs) actively limit inflammation and expedite its resolution by modulating leukocyte recruitment and function. Here we profiled intramuscular lipid mediators via liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry–based metabolipidomics following myofiber injury and investigated the potential role of SPMs in skeletal muscle inflammation and repair. Both proinflammatory eicosanoids and SPMs increased following myofiber damage induced by either intramuscular injection of barium chloride or synergist ablation–induced functional muscle overload. Daily systemic administration of the SPM resolvin D1 (RvD1) as an immunoresolvent limited the degree and duration of inflammation, enhanced regenerating myofiber growth, and improved recovery of muscle strength. RvD1 suppressed inflammatory cytokine expression, enhanced polymorphonuclear cell clearance, modulated the local muscle stem cell response, and polarized intramuscular macrophages to a more proregenerative subset. RvD1 had minimal direct impact on in vitro myogenesis but directly suppressed myokine production and stimulated macrophage phagocytosis, showing that SPMs can modulate both infiltrating myeloid and resident muscle cell populations. These data reveal the efficacy of immunoresolvents as a novel alternative to classical antiinflammatory interventions in the management of muscle injuries to modulate inflammation while stimulating tissue repair. Systemic administration of the immunoresolvent resolvin D1 enhances skeletal muscle repair via modulatory effects on both resident muscle stem cells and intramuscular macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- James F Markworth
- Department of Molecular & Integrative Physiology.,Department of Orthopaedic Surgery
| | | | - Eunice Lim
- Department of Molecular & Integrative Physiology
| | | | | | | | - Kristoffer B Sugg
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery.,Department of Surgery, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Dylan C Sarver
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery.,Department of Cellular & Molecular Physiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | | | - Carol Davis
- Department of Molecular & Integrative Physiology
| | | | - Krishna Rao Maddipati
- Department of Pathology, Lipidomics Core Facility, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Susan V Brooks
- Department of Molecular & Integrative Physiology.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, and
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13
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Bittel DC, Chandra G, Tirunagri LMS, Deora AB, Medikayala S, Scheffer L, Defour A, Jaiswal JK. Annexin A2 Mediates Dysferlin Accumulation and Muscle Cell Membrane Repair. Cells 2020; 9:cells9091919. [PMID: 32824910 PMCID: PMC7565960 DOI: 10.3390/cells9091919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Revised: 08/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Muscle cell plasma membrane is frequently damaged by mechanical activity, and its repair requires the membrane protein dysferlin. We previously identified that, similar to dysferlin deficit, lack of annexin A2 (AnxA2) also impairs repair of skeletal myofibers. Here, we have studied the mechanism of AnxA2-mediated muscle cell membrane repair in cultured muscle cells. We find that injury-triggered increase in cytosolic calcium causes AnxA2 to bind dysferlin and accumulate on dysferlin-containing vesicles as well as with dysferlin at the site of membrane injury. AnxA2 accumulates on the injured plasma membrane in cholesterol-rich lipid microdomains and requires Src kinase activity and the presence of cholesterol. Lack of AnxA2 and its failure to translocate to the plasma membrane, both prevent calcium-triggered dysferlin translocation to the plasma membrane and compromise repair of the injured plasma membrane. Our studies identify that Anx2 senses calcium increase and injury-triggered change in plasma membrane cholesterol to facilitate dysferlin delivery and repair of the injured plasma membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel C. Bittel
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, 111 Michigan Av NW, Children’s National Hospital, Washington, DC 20010, USA; (D.C.B.); (G.C.); (S.M.); (L.S.); (A.D.)
| | - Goutam Chandra
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, 111 Michigan Av NW, Children’s National Hospital, Washington, DC 20010, USA; (D.C.B.); (G.C.); (S.M.); (L.S.); (A.D.)
| | - Laxmi M. S. Tirunagri
- Department of Cellular Biophysics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA;
| | - Arun B. Deora
- Department of Cell & Developmental Biology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA;
| | - Sushma Medikayala
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, 111 Michigan Av NW, Children’s National Hospital, Washington, DC 20010, USA; (D.C.B.); (G.C.); (S.M.); (L.S.); (A.D.)
| | - Luana Scheffer
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, 111 Michigan Av NW, Children’s National Hospital, Washington, DC 20010, USA; (D.C.B.); (G.C.); (S.M.); (L.S.); (A.D.)
| | - Aurelia Defour
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, 111 Michigan Av NW, Children’s National Hospital, Washington, DC 20010, USA; (D.C.B.); (G.C.); (S.M.); (L.S.); (A.D.)
| | - Jyoti K. Jaiswal
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, 111 Michigan Av NW, Children’s National Hospital, Washington, DC 20010, USA; (D.C.B.); (G.C.); (S.M.); (L.S.); (A.D.)
- Department of Genomics and Precision medicine, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC 20010, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-(202)476-6456; Fax: +1-(202)476-6014
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14
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Liu L, Broszczak DA, Broadbent JA, Singh DP, Steck R, Parker TJ, Peake JM. Comparative label-free mass spectrometric analysis of temporal changes in the skeletal muscle proteome after impact trauma in rats. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2020; 318:E1022-E1037. [PMID: 32255681 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00433.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Proteomics offers the opportunity to identify and quantify many proteins and to explore how they correlate and interact with each other in biological networks. This study aimed to characterize changes in the muscle proteome during the destruction, repair, and early-remodeling phases after impact trauma in male Wistar rats. Muscle tissue was collected from uninjured control rats and rats that were euthanized between 6 h and 14 days after impact injury. Muscle tissue was analyzed using unbiased, data-independent acquisition LC-MS/MS. We identified 770 reviewed proteins in the muscle tissue, 296 of which were differentially abundant between the control and injury groups (P ≤ 0.05). Around 50 proteins showed large differences (≥10-fold) or a distinct pattern of abundance after injury. These included proteins that have not been identified previously in injured muscle, such as ferritin light chain 1, fibrinogen γ-chain, fibrinogen β-chain, osteolectin, murinoglobulin-1, T-kininogen 2, calcium-regulated heat-stable protein 1, macrophage-capping protein, retinoid-inducible serine carboxypeptidase, ADP-ribosylation factor 4, Thy-1 membrane glycoprotein, and ADP-ribosylation factor-like protein 1. Some proteins increased between 6 h and 14 days, whereas other proteins increased in a more delayed pattern at 7 days after injury. Bioinformatic analysis revealed that various biological processes, including regulation of blood coagulation, fibrinolysis, regulation of wound healing, tissue regeneration, acute inflammatory response, and negative regulation of the immune effector process, were enriched in injured muscle tissue. This study advances the understanding of early muscle healing after muscle injury and lays a foundation for future mechanistic studies on interventions to treat muscle injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lian Liu
- Queensland University of Technology, School of Biomedical Sciences, Brisbane, Australia
- Queensland University of Technology, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Daniel A Broszczak
- Queensland University of Technology, School of Biomedical Sciences, Brisbane, Australia
- Queensland University of Technology, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Brisbane, Australia
| | - James A Broadbent
- Queensland University of Technology, School of Biomedical Sciences, Brisbane, Australia
- Queensland University of Technology, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Brisbane, Australia
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) Agriculture and Food, St. Lucia, Australia
| | - Daniel P Singh
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Roland Steck
- Queensland University of Technology, Medical Engineering Research Facility, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Tony J Parker
- Queensland University of Technology, School of Biomedical Sciences, Brisbane, Australia
- Queensland University of Technology, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Jonathan M Peake
- Queensland University of Technology, School of Biomedical Sciences, Brisbane, Australia
- Queensland University of Technology, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Brisbane, Australia
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15
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Wu P, Zhang X, Zhang G, Chen F, He M, Zhang T, Wang J, Xie K, Dai G. Transcriptome for the breast muscle of Jinghai yellow chicken at early growth stages. PeerJ 2020; 8:e8950. [PMID: 32328350 PMCID: PMC7166044 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.8950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2019] [Accepted: 03/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The meat quality of yellow feathered broilers is better than the quality of its production. Growth traits are important in the broiler industry. The exploration of regulation mechanisms for the skeletal muscle would help to increase the growth performance of chickens. At present, some progress has been made by researchers, but the molecular mechanisms of the skeletal muscle still remain unclear and need to be improved. Methods In this study, the breast muscles of fast- and slow-growing female Jinghai yellow chickens (F4F, F8F, F4S, F8S) and slow-growing male Jinghai yellow chickens (M4S, M8S) aged four and eight weeks were selected for transcriptome sequencing (RNA-seq). All analyses of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and functional enrichment were performed. Finally, we selected nine DEGs to verify the accuracy of the sequencing by qPCR. Results The differential gene expression analysis resulted in 364, 219 and 111 DEGs (adjusted P-value ≤ 0.05) for the three comparison groups, F8FvsF4F, F8SvsF4S, and M8SvsM4S, respectively. Three common DEGs (ADAMTS20, ARHGAP19, and Novel00254) were found, and they were all highly expressed at four weeks of age. In addition, some other genes related to growth and development, such as ANXA1, COL1A1, MYH15, TGFB3 and ACTC1, were obtained. The most common DEGs (n = 58) were found between the two comparison groups F8FvsF4F and F8SvsF4S, and they might play important roles in the growth of female chickens. The Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway also showed some significant enrichment pathways, for instance, extracellular matrix (ECM)-receptor interaction, focal adhesion, cell cycle, and DNA replication. The two pathways that were significantly enriched in the F8FvsF4F group were all contained in that of F8SvsF4S. The same two pathways were ECM–receptor interaction and focal adhesion, and they had great influence on the growth of chickens. However, many differences existed between male and female chickens in regards to common DEGs and KEGG pathways. The results would help to reveal the regulation mechanism of the growth and development of chickens and serve as a guideline to propose an experimental design on gene function with the DEGs and pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengfei Wu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Xinchao Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Genxi Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Fuxiang Chen
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Mingliang He
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Tao Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Jinyu Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Kaizhou Xie
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Guojun Dai
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
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16
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Mechanisms regulating myoblast fusion: A multilevel interplay. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2020; 104:81-92. [PMID: 32063453 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2020.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2020] [Revised: 02/07/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Myoblast fusion into myotubes is one of the crucial steps of skeletal muscle development (myogenesis). The fusion is preceded by specification of a myogenic lineage (mesodermal progenitors) differentiating into myoblasts and is followed by myofiber-type specification and neuromuscular junction formation. Similarly to other processes of myogenesis, the fusion requires a very precise spatial and temporal regulation occuring both during embryonic development as well as regeneration and repair of the muscle. A plethora of genes and their products is involved in regulation of myoblast fusion and a precise multilevel interplay between them is crucial for myogenic cells to fuse. In this review, we describe both cellular events taking place during myoblast fusion (migration, adhesion, elongation, cell-cell recognition, alignment, and fusion of myoblast membranes enabling formation of myotubes) as well as recent findings on mechanisms regulating this process. Also, we present muscle disorders in humans that have been associated with defects in genes involved in regulation of myoblast fusion.
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17
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Horn A, Jaiswal JK. Structural and signaling role of lipids in plasma membrane repair. CURRENT TOPICS IN MEMBRANES 2019; 84:67-98. [PMID: 31610866 PMCID: PMC7182362 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ctm.2019.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The plasma membrane forms the physical barrier between the cytoplasm and extracellular space, allowing for biochemical reactions necessary for life to occur. Plasma membrane damage needs to be rapidly repaired to avoid cell death. This relies upon the coordinated action of the machinery that polarizes the repair response to the site of injury, resulting in resealing of the damaged membrane and subsequent remodeling to return the injured plasma membrane to its pre-injury state. As lipids comprise the bulk of the plasma membrane, the acts of injury, resealing, and remodeling all directly impinge upon the plasma membrane lipids. In addition to their structural role in shaping the physical properties of the plasma membrane, lipids also play an important signaling role in maintaining plasma membrane integrity. While much attention has been paid to the involvement of proteins in the membrane repair pathway, the role of lipids in facilitating plasma membrane repair remains poorly studied. Here we will discuss the current knowledge of how lipids facilitate plasma membrane repair by regulating membrane structure and signaling to coordinate the repair response, and will briefly note how lipid involvement extends beyond plasma membrane repair to the tissue repair response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Horn
- Children's National Health System, Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Jyoti K Jaiswal
- Children's National Health System, Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Washington, DC, United States; Department of Genomics and Precision Medicine, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC, United States.
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18
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Bittel DC, Jaiswal JK. Contribution of Extracellular Vesicles in Rebuilding Injured Muscles. Front Physiol 2019; 10:828. [PMID: 31379590 PMCID: PMC6658195 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.00828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Accepted: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Skeletal myofibers are injured due to mechanical stresses experienced during physical activity, or due to myofiber fragility caused by genetic diseases. The injured myofiber needs to be repaired or regenerated to restore the loss in muscle tissue function. Myofiber repair and regeneration requires coordinated action of various intercellular signaling factors-including proteins, inflammatory cytokines, miRNAs, and membrane lipids. It is increasingly being recognized release and transmission of these signaling factors involves extracellular vesicle (EV) released by myofibers and other cells in the injured muscle. Intercellular signaling by these EVs alters the phenotype of their target cells either by directly delivering the functional proteins and lipids or by modifying longer-term gene expression. These changes in the target cells activate downstream pathways involved in tissue homeostasis and repair. The EVs are heterogeneous with regards to their size, composition, cargo, location, as well as time-course of genesis and release. These differences impact on the subsequent repair and regeneration of injured skeletal muscles. This review focuses on how intracellular vesicle production, cargo packaging, and secretion by injured muscle, modulates specific reparative, and regenerative processes. Insights into the formation of these vesicles and their signaling properties offer new understandings of the orchestrated response necessary for optimal muscle repair and regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel C Bittel
- Children's National Health System, Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Jyoti K Jaiswal
- Children's National Health System, Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Washington, DC, United States.,Department of Genomics and Precision Medicine, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC, United States
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19
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Fujiwara D, Iwahara N, Sebori R, Hosoda R, Shimohama S, Kuno A, Horio Y. SIRT1 deficiency interferes with membrane resealing after cell membrane injury. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0218329. [PMID: 31242212 PMCID: PMC6594621 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0218329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2019] [Accepted: 05/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Activation of SIRT1, an NAD+-dependent protein deacetylase, ameliorates muscular pathophysiology of δ-sarcoglycan-deficient TO-2 hamsters and dystrophin-deficient mdx mice. We found that SIRT1 was highly expressed beneath the cellular membranes of muscle cells. To elucidate functional roles of SIRT1 on muscles, skeletal muscle-specific SIRT1 knockout mice (SIRT1-MKO) were generated. SIRT1-MKO mice showed muscular pathology similar to mild muscular dystrophies with increased numbers of centrally nucleated small myofibers and decreased numbers of middle-sized (2000–3001 μm2) myofibers compared to those of wild-type (WT) mice. Accordingly, SIRT1-MKO mice showed significantly decreased exercise capacity in treadmill and inverted hanging tests with higher levels of serum creatine kinase activities compared with those in WT mice. Evans blue dye uptake after exercise was greater in the muscles of SIRT1-MKO than those of WT mice, suggesting membrane fragility in SIRT1-MKO mice. Because SIRT1 was dominantly localized beneath the membranes of muscular cells, SIRT1 may have a new role in the membranes. We found that levels of fluorescent FM1-43 dye intake after laser-induced membrane disruption in C2C12 cells were significantly increased by SIRT1 inhibitors or Sirt1-siRNA compared with those of control cells. Inhibition of SIRT1 or SIRT1-knockdown severely disturbed the dynamic aggregation of membrane vesicles under the injured site but did not affect expression levels of membrane repair proteins. These data suggested that SIRT1 had a critical role in the resealing of membrane-ruptured muscle cells, which could affect phenotypes of SIRT1-MKO mice. To our knowledge, this report is the first to demonstrate that SIRT1 affected plasma-membrane repair mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Fujiwara
- Department of Pharmacology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Naotoshi Iwahara
- Department of Pharmacology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
- Department of Neurology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Rio Sebori
- Department of Pharmacology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Ryusuke Hosoda
- Department of Pharmacology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Shun Shimohama
- Department of Neurology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Atsushi Kuno
- Department of Pharmacology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Yoshiyuki Horio
- Department of Pharmacology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
- * E-mail:
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20
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Horn A, Jaiswal JK. Cellular mechanisms and signals that coordinate plasma membrane repair. Cell Mol Life Sci 2018; 75:3751-3770. [PMID: 30051163 PMCID: PMC6541445 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-018-2888-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2018] [Revised: 07/13/2018] [Accepted: 07/23/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Plasma membrane forms the barrier between the cytoplasm and the environment. Cells constantly and selectively transport molecules across their plasma membrane without disrupting it. Any disruption in the plasma membrane compromises its selective permeability and is lethal, if not rapidly repaired. There is a growing understanding of the organelles, proteins, lipids, and small molecules that help cells signal and efficiently coordinate plasma membrane repair. This review aims to summarize how these subcellular responses are coordinated and how cellular signals generated due to plasma membrane injury interact with each other to spatially and temporally coordinate repair. With the involvement of calcium and redox signaling in single cell and tissue repair, we will discuss how these and other related signals extend from single cell repair to tissue level repair. These signals link repair processes that are activated immediately after plasma membrane injury with longer term processes regulating repair and regeneration of the damaged tissue. We propose that investigating cell and tissue repair as part of a continuum of wound repair mechanisms would be of value in treating degenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Horn
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Health System, 111 Michigan Avenue, NW, Washington, DC, 20010-2970, USA
- Department of Genomics and Precision Medicine, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Jyoti K Jaiswal
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Health System, 111 Michigan Avenue, NW, Washington, DC, 20010-2970, USA.
- Department of Genomics and Precision Medicine, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC, USA.
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21
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Lacerda JZ, Drewes CC, Mimura KKO, Zanon CDF, Ansari T, Gil CD, Greco KV, Farsky SHP, Oliani SM. Annexin A1 2-26 Treatment Improves Skin Heterologous Transplantation by Modulating Inflammation and Angiogenesis Processes. Front Pharmacol 2018; 9:1015. [PMID: 30250432 PMCID: PMC6139386 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2018.01015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2018] [Accepted: 08/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Skin graft successful depends on reduction of local inflammation evoked by the surgical lesion and efficient neovascularization to nutrition the graft. It has been shown that N-terminal portion of the Annexin A1 protein (AnxA1) with its anti-inflammatory properties induces epithelial mucosa repair and presents potential therapeutic approaches. The role of AnxA1 on wound healing has not been explored and we investigated in this study the effect of the peptide Ac2-26 (N-terminal AnxA1 peptide Ac2-26; AnxA12-26) on heterologous skin scaffolds transplantation in BALB/c mice, focusing on inflammation and angiogenesis. Treatment with AnxA12-26, once a day, from day 3-60 after scaffold implantation improved the take of the implant, induced vessels formation, enhanced gene and protein levels of the vascular growth factor-A (VEGF-A) and fibroblast influx into allograft tissue. It also decreased pro- while increasing anti-inflammatory cytokines. The pro-angiogenic activity of AnxA12-26 was corroborated by topical application of AnxA12-26 on the subcutaneous tissue of mice. Moreover, treatment of human umbilical endothelial cells (HUVECs) with AnxA12-26 improved proliferation, shortened cycle, increased migration and actin polymerization similarly to those evoked by VEGF-A. The peptide treatment instead only potentiated the tube formation induced by VEGF-A. Collectively, our data showed that AnxA12-26 treatment favors the tissue regeneration after skin grafting by avoiding exacerbated inflammation and improving the angiogenesis process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jéssica Zani Lacerda
- São Paulo State University (Unesp), Institute of Biosciences, Humanities and Exact Sciences (Ibilce), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Carine Cristiane Drewes
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Caroline de Freitas Zanon
- São Paulo State University (Unesp), Institute of Biosciences, Humanities and Exact Sciences (Ibilce), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Tahera Ansari
- Department of Surgical Research, Northwick Park Institute for Medical Research, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Cristiane Damas Gil
- Post-Graduation in Structural and Functional Biology, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Karin Vicente Greco
- Department of Surgical Research, Northwick Park Institute for Medical Research, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sandra Helena Poliselli Farsky
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Sonia Maria Oliani
- São Paulo State University (Unesp), Institute of Biosciences, Humanities and Exact Sciences (Ibilce), São Paulo, Brazil.,Post-Graduation in Structural and Functional Biology, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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22
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Sreetama SC, Chandra G, Van der Meulen JH, Ahmad MM, Suzuki P, Bhuvanendran S, Nagaraju K, Hoffman EP, Jaiswal JK. Membrane Stabilization by Modified Steroid Offers a Potential Therapy for Muscular Dystrophy Due to Dysferlin Deficit. Mol Ther 2018; 26:2231-2242. [PMID: 30166241 PMCID: PMC6127637 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2018.07.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2018] [Revised: 07/15/2018] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations of the DYSF gene leading to reduced dysferlin protein level causes limb girdle muscular dystrophy type 2B (LGMD2B). Dysferlin facilitates sarcolemmal membrane repair in healthy myofibers, thus its deficit compromises myofiber repair and leads to chronic muscle inflammation. An experimental therapeutic approach for LGMD2B is to protect damage or improve repair of myofiber sarcolemma. Here, we compared the effects of prednisolone and vamorolone (a dissociative steroid; VBP15) on dysferlin-deficient myofiber repair. Vamorolone, but not prednisolone, stabilized dysferlin-deficient muscle cell membrane and improved repair of dysferlin-deficient mouse (B6A/J) myofibers injured by focal sarcolemmal damage, eccentric contraction-induced injury or injury due to spontaneous in vivo activity. Vamorolone decreased sarcolemmal lipid mobility, increased muscle strength, and decreased late-stage myofiber loss due to adipogenic infiltration. In contrast, the conventional glucocorticoid prednisolone failed to stabilize dysferlin deficient muscle cell membrane or improve repair of dysferlinopathic patient myoblasts and mouse myofibers. Instead, prednisolone treatment increased muscle weakness and myofiber atrophy in B6A/J mice—findings that correlate with reports of prednisolone worsening symptoms of LGMD2B patients. Our findings showing improved cellular and pre-clinical efficacy of vamorolone compared to prednisolone and better safety profile of vamorolone indicates the suitability of vamorolone for clinical trials in LGMD2B.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sen Chandra Sreetama
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, DC 20010, USA
| | - Goutam Chandra
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, DC 20010, USA
| | - Jack H Van der Meulen
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, DC 20010, USA
| | - Mohammad Mahad Ahmad
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, DC 20010, USA
| | - Peter Suzuki
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, DC 20010, USA
| | - Shivaprasad Bhuvanendran
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, DC 20010, USA
| | - Kanneboyina Nagaraju
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, DC 20010, USA; Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY 13902, USA
| | - Eric P Hoffman
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, DC 20010, USA; Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY 13902, USA
| | - Jyoti K Jaiswal
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, DC 20010, USA; Department of Genomics and Precision Medicine, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC 20010, USA.
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23
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Verma SK, Leikina E, Melikov K, Gebert C, Kram V, Young MF, Uygur B, Chernomordik LV. Cell-surface phosphatidylserine regulates osteoclast precursor fusion. J Biol Chem 2017; 293:254-270. [PMID: 29101233 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m117.809681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2017] [Revised: 11/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Bone-resorbing multinucleated osteoclasts that play a central role in the maintenance and repair of our bones are formed from bone marrow myeloid progenitor cells by a complex differentiation process that culminates in fusion of mononuclear osteoclast precursors. In this study, we uncoupled the cell fusion step from both pre-fusion stages of osteoclastogenic differentiation and the post-fusion expansion of the nascent fusion connections. We accumulated ready-to-fuse cells in the presence of the fusion inhibitor lysophosphatidylcholine and then removed the inhibitor to study synchronized cell fusion. We found that osteoclast fusion required the dendrocyte-expressed seven transmembrane protein (DC-STAMP)-dependent non-apoptotic exposure of phosphatidylserine at the surface of fusion-committed cells. Fusion also depended on extracellular annexins, phosphatidylserine-binding proteins, which, along with annexin-binding protein S100A4, regulated fusogenic activity of syncytin 1. Thus, in contrast to fusion processes mediated by a single protein, such as epithelial cell fusion in Caenorhabditis elegans, the cell fusion step in osteoclastogenesis is controlled by phosphatidylserine-regulated activity of several proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santosh K Verma
- Sections on Membrane Biology, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | - Evgenia Leikina
- Sections on Membrane Biology, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | - Kamran Melikov
- Sections on Membrane Biology, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | - Claudia Gebert
- Genomic Imprinting, Eunice Kennedy Shriver NICHD, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | - Vardit Kram
- Craniofacial and Skeletal Diseases Branch, NIDCR, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | - Marian F Young
- Craniofacial and Skeletal Diseases Branch, NIDCR, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | - Berna Uygur
- Sections on Membrane Biology, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | - Leonid V Chernomordik
- Sections on Membrane Biology, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892.
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Defour A, Medikayala S, Van der Meulen JH, Hogarth MW, Holdreith N, Malatras A, Duddy W, Boehler J, Nagaraju K, Jaiswal JK. Annexin A2 links poor myofiber repair with inflammation and adipogenic replacement of the injured muscle. Hum Mol Genet 2017; 26:1979-1991. [PMID: 28334824 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddx065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2016] [Accepted: 02/17/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Repair of skeletal muscle after sarcolemmal damage involves dysferlin and dysferlin-interacting proteins such as annexins. Mice and patient lacking dysferlin exhibit chronic muscle inflammation and adipogenic replacement of the myofibers. Here, we show that similar to dysferlin, lack of annexin A2 (AnxA2) also results in poor myofiber repair and progressive muscle weakening with age. By longitudinal analysis of AnxA2-deficient muscle we find that poor myofiber repair due to the lack of AnxA2 does not result in chronic inflammation or adipogenic replacement of the myofibers. Further, deletion of AnxA2 in dysferlin deficient mice reduced muscle inflammation, adipogenic replacement of myofibers, and improved muscle function. These results identify multiple roles of AnxA2 in muscle repair, which includes facilitating myofiber repair, chronic muscle inflammation and adipogenic replacement of dysferlinopathic muscle. It also identifies inhibition of AnxA2-mediated inflammation as a novel therapeutic avenue for treating muscle loss in dysferlinopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurelia Defour
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC 20010, USA
| | - Sushma Medikayala
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC 20010, USA
| | - Jack H Van der Meulen
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC 20010, USA
| | - Marshall W Hogarth
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC 20010, USA
| | - Nicholas Holdreith
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC 20010, USA
| | - Apostolos Malatras
- Center for Research in Myology 75013, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMRS975, CNRS FRE3617, GH Pitié Salpêtrière, Paris 13, Paris, France
| | - William Duddy
- Center for Research in Myology 75013, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMRS975, CNRS FRE3617, GH Pitié Salpêtrière, Paris 13, Paris, France
- Northern Ireland Centre for Stratified Medicine, Altnagelvin Hospital Campus, Ulster University, Londonderry, Northern Ireland, BT52 1SJ UK
| | - Jessica Boehler
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC 20010, USA
| | - Kanneboyina Nagaraju
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC 20010, USA
- Department of Integrative Systems Biology, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC, 20052 USA
| | - Jyoti K Jaiswal
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC 20010, USA
- Department of Integrative Systems Biology, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC, 20052 USA
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25
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Leoni G, Nusrat A. Annexin A1: shifting the balance towards resolution and repair. Biol Chem 2017; 397:971-9. [PMID: 27232634 DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2016-0180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2016] [Accepted: 05/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Epithelial barriers play an important role in regulating mucosal homeostasis. Upon injury, the epithelium and immune cells orchestrate repair mechanisms that re-establish homeostasis. This process is highly regulated by protein and lipid mediators such as Annexin A1 (ANXA1). In this review, we focus on the pro-repair properties of ANXA1.
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26
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Piovezan AP, Batisti AP, Benevides MLACS, Turnes BL, Martins DF, Kanis L, Duarte ECW, Cavalheiro AJ, Bueno PCP, Seed MP, Norling LV, Cooper D, Headland S, Souza PRPS, Perretti M. Hydroalcoholic crude extract of Casearia sylvestris Sw. reduces chronic post-ischemic pain by activation of pro-resolving pathways. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2017; 204:179-188. [PMID: 28412216 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2017.03.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2016] [Revised: 03/31/2017] [Accepted: 03/31/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Casearia sylvestris Sw. is widely used in popular medicine to treat conditions associated with pain. AIM OF THE STUDY The present study investigated the influence of hydroalcoholic crude extract of Casearia sylvestris (HCE-CS) and contribution of pro-resolving mediators on mechanical hyperalgesia in a mouse model of chronic post-ischemia pain (CPIP). METHODS AND RESULTS Male Swiss mice were subjected to ischemia of the right hind paw (3h), then reperfusion was allowed. At 10min, 24h or 48h post-ischemia/reperfusion (I/R), different groups of animals were treated with HCE-CS (30mg/Kg, orally [p.o]), selected agonists at the pro-resolving receptor ALX/FPR2 (natural molecules like resolvin D1 and lipoxin A4 or the synthetic compound BML-111; 0.1-1µg/animal) or vehicle (saline, 10mL/Kg, s.c.), in the absence or presence of the antagonist WRW4 (10µg, s.c.). Mechanical hyperalgesia (paw withdrawal to von Frey filament) was asseseed together with histological and immunostainning analyses. In these settings, pro-resolving mediators reduced mechanical hyperalgesia and HCE-CS or BML-111 displayed anti-hyperalgesic effects which was markedly attenuated in animals treated with WRW4. ALX/FPR2 expression was raised in skeletal muscle or neutrophils after treatment with HCE-CS or BML-111. CONCLUSION These results reveal significant antihyperalgesic effect of HCE-CS on CPIP, mediated at least in part, by the pathway of resolution of inflammation centred on the axis modulated by ALX/FPR2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna P Piovezan
- Post-Graduate Programm in Health Science - Southern Univeristy of Santa Catarina (UNISUL), Brazil; Laboratory of Experimental Neuroscience (LANEX)- UNISUL, Brazil; William Harvey Research Institute - Queen Mary University of London/London, UK.
| | - Ana P Batisti
- Post-Graduate Programm in Health Science - Southern Univeristy of Santa Catarina (UNISUL), Brazil; Laboratory of Experimental Neuroscience (LANEX)- UNISUL, Brazil.
| | - Maria L A C S Benevides
- Laboratory of Experimental Neuroscience (LANEX)- UNISUL, Brazil; Undergraduation in Medicine - UNISUL, Brazil.
| | - Bruna L Turnes
- Laboratory of Neurobiology of Pain and Inflammation - UFSC, Brazil.
| | - Daniel F Martins
- Post-Graduate Programm in Health Science - Southern Univeristy of Santa Catarina (UNISUL), Brazil; Laboratory of Experimental Neuroscience (LANEX)- UNISUL, Brazil.
| | - Luiz Kanis
- Post-Graduate Programm in Health Science - Southern Univeristy of Santa Catarina (UNISUL), Brazil.
| | | | | | - Paula C P Bueno
- Department of Organic Chemistry/Institute of Chemistry - UNESP, Brazil.
| | - Michael P Seed
- Clinical Research Group, School of Health Sport & Bioscience, University of East London, UK.
| | - Lucy V Norling
- William Harvey Research Institute - Queen Mary University of London/London, UK.
| | - Dianne Cooper
- William Harvey Research Institute - Queen Mary University of London/London, UK.
| | - Sarah Headland
- William Harvey Research Institute - Queen Mary University of London/London, UK.
| | | | - Mauro Perretti
- William Harvey Research Institute - Queen Mary University of London/London, UK.
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27
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Schejter ED. Myoblast fusion: Experimental systems and cellular mechanisms. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2016; 60:112-120. [DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2016.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2016] [Revised: 07/11/2016] [Accepted: 07/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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28
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Whitlock JM, Hartzell HC. Anoctamins/TMEM16 Proteins: Chloride Channels Flirting with Lipids and Extracellular Vesicles. Annu Rev Physiol 2016; 79:119-143. [PMID: 27860832 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-physiol-022516-034031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Anoctamin (ANO)/TMEM16 proteins exhibit diverse functions in cells throughout the body and are implicated in several human diseases. Although the founding members ANO1 (TMEM16A) and ANO2 (TMEM16B) are Ca2+-activated Cl- channels, most ANO paralogs are Ca2+-dependent phospholipid scramblases that serve as channels facilitating the movement (scrambling) of phospholipids between leaflets of the membrane bilayer. Phospholipid scrambling significantly alters the physical properties of the membrane and its landscape and has vast downstream signaling consequences. In particular, phosphatidylserine exposed on the external leaflet of the plasma membrane functions as a ligand for receptors vital for cell-cell communication. A major consequence of Ca2+-dependent scrambling is the release of extracellular vesicles that function as intercellular messengers by delivering signaling proteins and noncoding RNAs to alter target cell function. We discuss the physiological implications of Ca2+-dependent phospholipid scrambling, the extracellular vesicles associated with this activity, and the roles of ANOs in these processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jarred M Whitlock
- Department of Cell Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322;
| | - H Criss Hartzell
- Department of Cell Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322;
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