1
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Tsai L, Navarro P, Wu S, Levinson T, Mendoza E, Janneke Schwaner M, Daley MA, Azizi E, Ilton M. Viscoelastic materials are most energy efficient when loaded and unloaded at equal rates. J R Soc Interface 2024; 21:20230527. [PMID: 38290561 PMCID: PMC10827427 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2023.0527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 02/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Biological springs can be used in nature for energy conservation and ultra-fast motion. The loading and unloading rates of elastic materials can play an important role in determining how the properties of these springs affect movements. We investigate the mechanical energy efficiency of biological springs (American bullfrog plantaris tendons and guinea fowl lateral gastrocnemius tendons) and synthetic elastomers. We measure these materials under symmetric rates (equal loading and unloading durations) and asymmetric rates (unequal loading and unloading durations) using novel dynamic mechanical analysis measurements. We find that mechanical efficiency is highest at symmetric rates and significantly decreases with a larger degree of asymmetry. A generalized one-dimensional Maxwell model with no fitting parameters captures the experimental results based on the independently characterized linear viscoelastic properties of the materials. The model further shows that a broader viscoelastic relaxation spectrum enhances the effect of rate-asymmetry on efficiency. Overall, our study provides valuable insights into the interplay between material properties and unloading dynamics in both biological and synthetic elastic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucien Tsai
- Department of Physics, Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, CA 91711, USA
| | - Paco Navarro
- Department of Physics, Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, CA 91711, USA
| | - Siqi Wu
- Department of Physics, Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, CA 91711, USA
| | - Taylor Levinson
- Department of Physics, Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, CA 91711, USA
| | - Elizabeth Mendoza
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - M. Janneke Schwaner
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Monica A. Daley
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Emanuel Azizi
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Mark Ilton
- Department of Physics, Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, CA 91711, USA
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2
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Schulz AK, Schneider N, Zhang M, Singal K. A Year at the Forefront of Hydrostat Motion. Biol Open 2023; 12:bio059834. [PMID: 37566395 PMCID: PMC10434360 DOI: 10.1242/bio.059834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Currently, in the field of interdisciplinary work in biology, there has been a significant push by the soft robotic community to understand the motion and maneuverability of hydrostats. This Review seeks to expand the muscular hydrostat hypothesis toward new structures, including plants, and introduce innovative techniques to the hydrostat community on new modeling, simulating, mimicking, and observing hydrostat motion methods. These methods range from ideas of kirigami, origami, and knitting for mimic creation to utilizing reinforcement learning for control of bio-inspired soft robotic systems. It is now being understood through modeling that different mechanisms can inhibit traditional hydrostat motion, such as skin, nostrils, or sheathed layered muscle walls. The impact of this Review will highlight these mechanisms, including asymmetries, and discuss the critical next steps toward understanding their motion and how species with hydrostat structures control such complex motions, highlighting work from January 2022 to December 2022.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew K. Schulz
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Nikole Schneider
- Department of Biology, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD 57069, USA
| | - Margaret Zhang
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Krishma Singal
- School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
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3
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Gable SM, Mendez JM, Bushroe NA, Wilson A, Byars MI, Tollis M. The State of Squamate Genomics: Past, Present, and Future of Genome Research in the Most Speciose Terrestrial Vertebrate Order. Genes (Basel) 2023; 14:1387. [PMID: 37510292 PMCID: PMC10379679 DOI: 10.3390/genes14071387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2023] [Revised: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 06/29/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Squamates include more than 11,000 extant species of lizards, snakes, and amphisbaenians, and display a dazzling diversity of phenotypes across their over 200-million-year evolutionary history on Earth. Here, we introduce and define squamates (Order Squamata) and review the history and promise of genomic investigations into the patterns and processes governing squamate evolution, given recent technological advances in DNA sequencing, genome assembly, and evolutionary analysis. We survey the most recently available whole genome assemblies for squamates, including the taxonomic distribution of available squamate genomes, and assess their quality metrics and usefulness for research. We then focus on disagreements in squamate phylogenetic inference, how methods of high-throughput phylogenomics affect these inferences, and demonstrate the promise of whole genomes to settle or sustain persistent phylogenetic arguments for squamates. We review the role transposable elements play in vertebrate evolution, methods of transposable element annotation and analysis, and further demonstrate that through the understanding of the diversity, abundance, and activity of transposable elements in squamate genomes, squamates can be an ideal model for the evolution of genome size and structure in vertebrates. We discuss how squamate genomes can contribute to other areas of biological research such as venom systems, studies of phenotypic evolution, and sex determination. Because they represent more than 30% of the living species of amniote, squamates deserve a genome consortium on par with recent efforts for other amniotes (i.e., mammals and birds) that aim to sequence most of the extant families in a clade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone M Gable
- School of Informatics, Computing, and Cyber Systems, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USA
| | - Jasmine M Mendez
- School of Informatics, Computing, and Cyber Systems, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USA
| | - Nicholas A Bushroe
- School of Informatics, Computing, and Cyber Systems, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USA
| | - Adam Wilson
- School of Informatics, Computing, and Cyber Systems, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USA
| | - Michael I Byars
- School of Informatics, Computing, and Cyber Systems, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USA
| | - Marc Tollis
- School of Informatics, Computing, and Cyber Systems, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USA
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4
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Malarczyk M, Kaminski M, Szrek J. Metaheuristic Approach to Synthesis of Suspension System of Mobile Robot for Mining Infrastructure Inspection. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:8839. [PMID: 36433436 PMCID: PMC9695186 DOI: 10.3390/s22228839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Revised: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The article describes the problem of geometric synthesis of the inspection robot suspension system, designed for operation in difficult conditions with the presence of scattered obstacles. The exemplary application of a mine infrastructure inspection robot is developed and supported by the ideas. The brief introduction presents current trends, requirements and known design approaches of platforms enabled to cross the obstacles. The idea of a nature-inspired wheel-legged robot is given, and the general outline of its characteristics is provided. Then the general idea of kinematic system elements selection is discussed. The main subject of geometrical synthesis of the chosen four-bar mechanism is described in detail. The mathematical model of the suspension and connections between the parts of the structure is clarified. The well-known analytical approach of brute force search is analyzed and validated. Then the method inspired by the branch and bound algorithm is developed. Finally, a novel application of the nature-inspired algorithm (the Chameleon Swarm Algorithm) to synthesis is proposed. The obtained results are analyzed, and a brief comparison of methods is given. The successful implementation of the algorithm is presented. The obtained results are effectively tested with simulations and experimental tests. The designed structure developed with the CSA is assembled and attached to the prototype of a 14-DOF wheel-legged robot. Furthermore, the principles of walking and the elements forming the control structure were also discussed. The paper is summarized with the description of the developed wheel-legged robot LegVan 1v2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mateusz Malarczyk
- Department of Electrical Machines, Drives and Measurements, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Smoluchowskiego 19, 50-372 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Marcin Kaminski
- Department of Electrical Machines, Drives and Measurements, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Smoluchowskiego 19, 50-372 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Jaroslaw Szrek
- Department of Fundamentals of Machine Design and Mechatronic Systems, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Lukasiewicza 7/9, 50-372 Wroclaw, Poland
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5
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Hudel L, Kappeler PM. Sex-specific movement ecology of the shortest-lived tetrapod during the mating season. Sci Rep 2022; 12:10053. [PMID: 35710848 PMCID: PMC9203456 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-14156-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 06/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Sex-specific reproductive strategies are shaped by the distribution of potential mates in space and time. Labord’s chameleon (Furcifer labordi) from southwestern Madagascar is the shortest-lived tetrapod whose life-time mating opportunities are restricted to a few weeks. Given that these chameleons grow to sexual maturity within about three months and that all individuals die soon after breeding, their mating strategies should be adapted to these temporal constraints. The reproductive tactics of this or any other Malagasy chameleon species have not been studied, however. Radio-tracking and observations of 21 females and 18 males revealed that females exhibit high site fidelity, move small cumulative and linear distances, have low corresponding dispersal ratios and small occurrence distributions. In contrast, males moved larger distances in less predictable fashion, resulting in dispersal ratios and occurrence distributions 7–14 times larger than those of females, and males also had greater ranges of their vertical distribution. Despite synchronous hatching, males exhibited substantial inter-individual variation in body mass and snout-vent length that was significantly greater than in females, but apparently unrelated to their spatial tactics. Females mated with up to 6 individually-known mates, but frequent encounters with unmarked individuals indicate that much higher number of matings may be common, as are damaging fights among males. Thus, unlike perennial chameleons, F. labordi males do not seem to maintain and defend territories. Instead, they invest vastly more time and energy into locomotion for their body size than other species. Pronounced variation in key somatic traits may hint at the existence of alternative reproductive tactics, but its causes and consequences require further study. This first preliminary study of the mating system of a Malagasy chameleon indicates that, as in other semelparous tetrapods, accelerated life histories are tied to a mating system with intense contest and scramble competition among males.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lennart Hudel
- Department of Sociobiology/Anthropology, University of Göttingen, Kellnerweg 6, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Peter M Kappeler
- Department of Sociobiology/Anthropology, University of Göttingen, Kellnerweg 6, 37077, Göttingen, Germany. .,Behavioral Ecology Unit, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute of Primate Biology, Kellnerweg 4, 37077, Göttingen, Germany.
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6
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Is There Always a Need for Speed? Testing for Differences in the Striking Behavior of Western Ratsnakes (Pantherophis obsoletus) When Encountering Predators and Prey. J HERPETOL 2021. [DOI: 10.1670/20-105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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7
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Glaw F, Köhler J, Hawlitschek O, Ratsoavina FM, Rakotoarison A, Scherz MD, Vences M. Extreme miniaturization of a new amniote vertebrate and insights into the evolution of genital size in chameleons. Sci Rep 2021; 11:2522. [PMID: 33510189 PMCID: PMC7844282 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-80955-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Evolutionary reduction of adult body size (miniaturization) has profound consequences for organismal biology and is an important subject of evolutionary research. Based on two individuals we describe a new, extremely miniaturized chameleon, which may be the world's smallest reptile species. The male holotype of Brookesia nana sp. nov. has a snout-vent length of 13.5 mm (total length 21.6 mm) and has large, apparently fully developed hemipenes, making it apparently the smallest mature male amniote ever recorded. The female paratype measures 19.2 mm snout-vent length (total length 28.9 mm) and a micro-CT scan revealed developing eggs in the body cavity, likewise indicating sexual maturity. The new chameleon is only known from a degraded montane rainforest in northern Madagascar and might be threatened by extinction. Molecular phylogenetic analyses place it as sister to B. karchei, the largest species in the clade of miniaturized Brookesia species, for which we resurrect Evoluticauda Angel, 1942 as subgenus name. The genetic divergence of B. nana sp. nov. is rather strong (9.9‒14.9% to all other Evoluticauda species in the 16S rRNA gene). A comparative study of genital length in Malagasy chameleons revealed a tendency for the smallest chameleons to have the relatively largest hemipenes, which might be a consequence of a reversed sexual size dimorphism with males substantially smaller than females in the smallest species. The miniaturized males may need larger hemipenes to enable a better mechanical fit with female genitals during copulation. Comprehensive studies of female genitalia are needed to test this hypothesis and to better understand the evolution of genitalia in reptiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Glaw
- grid.452282.b0000 0001 1013 3702Zoologische Staatssammlung München (ZSM-SNSB), Münchhausenstr. 21, 81247 München, Germany
| | - Jörn Köhler
- grid.462257.00000 0004 0493 4732Hessisches Landesmuseum Darmstadt, Friedensplatz 1, 64283 Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Oliver Hawlitschek
- grid.9026.d0000 0001 2287 2617Centrum für Naturkunde, Universität Hamburg, Martin-Luther-King-Platz 3, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Fanomezana M. Ratsoavina
- grid.440419.c0000 0001 2165 5629Mention Zoologie et Biodiversité Animale, Université d’Antananarivo, BP 906, 101 Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Andolalao Rakotoarison
- grid.440419.c0000 0001 2165 5629Mention Zoologie et Biodiversité Animale, Université d’Antananarivo, BP 906, 101 Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Mark D. Scherz
- grid.11348.3f0000 0001 0942 1117Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, Universität Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24–25, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Miguel Vences
- grid.6738.a0000 0001 1090 0254Zoologisches Institut, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Mendelssohnstr. 4, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
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8
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Hewes AE, Schwenk K. The functional morphology of lingual prey capture in a scincid lizard, Tiliqua scincoides (Reptilia: Squamata). J Morphol 2020; 282:127-145. [PMID: 33090536 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.21287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2020] [Revised: 09/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the functional morphology of lingual prey capture in the blue-tongued skink, Tiliqua scincoides, a lingual-feeding lizard nested deep within the family Scincidae, which is presumed to be dominated by jaw-feeding. We used kinematic analysis of high-speed video to characterize jaw and tongue movements during prey capture. Phylogenetically informed principal components analysis of tongue morphology showed that, compared to jaw-feeding scincids and lacertids, T. scincoides and another tongue-feeding scincid, Corucia zebrata, are distinct in ways suggesting an enhanced ability for hydrostatic shape change. Lingual feeding kinematics show substantial quantitative and qualitative variation among T. scincoides individuals. High-speed video analysis showed that T. scincoides uses significant hydrostatic elongation and deformation during protrusion, tongue-prey contact, and retraction. A key feature of lingual prey capture in T. scincoides is extensive hydrostatic deformation to increase the area of tongue-prey contact, presumably to maximize wet adhesion of the prey item. Adhesion is mechanically reinforced during tongue retraction through formation of a distinctive "saddle" in the foretongue that supports the prey item, reducing the risk of prey loss during retraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda E Hewes
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA.,Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Kurt Schwenk
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
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Kan L, Lei F, Song B, Su B, Shi Y. Flexible electromagnetic capturer with a rapid ejection feature inspired by a biological ballistic tongue. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2020; 15:066002. [PMID: 32647093 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/aba444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Bionics is the inspiration resource of state-of-the-art science and technology. The chameleon can capture prey at great distances with the assistance of its highly stretchable and ballistic tongue. Inspired by this biological structure, here we demonstrate the fabrication of flexible electromagnetic manipulators. The as-prepared flexible electromagnetic manipulator can reach a maximum velocity of 8.1 m s-1and acceleration of 627 m s-2at an applied voltage of 360 V. The working mechanism of this flexible electromagnetic manipulator has been studied based on Maxwell and Abaqus simulations. Diverse parameters, including the lengths of the magnetic tube (the cylindrical magnet) and the whole manipulator and the applied voltage values, have been considered to tune the ejecting performance of the manipulator. Furthermore, flexible electromagnetic manipulators can be upgraded to capture various objects by attaching a mechanical force triggered gripper to their top pads. With this design, the velocity of the gripper can be significantly improved (the maximum is 8.1 m s-1, whereas soft grippers in previous research do not have the characteristic of fast movement), thus making it possible to get objects without approaching them; in other words, we can catch objects even though they are far away from us, which provides the possibility of long-distance capture. We believe this kind of bio-inspired fabrication is a powerful strategy to design and synthesize flexible even stretchable manipulators, extending the boundaries of conventional manipulators for soft robots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Longxin Kan
- State Key Laboratory of Material Processing and Die & Mould Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, People's Republic of China
| | - Fengxiao Lei
- State Key Laboratory of Material Processing and Die & Mould Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, People's Republic of China
| | - Bo Song
- State Key Laboratory of Material Processing and Die & Mould Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, People's Republic of China
| | - Bin Su
- State Key Laboratory of Material Processing and Die & Mould Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, People's Republic of China
| | - Yusheng Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Material Processing and Die & Mould Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, People's Republic of China
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10
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Chen R, Chen JQ, Sun Y, Wu L, Guo JL. A Chameleon Tongue Inspired Shooting Manipulator With Vision-Based Localization and Preying. IEEE Robot Autom Lett 2020. [DOI: 10.1109/lra.2020.3005128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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11
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McElroy EJ, Sustaita D, McBrayer LD. Applied Functional Biology: Linking Ecological Morphology to Conservation and Management. Integr Comp Biol 2020. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icaa076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Synopsis
Many researchers work at the interface of organisms and environment. Too often, the insights that organismal, or functional, biologists can bring to the understanding of natural history, ecology, and conservation of species are overlooked. Likewise, natural resource managers are frequently focused on the management of populations and communities, while ignoring key functional traits that might explain variation in abundance and shifts in species composition at these ecological levels. Our intention for this symposium is two-fold: (1) to bring to light current and future research in functional and ecological morphology applicable to concerns and goals of wildlife management and conservation and (2) to show how such studies can result in measurable benchmarks useful to regulatory agencies. Symposium topics reveal past, present, and future collaborations between functional morphologists/biomechanists and conservation/wildlife biologists. During the SICB 2020 Annual Meeting, symposium participants demonstrated how data gathered to address fundamental questions regarding the causes and consequences of organismal form and function can also help address issues of conservation and wildlife management. Here we review how these, and other, studies of functional morphology, biomechanics, ecological development morphology and performance can inform wildlife conservation and management, principally by identifying candidate functional traits that have clear fitness consequences and population level implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric J McElroy
- Department of Biology, College of Charleston, Charleston, SC 29412, USA
| | - Diego Sustaita
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University San Marcos, San Marcos, CA 92096, USA
| | - Lance D McBrayer
- Department of Biology, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA 30460, USA
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12
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Wang C, Xu L, Qiao Y, Qiu D. Adhesives to empower a manipulator inspired by the chameleon tongue. CHINESE CHEM LETT 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cclet.2019.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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13
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Ilton M, Cox SM, Egelmeers T, Sutton GP, Patek SN, Crosby AJ. The effect of size-scale on the kinematics of elastic energy release. SOFT MATTER 2019; 15:9579-9586. [PMID: 31724691 DOI: 10.1039/c9sm00870e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Elastically-driven motion has been used as a strategy to achieve high speeds in small organisms and engineered micro-robotic devices. We examine the size-scaling relations determining the limit of elastic energy release from elastomer bands that efficiently cycle mechanical energy with minimal loss. The maximum center-of-mass velocity of the elastomer bands was found to be size-scale independent, while smaller bands demonstrated larger accelerations and shorter durations of elastic energy release. Scaling relationships determined from these measurements are consistent with the performance of small organisms and engineered devices which utilize elastic elements to power motion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Ilton
- Department of Physics, Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, CA 91711, USA
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14
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Huskey S, Tegge SM, Anderson CV, Smith ME, Barnett K. Gular pouch diversity in the Chamaeleonidae. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2019; 303:2248-2261. [PMID: 31680478 DOI: 10.1002/ar.24313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2018] [Revised: 10/03/2019] [Accepted: 10/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Numerous chameleon species possess an out-pocketing of the trachea known as the gular pouch. After surveying more than 250 specimens, representing nine genera and 44 species, we describe two different morphs of the gular pouch. Species of the genera Bradypodion and Chamaeleo, as well as Trioceros goetzei, all possess a single gular pouch (morph one) formed from ventral expansion of soft tissue where the larynx and trachea meet. Furcifer oustaleti and Furcifer verrucosus possess from one to four gular pouches (morph two) formed by the expansion of soft tissue between sequential hyaline cartilage rings of the trachea. In Trioceros melleri, examples of both morphs of the gular pouch were observed. Morphometric data are presented for 100 animals representing eight species previously known to possess a gular pouch and two additional species, Bradypodion thamnobates and Bradypodion transvaalense. In the species with the absolutely and relatively largest gular pouch, Chamaeleo calyptratus, a significant difference was found between sexes in its width and volume, but not its length. In C. calyptratus, we show that an inflated gular pouch is in contact with numerous hyoid muscles and the tongue. Coupled with the knowledge that C. calyptratus generates vibrations from the throat region, we posit that the tongue (M. accelerator linguae and M. hyoglossus) and supporting hyoid muscles (i.e., Mm. sternohyoideus profundus et superficialis and Mm. mandibulohyoideus) are involved in the production of vibrations to produce biotremors that are amplified by the inflated gular pouch and used in substrate-borne communication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steve Huskey
- Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky
| | - Samuel M Tegge
- Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky
| | | | - Michael E Smith
- Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky
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15
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Penning DA, Sawvel B, Moon BR. The scaling of terrestrial striking performance in western ratsnakes (
Pantherophis obsoletus
). JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART 2019; 333:96-103. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.2328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2019] [Revised: 09/11/2019] [Accepted: 09/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David A. Penning
- Department of Biology and Environmental Health Missouri Southern State University Joplin Missouri
| | - Baxter Sawvel
- Department of Biology University of Louisiana at Lafayette Lafayette Louisiana
| | - Brad R. Moon
- Department of Biology University of Louisiana at Lafayette Lafayette Louisiana
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16
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Bels V, Paindavoine AS, Zghikh LN, Paulet E, Pallandre JP, Montuelle SJ. Feeding in Lizards: Form–Function and Complex Multifunctional System. FEEDING IN VERTEBRATES 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-13739-7_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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17
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Iwasaki SI, Erdoğan S, Asami T. Evolutionary Specialization of the Tongue in Vertebrates: Structure and Function. FEEDING IN VERTEBRATES 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-13739-7_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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18
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Ilton M, Bhamla MS, Ma X, Cox SM, Fitchett LL, Kim Y, Koh JS, Krishnamurthy D, Kuo CY, Temel FZ, Crosby AJ, Prakash M, Sutton GP, Wood RJ, Azizi E, Bergbreiter S, Patek SN. The principles of cascading power limits in small, fast biological and engineered systems. Science 2018; 360:360/6387/eaao1082. [PMID: 29700237 DOI: 10.1126/science.aao1082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2017] [Accepted: 03/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Mechanical power limitations emerge from the physical trade-off between force and velocity. Many biological systems incorporate power-enhancing mechanisms enabling extraordinary accelerations at small sizes. We establish how power enhancement emerges through the dynamic coupling of motors, springs, and latches and reveal how each displays its own force-velocity behavior. We mathematically demonstrate a tunable performance space for spring-actuated movement that is applicable to biological and synthetic systems. Incorporating nonideal spring behavior and parameterizing latch dynamics allows the identification of critical transitions in mass and trade-offs in spring scaling, both of which offer explanations for long-observed scaling patterns in biological systems. This analysis defines the cascading challenges of power enhancement, explores their emergent effects in biological and engineered systems, and charts a pathway for higher-level analysis and synthesis of power-amplified systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Ilton
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - M Saad Bhamla
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Xiaotian Ma
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Institute for Systems Research, University of Maryland, College Park, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Suzanne M Cox
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Leah L Fitchett
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Yongjin Kim
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Je-Sung Koh
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences and Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | | | - Chi-Yun Kuo
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Fatma Zeynep Temel
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences and Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Alfred J Crosby
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Manu Prakash
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Gregory P Sutton
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TH, UK
| | - Robert J Wood
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences and Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Emanuel Azizi
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Sarah Bergbreiter
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Institute for Systems Research, University of Maryland, College Park, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - S N Patek
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA.
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19
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Mirvakili SM, Hunter IW. Artificial Muscles: Mechanisms, Applications, and Challenges. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2018; 30:1704407. [PMID: 29250838 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201704407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 320] [Impact Index Per Article: 53.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2017] [Revised: 09/10/2017] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The area of artificial muscle is a highly interdisciplinary field of research that has evolved rapidly in the last 30 years. Recent advances in nanomaterial fabrication and characterization, specifically carbon nanotubes and nanowires, have had major contributions in the development of artificial muscles. However, what can artificial muscles really do for humans? This question is considered here by first examining nature's solutions to this design problem and then discussing the structure, actuation mechanism, applications, and limitations of recently developed artificial muscles, including highly oriented semicrystalline polymer fibers; nanocomposite actuators; twisted nanofiber yarns; thermally activated shape-memory alloys; ionic-polymer/metal composites; dielectric-elastomer actuators; conducting polymers; stimuli-responsive gels; piezoelectric, electrostrictive, magnetostrictive, and photostrictive actuators; photoexcited actuators; electrostatic actuators; and pneumatic actuators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seyed M Mirvakili
- BioInstrumentation Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Ian W Hunter
- BioInstrumentation Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
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20
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ORSBON COURTNEYP, GIDMARK NICHOLASJ, ROSS CALLUMF. Dynamic Musculoskeletal Functional Morphology: Integrating diceCT and XROMM. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2018; 301:378-406. [PMID: 29330951 PMCID: PMC5786282 DOI: 10.1002/ar.23714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2017] [Revised: 09/05/2017] [Accepted: 09/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The tradeoff between force and velocity in skeletal muscle is a fundamental constraint on vertebrate musculoskeletal design (form:function relationships). Understanding how and why different lineages address this biomechanical problem is an important goal of vertebrate musculoskeletal functional morphology. Our ability to answer questions about the different solutions to this tradeoff has been significantly improved by recent advances in techniques for quantifying musculoskeletal morphology and movement. Herein, we have three objectives: (1) review the morphological and physiological parameters that affect muscle function and how these parameters interact; (2) discuss the necessity of integrating morphological and physiological lines of evidence to understand muscle function and the new, high resolution imaging technologies that do so; and (3) present a method that integrates high spatiotemporal resolution motion capture (XROMM, including its corollary fluoromicrometry), high resolution soft tissue imaging (diceCT), and electromyography to study musculoskeletal dynamics in vivo. The method is demonstrated using a case study of in vivo primate hyolingual biomechanics during chewing and swallowing. A sensitivity analysis demonstrates that small deviations in reconstructed hyoid muscle attachment site location introduce an average error of 13.2% to in vivo muscle kinematics. The observed hyoid and muscle kinematics suggest that hyoid elevation is produced by multiple muscles and that fascicle rotation and tendon strain decouple fascicle strain from hyoid movement and whole muscle length. Lastly, we highlight current limitations of these techniques, some of which will likely soon be overcome through methodological improvements, and some of which are inherent. Anat Rec, 301:378-406, 2018. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- COURTNEY P. ORSBON
- Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637
| | | | - CALLUM F. ROSS
- Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637
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21
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Coelho P, Kaliontzopoulou A, Rasko M, Meijden A. A ‘striking’ relationship: scorpion defensive behaviour and its relation to morphology and performance. Funct Ecol 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.12855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Coelho
- CIBIO Research Centre in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources InBIO Universidade do Porto Campus Agrário de Vairão, Rua Padre Armando Quintas, No. 7 4485‐661 Vairão, Vila do Conde Portugal
| | - Antigoni Kaliontzopoulou
- CIBIO Research Centre in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources InBIO Universidade do Porto Campus Agrário de Vairão, Rua Padre Armando Quintas, No. 7 4485‐661 Vairão, Vila do Conde Portugal
| | - Mykola Rasko
- CIBIO Research Centre in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources InBIO Universidade do Porto Campus Agrário de Vairão, Rua Padre Armando Quintas, No. 7 4485‐661 Vairão, Vila do Conde Portugal
| | - Arie Meijden
- CIBIO Research Centre in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources InBIO Universidade do Porto Campus Agrário de Vairão, Rua Padre Armando Quintas, No. 7 4485‐661 Vairão, Vila do Conde Portugal
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22
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Olberding JP, Scales JA, Deban SM. Movements of vastly different performance have similar underlying muscle physiology. J Exp Biol 2017; 221:jeb.166900. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.166900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2017] [Accepted: 11/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Many animals use elastic-recoil mechanisms to power extreme movements, achieving levels of performance that would not be possible using muscle power alone. Contractile performance of vertebrate muscle depends strongly on temperature, but the release of energy from elastic structures is far less thermally dependent, thus elastic recoil confers thermal robustness to whole-animal performance. Here we explore the role that muscle contractile properties play in the differences in performance and thermal robustness between elastic and non-elastic systems by examining muscle from two species of plethodontid salamanders that use elastically powered tongue projection to capture prey and one that uses non-elastic tongue projection. In species with elastic mechanisms, tongue projection is characterized by higher mechanical power output and thermal robustness compared with tongue projection of closely related genera with non-elastic mechanisms. In vitro and in situ muscle experiments reveal that species differ in their muscle contractile properties, but these patterns do not predict the performance differences between elastic and non-elastic tongue projection. Overall, salamander tongue muscles are similar to other vertebrate muscles in contractile performance and thermal sensitivity. We conclude that changes in the tongue-projection mechanism, specifically the elaboration of elastic structures, are responsible for high performance and thermal robustness in species with elastic tongue projection. This suggests that the evolution of high-performance and thermally robust elastic-recoil mechanisms can occur via relatively simple changes to morphology, while muscle contractile properties remain relatively unchanged.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey P. Olberding
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of South Florida, 4202 East Fowler Ave., Science Center 110, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Jeffrey A. Scales
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of South Florida, 4202 East Fowler Ave., Science Center 110, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Stephen M. Deban
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of South Florida, 4202 East Fowler Ave., Science Center 110, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
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23
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Sakes A, van der Wiel M, Henselmans PWJ, van Leeuwen JL, Dodou D, Breedveld P. Shooting Mechanisms in Nature: A Systematic Review. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0158277. [PMID: 27454125 PMCID: PMC4959704 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0158277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2015] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In nature, shooting mechanisms are used for a variety of purposes, including prey capture, defense, and reproduction. This review offers insight into the working principles of shooting mechanisms in fungi, plants, and animals in the light of the specific functional demands that these mechanisms fulfill. METHODS We systematically searched the literature using Scopus and Web of Knowledge to retrieve articles about solid projectiles that either are produced in the body of the organism or belong to the body and undergo a ballistic phase. The shooting mechanisms were categorized based on the energy management prior to and during shooting. RESULTS Shooting mechanisms were identified with projectile masses ranging from 1·10-9 mg in spores of the fungal phyla Ascomycota and Zygomycota to approximately 10,300 mg for the ballistic tongue of the toad Bufo alvarius. The energy for shooting is generated through osmosis in fungi, plants, and animals or muscle contraction in animals. Osmosis can be induced by water condensation on the system (in fungi), or water absorption in the system (reaching critical pressures up to 15.4 atmospheres; observed in fungi, plants, and animals), or water evaporation from the system (reaching up to -197 atmospheres; observed in plants and fungi). The generated energy is stored as elastic (potential) energy in cell walls in fungi and plants and in elastic structures in animals, with two exceptions: (1) in the momentum catapult of Basidiomycota the energy is stored in a stalk (hilum) by compression of the spore and droplets and (2) in Sphagnum energy is mainly stored in compressed air. Finally, the stored energy is transformed into kinetic energy of the projectile using a catapult mechanism delivering up to 4,137 J/kg in the osmotic shooting mechanism in cnidarians and 1,269 J/kg in the muscle-powered appendage strike of the mantis shrimp Odontodactylus scyllarus. The launch accelerations range from 6.6g in the frog Rana pipiens to 5,413,000g in cnidarians, the launch velocities from 0.1 m/s in the fungal phylum Basidiomycota to 237 m/s in the mulberry Morus alba, and the launch distances from a few thousands of a millimeter in Basidiomycota to 60 m in the rainforest tree Tetraberlinia moreliana. The mass-specific power outputs range from 0.28 W/kg in the water evaporation mechanism in Basidiomycota to 1.97·109 W/kg in cnidarians using water absorption as energy source. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The magnitude of accelerations involved in shooting is generally scale-dependent with the smaller the systems, discharging the microscale projectiles, generating the highest accelerations. The mass-specific power output is also scale dependent, with smaller mechanisms being able to release the energy for shooting faster than larger mechanisms, whereas the mass-specific work delivered by the shooting mechanism is mostly independent of the scale of the shooting mechanism. Higher mass-specific work-values are observed in osmosis-powered shooting mechanisms (≤ 4,137 J/kg) when compared to muscle-powered mechanisms (≤ 1,269 J/kg). The achieved launch parameters acceleration, velocity, and distance, as well as the associated delivered power output and work, thus depend on the working principle and scale of the shooting mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aimée Sakes
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, the Netherlands
| | - Marleen van der Wiel
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, the Netherlands
| | - Paul W. J. Henselmans
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, the Netherlands
| | - Johan L. van Leeuwen
- Experimental Zoology Group, Wageningen Institute of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Dimitra Dodou
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, the Netherlands
| | - Paul Breedveld
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, the Netherlands
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24
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Moulton DE, Lessinnes T, O’Keeffe S, Dorfmann L, Goriely A. The elastic secrets of the chameleon tongue. Proc Math Phys Eng Sci 2016. [DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2016.0030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The ballistic projection of the chameleon tongue is an extreme example of quick energy release in the animal kingdom. It relies on a complicated physiological structure and an elaborate balance between tissue elasticity, collagen fibre anisotropy, active muscular contraction, stress release and geometry. A general biophysical model for the dynamics of the chameleon tongue based on large deformation elasticity is proposed. The model involves three distinct coupled subsystems: the energetics of the intralingual sheaths, the mechanics of the activating accelerator muscle and the dynamics of tongue extension. Together, these three systems elucidate the key physical principles of prey-catching among chameleonides.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Luis Dorfmann
- School of Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, MA, USA
| | - Alain Goriely
- Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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