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Branković M, Zivic F, Grujovic N, Stojadinovic I, Milenkovic S, Kotorcevic N. Review of Spider Silk Applications in Biomedical and Tissue Engineering. Biomimetics (Basel) 2024; 9:169. [PMID: 38534854 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics9030169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Revised: 03/01/2024] [Accepted: 03/04/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024] Open
Abstract
This review will present the latest research related to the production and application of spider silk and silk-based materials in reconstructive and regenerative medicine and tissue engineering, with a focus on musculoskeletal tissues, and including skin regeneration and tissue repair of bone and cartilage, ligaments, muscle tissue, peripheral nerves, and artificial blood vessels. Natural spider silk synthesis is reviewed, and the further recombinant production of spider silk proteins. Research insights into possible spider silk structures, like fibers (1D), coatings (2D), and 3D constructs, including porous structures, hydrogels, and organ-on-chip designs, have been reviewed considering a design of bioactive materials for smart medical implants and drug delivery systems. Silk is one of the toughest natural materials, with high strain at failure and mechanical strength. Novel biomaterials with silk fibroin can mimic the tissue structure and promote regeneration and new tissue growth. Silk proteins are important in designing tissue-on-chip or organ-on-chip technologies and micro devices for the precise engineering of artificial tissues and organs, disease modeling, and the further selection of adequate medical treatments. Recent research indicates that silk (films, hydrogels, capsules, or liposomes coated with silk proteins) has the potential to provide controlled drug release at the target destination. However, even with clear advantages, there are still challenges that need further research, including clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marija Branković
- Institute for Information Technologies, University of Kragujevac, Jovana Cvijića bb, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia
- Faculty of Engineering, University of Kragujevac, Liceja Knezevine Srbije 1A, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia
| | - Fatima Zivic
- Faculty of Engineering, University of Kragujevac, Liceja Knezevine Srbije 1A, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia
| | - Nenad Grujovic
- Faculty of Engineering, University of Kragujevac, Liceja Knezevine Srbije 1A, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia
| | - Ivan Stojadinovic
- Clinic for Orthopaedics and Traumatology, University Clinical Center, Zmaj Jovina 30, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia
- Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Kragujevac, Svetozara Markovića 69, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia
| | - Strahinja Milenkovic
- Faculty of Engineering, University of Kragujevac, Liceja Knezevine Srbije 1A, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia
| | - Nikola Kotorcevic
- Faculty of Engineering, University of Kragujevac, Liceja Knezevine Srbije 1A, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia
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Hopfe C, Ospina-Jara B, Schulze T, Tischer M, Morales D, Reinhartz V, Esfahani RE, Valderrama C, Pérez-Rigueiro J, Bleidorn C, Feldhaar H, Cabra-García J, Scheibel T. Impact of environmental factors on spider silk properties. Curr Biol 2024; 34:56-67.e5. [PMID: 38118450 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.11.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2023] [Revised: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 11/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/22/2023]
Abstract
Spider orb webs have evolved to stop flying prey, fast and slow alike. One of the main web elements dissipating impact energy is the radial fibers, or major ampullate silks, which possess a toughness surpassing most man-made materials. Orb webs are extended phenotypes, and as such their architectural elements, including major ampullate silks, have been selected to optimize prey capture under the respective environmental conditions. In this study, we investigated the correlation of three landscape scales and three microhabitat characteristics with intrinsic silk properties (elastic modulus, yield stress, tensile strength, extensibility, and toughness) to understand underlying ecological patterns. For this purpose, we collected and mechanically tested major ampullate silks from 50 spider species inhabiting large altitudinal and climatic gradients in Colombia. Using regression analysis and model selection, we investigated the environmental drivers of inter- and intra-specific patterns of major ampullate silk properties, taking into account phylogenetic relatedness based on newly sequenced mitochondrial genomes. We found that the total amount of energy absorbed, i.e., toughness and tensile strength, is higher for fibers from species inhabiting regions where heavy rainfall is common. Interestingly, we observe the same general trend between individuals of the same species, stressing the importance of this environmental driver. We also observe a phylogenetic conservation in the relation of environmental variables with silk tensile strength and yield stress. In conclusion, the increase in major ampullate silk tensile strength and toughness may reflect an adaptation to prevent frequent rain damage to orb webs and the associated energetic loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Hopfe
- Department of Biomaterials, Universität Bayreuth, Prof.-Rüdiger-Bormann-Str. 1, Bayreuth 95447, Germany.
| | - Bryan Ospina-Jara
- Department of Biology, Universidad del Valle, Cl. 13 #100-00, Cali 760042, Colombia
| | - Thilo Schulze
- Department of Animal Evolution and Biodiversity, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Untere Karspüle 2, Göttingen 37073, Germany
| | - Marta Tischer
- Department of Animal Evolution and Biodiversity, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Untere Karspüle 2, Göttingen 37073, Germany
| | - Diego Morales
- Department of Biology, Universidad del Valle, Cl. 13 #100-00, Cali 760042, Colombia
| | - Vivien Reinhartz
- Department of Biomaterials, Universität Bayreuth, Prof.-Rüdiger-Bormann-Str. 1, Bayreuth 95447, Germany
| | - Rashin Eshghi Esfahani
- Department of Biomaterials, Universität Bayreuth, Prof.-Rüdiger-Bormann-Str. 1, Bayreuth 95447, Germany
| | - Carlos Valderrama
- Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad del Rosario, Cl. 12c #6-25, Bogotá 111711, Colombia
| | - José Pérez-Rigueiro
- Center for Biomedical Technology, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Crta. M40, Madrid 28223, Spain; Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, C/Prof. Aranguren 3, Madrid 28040, Spain; Biomedical Research Networking Center in Bioengineering Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Madrid 28029, Spain; Biomaterials and Regenerative Medicine Group, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Clínico San Carlos (IdISSC), C/ Prof. Martín Lagos s/n, Madrid 28040, Spain
| | - Christoph Bleidorn
- Department of Animal Evolution and Biodiversity, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Untere Karspüle 2, Göttingen 37073, Germany
| | - Heike Feldhaar
- Department of Animal Ecology I, Bayreuth Center of Ecology and Environmental Research (BayCEER), Universität Bayreuth, Universitätsstraße 30, Bayreuth 95440, Germany
| | - Jimmy Cabra-García
- Department of Biology, Universidad del Valle, Cl. 13 #100-00, Cali 760042, Colombia
| | - Thomas Scheibel
- Department of Biomaterials, Universität Bayreuth, Prof.-Rüdiger-Bormann-Str. 1, Bayreuth 95447, Germany; Bayreuther Zentrum für Kolloide und Grenzflächen, Universität Bayreuth, Universitätsstraße 30, Bayreuth 95440, Germany; Bayreuther Materialzentrum, Universität Bayreuth, Universitätsstraße 30, Bayreuth 95440, Germany; Bayreuther Zentrum für Molekulare Biowissenschaften, Universität Bayreuth, Universitätsstraße 30, Bayreuth 95440, Germany; Bayrisches Polymerinstitut, Universität Bayreuth, Universitätsstraße 30, Bayreuth 95440, Germany.
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3
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Greco G, Schmuck B, Jalali SK, Pugno NM, Rising A. Influence of experimental methods on the mechanical properties of silk fibers: A systematic literature review and future road map. BIOPHYSICS REVIEWS 2023; 4:031301. [PMID: 38510706 PMCID: PMC10903380 DOI: 10.1063/5.0155552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
Spider silk fibers are of scientific and industrial interest because of their extraordinary mechanical properties. These properties are normally determined by tensile tests, but the values obtained are dependent on the morphology of the fibers, the test conditions, and the methods by which stress and strain are calculated. Because of this, results from many studies are not directly comparable, which has led to widespread misconceptions in the field. Here, we critically review most of the reports from the past 50 years on spider silk mechanical performance and use artificial spider silk and native silks as models to highlight the effect that different experimental setups have on the fibers' mechanical properties. The results clearly illustrate the importance of carefully evaluating the tensile test methods when comparing the results from different studies. Finally, we suggest a protocol for how to perform tensile tests on silk and biobased fibers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - S. K. Jalali
- Laboratory for Bioinspired, Bionic, Nano, Meta, Materials & Mechanics, Department of Civil, Environmental and Mechanical Engineering, University of Trento, Via Mesiano, 77, 38123 Trento, Italy
| | | | - Anna Rising
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed: and
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Jiang P, Wu L, Hu M, Tang S, Qiu Z, Lv T, Elices M, Guinea GV, Pérez-Rigueiro J. Variation in the Elastic Modulus and Increased Energy Dissipation Induced by Cyclic Straining of Argiope bruennichi Major Ampullate Gland Silk. Biomimetics (Basel) 2023; 8:biomimetics8020164. [PMID: 37092416 PMCID: PMC10123757 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics8020164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Revised: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/15/2023] [Indexed: 04/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The trends exhibited by the parameters that describe the mechanical behaviour of major ampullate gland silk fibers spun by Argiope bruennichi spiders is explored by performing a series of loading-unloading tests at increasing values of strain, and by the subsequent analysis of the true stress-true strain curves obtained from these cycles. The elastic modulus, yields stress, energy absorbed, and energy dissipated in each cycle are computed in order to evaluate the evolution of these mechanical parameters with this cyclic straining. The elastic modulus is observed to increase steadily under these loading conditions, while only a moderate variation is found in the yield stress. It is also observed that a significant proportion of the energy initially absorbed in each cycle is not only dissipated, but that the material may recover partially from the associated irreversible deformation. This variation in the mechanical performance of spider silk is accounted for through a combination of irreversible and reversible deformation micromechanisms in which the viscoelasticity of the material plays a leading role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Jiang
- Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, Institute of Eco-Environment and Resources, College of Life Sciences, Jinggangshan University, Ji'an 343009, China
| | - Lihua Wu
- Institute of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Menglei Hu
- Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, Institute of Eco-Environment and Resources, College of Life Sciences, Jinggangshan University, Ji'an 343009, China
| | - Sisi Tang
- Institute of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Zhimin Qiu
- Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, Institute of Eco-Environment and Resources, College of Life Sciences, Jinggangshan University, Ji'an 343009, China
| | - Taiyong Lv
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Affiliated Hospital in Southwest Medical University, Sichuan Key Laboratory of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Luzhou 646000, China
| | - Manuel Elices
- Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Gustavo V Guinea
- Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
- Biomedical Research Networking Center in Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Biomaterials and Regenerative Medicine Group, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Clínico San Carlos (IdISSC), C/Prof. Martín Lagos s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
- Center for Biomedical Technology (CTB), Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Pozuelo de Alarcón, 28223 Madrid, Spain
| | - José Pérez-Rigueiro
- Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
- Biomedical Research Networking Center in Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Biomaterials and Regenerative Medicine Group, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Clínico San Carlos (IdISSC), C/Prof. Martín Lagos s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
- Center for Biomedical Technology (CTB), Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Pozuelo de Alarcón, 28223 Madrid, Spain
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5
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Blamires S, Lozano-Picazo P, Bruno AL, Arnedo M, Ruiz-León Y, González-Nieto D, Rojo FJ, Elices M, Guinea GV, Pérez-Rigueiro J. The Spider Silk Standardization Initiative (S3I): A powerful tool to harness biological variability and to systematize the characterization of major ampullate silk fibers spun by spiders from suburban Sydney, Australia. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2023; 140:105729. [PMID: 36801780 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2023.105729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Revised: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/11/2023] [Indexed: 02/15/2023]
Abstract
The true stress-true strain curves of 11 Australian spider species from the Entelegynae lineage were tensile tested and classified based on the values of the alignment parameter, α*, in the framework of the Spider Silk Standardization Initiative (S3I). The application of the S3I methodology allowed the determination of the alignment parameter in all cases, and were found to range between α* = 0.03 and α* = 0.65. These data, in combination with previous results on other species included in the Initiative, were exploited to illustrate the potential of this approach by testing two simple hypotheses on the distribution of the alignment parameter throughout the lineage: (1) whether a uniform distribution may be compatible with the values obtained from the studied species, and (2) whether any trend may be established between the distribution of the α* parameter and phylogeny. In this regard, the lowest values of the α* parameter are found in some representatives of the Araneidae group, and larger values seem to be found as the evolutionary distance from this group increases. However, a significant number of outliers to this apparent general trend in terms of the values of the α* parameter are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean Blamires
- Evolution and Ecology Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia; NMR Facility, Mark Wainwright Analytical Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia; School of Mechanical and Mechatronic Engineering, University of Technology, Sydney, NSW, 2007, Australia
| | - Paloma Lozano-Picazo
- Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28223, Pozuelo de Alarcón, Madrid, Spain; Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Augusto Luis Bruno
- Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28223, Pozuelo de Alarcón, Madrid, Spain; Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Miquel Arnedo
- Department de Biologia Evolutiva, Ecologia i Ciencies Ambientals, and Biodiversity Research Institute (IRBio), Universitat de Barcelona, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Yolanda Ruiz-León
- Research Support Unit, Real Jardín Botánico, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), 28014, Madrid, Spain
| | - Daniel González-Nieto
- Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28223, Pozuelo de Alarcón, Madrid, Spain; Departamento de Tecnología Fotónica y Bioingeniería, ETSI Telecomunicaciones, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Spain
| | - Francisco Javier Rojo
- Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28223, Pozuelo de Alarcón, Madrid, Spain; Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain; Grupo de Biomateriales y Medicina Regenerativa, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Clínico San Carlos (IdISSC), Calle Prof. Martín Lagos s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Manuel Elices
- Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Gustavo Víctor Guinea
- Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28223, Pozuelo de Alarcón, Madrid, Spain; Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Spain; Grupo de Biomateriales y Medicina Regenerativa, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Clínico San Carlos (IdISSC), Calle Prof. Martín Lagos s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - José Pérez-Rigueiro
- Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28223, Pozuelo de Alarcón, Madrid, Spain; Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Spain; Grupo de Biomateriales y Medicina Regenerativa, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Clínico San Carlos (IdISSC), Calle Prof. Martín Lagos s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain.
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6
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Peng Z, Hu W, Li X, Zhao P, Xia Q. Bending–Spinning Produces Silkworm and Spider Silk with Enhanced Mechanical Properties. Macromolecules 2023. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.2c00868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhangchuan Peng
- Biological Science Research Center Southwest University, Chongqing400716, China
| | - Wenbo Hu
- Biological Science Research Center Southwest University, Chongqing400716, China
| | - Xinning Li
- Biological Science Research Center Southwest University, Chongqing400716, China
| | - Ping Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology Southwest University, Chongqing400716, China
- Biological Science Research Center Southwest University, Chongqing400716, China
| | - Qingyou Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology Southwest University, Chongqing400716, China
- Biological Science Research Center Southwest University, Chongqing400716, China
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Arguelles J, Baker RH, Perez-Rigueiro J, Guinea GV, Elices M, Hayashi CY. Relating spidroin motif prevalence and periodicity to the mechanical properties of major ampullate spider silks. J Comp Physiol B 2023; 193:25-36. [PMID: 36342510 PMCID: PMC9852138 DOI: 10.1007/s00360-022-01464-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2022] [Revised: 09/28/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Spider dragline fibers exhibit incredible mechanical properties, outperforming many synthetic polymers in toughness assays, and possess desirable properties for medical and other human applications. These qualities make dragline fibers popular subjects for biomimetics research. The enormous diversity of spiders presents both an opportunity for the development of new bioinspired materials and a challenge for the identification of fundamental design principles, as the mechanical properties of dragline fibers show both intraspecific and interspecific variations. In this regard, the stress-strain curves of draglines from different species have been shown to be effectively compared by the α* parameter, a value derived from maximum-supercontracted silk fibers. To identify potential molecular mechanisms impacting α* values, here we analyze spider fibroin (spidroin) sequences of the Western black widow (Latrodectus hesperus) and the black and yellow garden spider (Argiope aurantia). This study serves as a primer for investigating the molecular properties of spidroins that underlie species-specific α* values. Initial findings are that while overall motif composition was similar between species, certain motifs and higher level periodicities of glycine-rich region lengths showed variation, notably greater distances between poly-A motifs in A. aurantia sequences. In addition to increased period lengths, A. aurantia spidroins tended to have an increased prevalence of charged and hydrophobic residues. These increases may impact the number and strength of hydrogen bond networks within fibers, which have been implicated in conformational changes and formation of nanocrystals, contributing to the greater extensibility of A. aurantia draglines compared to those of L. hesperus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Arguelles
- Division of Invertebrate Zoology and Institute for Comparative Genomics, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY 10024 USA
| | - Richard H. Baker
- Division of Invertebrate Zoology and Institute for Comparative Genomics, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY 10024 USA
| | - Jose Perez-Rigueiro
- Center for Biomedical Engineering (CTB), Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Pozuelo de Alarcón, 28223 Madrid, Spain ,Centro de Investigatión Biomédica en Red de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain ,Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Peurtos, 28040 Madrid, Spain ,Biomaterials and Regenerative Medicine Group, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Clínico San Carlos (IdISSC), Calle Prof. Martín Lagos s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Gustavo V. Guinea
- Center for Biomedical Engineering (CTB), Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Pozuelo de Alarcón, 28223 Madrid, Spain ,Centro de Investigatión Biomédica en Red de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain ,Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Peurtos, 28040 Madrid, Spain ,Biomaterials and Regenerative Medicine Group, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Clínico San Carlos (IdISSC), Calle Prof. Martín Lagos s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - M. Elices
- Centro de Investigatión Biomédica en Red de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Cheryl Y. Hayashi
- Division of Invertebrate Zoology and Institute for Comparative Genomics, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY 10024 USA
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Rapid molecular diversification and homogenization of clustered major ampullate silk genes in Argiope garden spiders. PLoS Genet 2022; 18:e1010537. [PMID: 36508456 PMCID: PMC9779670 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1010537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2022] [Revised: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The evolutionary diversification of orb-web weaving spiders is closely tied to the mechanical performance of dragline silk. This proteinaceous fiber provides the primary structural framework of orb web architecture, and its extraordinary toughness allows these structures to absorb the high energy of aerial prey impact. The dominant model of dragline silk molecular structure involves the combined function of two highly repetitive, spider-specific, silk genes (spidroins)-MaSp1 and MaSp2. Recent genomic studies, however, have suggested this framework is overly simplistic, and our understanding of how MaSp genes evolve is limited. Here we present a comprehensive analysis of MaSp structural and evolutionary diversity across species of Argiope (garden spiders). This genomic analysis reveals the largest catalog of MaSp genes found in any spider, driven largely by an expansion of MaSp2 genes. The rapid diversification of Argiope MaSp genes, located primarily in a single genomic cluster, is associated with profound changes in silk gene structure. MaSp2 genes, in particular, have evolved complex hierarchically organized repeat units (ensemble repeats) delineated by novel introns that exhibit remarkable evolutionary dynamics. These repetitive introns have arisen independently within the genus, are highly homogenized within a gene, but diverge rapidly between genes. In some cases, these iterated introns are organized in an alternating structure in which every other intron is nearly identical in sequence. We hypothesize that this intron structure has evolved to facilitate homogenization of the coding sequence. We also find evidence of intergenic gene conversion and identify a more diverse array of stereotypical amino acid repeats than previously recognized. Overall, the extreme diversification found among MaSp genes requires changes in the structure-function model of dragline silk performance that focuses on the differential use and interaction among various MaSp paralogs as well as the impact of ensemble repeat structure and different amino acid motifs on mechanical behavior.
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Differences in the Elastomeric Behavior of Polyglycine-Rich Regions of Spidroin 1 and 2 Proteins. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14235263. [PMID: 36501657 PMCID: PMC9738160 DOI: 10.3390/polym14235263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Revised: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Two different polyglycine-rich fragments were selected as representatives of major ampullate gland spidroins (MaSp) 1 and 2 types, and their behavior in a water-saturated environment was simulated within the framework of molecular dynamics (MD). The selected fragments are found in the sequences of the proteins MaSp1a and MaSp2.2a of Argiope aurantia with respective lengths of 36 amino acids (MaSp1a) and 50 amino acids (MaSp2.2s). The simulation took the fully extended β-pleated conformation as reference, and MD was used to determine the equilibrium configuration in the absence of external forces. Subsequently, MD were employed to calculate the variation in the distance between the ends of the fragments when subjected to an increasing force. Both fragments show an elastomeric behavior that can be modeled as a freely jointed chain with links of comparable length, and a larger number of links in the spidroin 2 fragment. It is found, however, that the maximum recovery force recorded from the spidroin 2 peptide (Fmax ≈ 400 pN) is found to be significantly larger than that of the spidroin 1 (Fmax ≈ 250 pN). The increase in the recovery force of the spidroin 2 polyglycine-rich fragment may be correlated with the larger values observed in the strain at breaking of major ampullate silk fibers spun by Araneoidea species, which contain spidroin 2 proteins, compared to the material produced by spider species that lack these spidroins (RTA-clade).
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10
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Arakawa K, Kono N, Malay AD, Tateishi A, Ifuku N, Masunaga H, Sato R, Tsuchiya K, Ohtoshi R, Pedrazzoli D, Shinohara A, Ito Y, Nakamura H, Tanikawa A, Suzuki Y, Ichikawa T, Fujita S, Fujiwara M, Tomita M, Blamires SJ, Chuah JA, Craig H, Foong CP, Greco G, Guan J, Holland C, Kaplan DL, Sudesh K, Mandal BB, Norma-Rashid Y, Oktaviani NA, Preda RC, Pugno NM, Rajkhowa R, Wang X, Yazawa K, Zheng Z, Numata K. 1000 spider silkomes: Linking sequences to silk physical properties. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2022; 8:eabo6043. [PMID: 36223455 PMCID: PMC9555773 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abo6043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Spider silks are among the toughest known materials and thus provide models for renewable, biodegradable, and sustainable biopolymers. However, the entirety of their diversity still remains elusive, and silks that exceed the performance limits of industrial fibers are constantly being found. We obtained transcriptome assemblies from 1098 species of spiders to comprehensively catalog silk gene sequences and measured the mechanical, thermal, structural, and hydration properties of the dragline silks of 446 species. The combination of these silk protein genotype-phenotype data revealed essential contributions of multicomponent structures with major ampullate spidroin 1 to 3 paralogs in high-performance dragline silks and numerous amino acid motifs contributing to each of the measured properties. We hope that our global sampling, comprehensive testing, integrated analysis, and open data will provide a solid starting point for future biomaterial designs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuharu Arakawa
- Institute for Advanced Biosciences, Keio University, Tsuruoka, Yamagata 997-0017, Japan
- Faculty of Environment and Information Studies, Keio University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-8520, Japan
- Graduate School of Media and Governance, Keio University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-8520, Japan
- Exploratory Research Center on Life and Living Systems (ExCELLS), National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Okazaki, Aichi 444-8787, Japan
| | - Nobuaki Kono
- Institute for Advanced Biosciences, Keio University, Tsuruoka, Yamagata 997-0017, Japan
- Graduate School of Media and Governance, Keio University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-8520, Japan
| | - Ali D. Malay
- Biomacromolecules Research Team, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Ayaka Tateishi
- Biomacromolecules Research Team, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
- Department of Material Chemistry, Kyoto University, Nishikyo, Kyoto 615-8510, Japan
| | - Nao Ifuku
- Biomacromolecules Research Team, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Hiroyasu Masunaga
- Japan Synchrotron Radiation Research Institute, Sayo-gun, Hyogo 679-5198, Japan
| | - Ryota Sato
- Biomacromolecules Research Team, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
- Spiber Inc., Tsuruoka, Yamagata 997-0052, Japan
| | - Kousuke Tsuchiya
- Biomacromolecules Research Team, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
- Department of Material Chemistry, Kyoto University, Nishikyo, Kyoto 615-8510, Japan
| | - Rintaro Ohtoshi
- Biomacromolecules Research Team, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
- Spiber Inc., Tsuruoka, Yamagata 997-0052, Japan
| | | | | | - Yusuke Ito
- Spiber Inc., Tsuruoka, Yamagata 997-0052, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Nakamura
- Biomacromolecules Research Team, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
- Spiber Inc., Tsuruoka, Yamagata 997-0052, Japan
| | - Akio Tanikawa
- Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Tokyo, Yayoi, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Yuya Suzuki
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8572, Japan
- The United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Kagoshima University, Korimoto, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan
| | - Takeaki Ichikawa
- Kokugakuin Kugayama High School, Suginami, Tokyo 168-0082, Japan
| | - Shohei Fujita
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Saga University, Saga 840-8502, Japan
| | - Masayuki Fujiwara
- Institute for Advanced Biosciences, Keio University, Tsuruoka, Yamagata 997-0017, Japan
| | - Masaru Tomita
- Institute for Advanced Biosciences, Keio University, Tsuruoka, Yamagata 997-0017, Japan
- Faculty of Environment and Information Studies, Keio University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-8520, Japan
- Graduate School of Media and Governance, Keio University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-8520, Japan
| | - Sean J. Blamires
- Evolution and Ecology Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Jo-Ann Chuah
- Biomacromolecules Research Team, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Hamish Craig
- Biomacromolecules Research Team, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
- Evolution and Ecology Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Choon P. Foong
- Biomacromolecules Research Team, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
- Department of Material Chemistry, Kyoto University, Nishikyo, Kyoto 615-8510, Japan
| | - Gabriele Greco
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Mechanical Engineering, University of Trento, Via Mesiano 77, I-38123 Trento, Italy
| | - Juan Guan
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Chris Holland
- Natural Materials Group, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Mappin Street, Sheffield S1 3JD, UK
| | - David L. Kaplan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02155, USA
| | - Kumar Sudesh
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia
| | - Biman B. Mandal
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati (IITG), Guwahati, 781 039 Assam, India
- Center for Nanotechnology, IITG, Guwahati, 781 039 Assam, India
- School of Health Sciences and Technology, IITG, Guwahati, 781 039 Assam, India
| | - Y. Norma-Rashid
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Nur A. Oktaviani
- Biomacromolecules Research Team, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Rucsanda C. Preda
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02155, USA
| | - Nicola M. Pugno
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Mechanical Engineering, University of Trento, Via Mesiano 77, I-38123 Trento, Italy
- School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, E1 4NS London, UK
| | - Rangam Rajkhowa
- Institute for Frontier Materials, Deakin University, Waurn Ponds, VIC 3216, Australia
| | - Xiaoqin Wang
- College of Textile and Clothing Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Kenjiro Yazawa
- Biomacromolecules Research Team, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Zhaozhu Zheng
- College of Textile and Clothing Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Keiji Numata
- Biomacromolecules Research Team, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
- Department of Material Chemistry, Kyoto University, Nishikyo, Kyoto 615-8510, Japan
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11
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Jorge I, Ruiz V, Lavado-García J, Vázquez J, Hayashi C, Rojo FJ, Atienza JM, Elices M, Guinea GV, Pérez-Rigueiro J. Expression of spidroin proteins in the silk glands of golden orb-weaver spiders. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY. PART B, MOLECULAR AND DEVELOPMENTAL EVOLUTION 2022; 338:241-253. [PMID: 34981640 DOI: 10.1002/jez.b.23117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Revised: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The expression of spidroins in the major ampullate, minor ampullate, flagelliform, and tubuliform silk glands of Trichonephila clavipes spiders was analyzed using proteomics analysis techniques. Spidroin peptides were identified and assigned to different gene products based on sequence concurrence when compared with the whole genome of the spider. It was found that only a relatively low proportion of the spidroin genes are expressed as proteins in any of the studied glands. In addition, the expression of spidroin genes in different glands presents a wide range of patterns, with some spidroins being found in a single gland exclusively, while others appear in the content of several glands. The combination of precise genomics, proteomics, microstructural, and mechanical data provides new insights both on the design principles of these materials and how these principles might be translated for the production of high-performance bioinspired artificial fibers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inmaculada Jorge
- Cardiovascular Proteomics Laboratory, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares (CNIC), Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Cardiovasculares (CIBERCV), Madrid, Spain
| | - Víctor Ruiz
- Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jesús Lavado-García
- Cardiovascular Proteomics Laboratory, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares (CNIC), Madrid, Spain
- Departament d'Enginyeria Química, Grup d'Enginyeria Cel·lular i de Bioprocessos (GECIB), Biològica i Ambiental, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jesús Vázquez
- Cardiovascular Proteomics Laboratory, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares (CNIC), Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Cardiovasculares (CIBERCV), Madrid, Spain
| | - Cheryl Hayashi
- Division of Invertebrate Zoology, Sackler Institute for Comparative Genomics, American Museum of Natural History, New York, USA
| | - Francisco J Rojo
- Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - José M Atienza
- Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Manuel Elices
- Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Biomedical Research Networking Center in Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Madrid, Spain
| | - Gustavo V Guinea
- Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Biomedical Research Networking Center in Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Madrid, Spain
| | - José Pérez-Rigueiro
- Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Biomedical Research Networking Center in Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Madrid, Spain
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12
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Artificial and natural silk materials have high mechanical property variability regardless of sample size. Sci Rep 2022; 12:3507. [PMID: 35241705 PMCID: PMC8894418 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-07212-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Silk fibres attract great interest in materials science for their biological and mechanical properties. Hitherto, the mechanical properties of the silk fibres have been explored mainly by tensile tests, which provide information on their strength, Young’s modulus, strain at break and toughness modulus. Several hypotheses have been based on these data, but the intrinsic and often overlooked variability of natural and artificial silk fibres makes it challenging to identify trends and correlations. In this work, we determined the mechanical properties of Bombyx mori cocoon and degummed silk, native spider silk, and artificial spider silk, and compared them with classical commercial carbon fibres using large sample sizes (from 10 to 100 fibres, in total 200 specimens per fibre type). The results confirm a substantial variability of the mechanical properties of silk fibres compared to commercial carbon fibres, as the relative standard deviation for strength and strain at break is 10–50%. Moreover, the variability does not decrease significantly when the number of tested fibres is increased, which was surprising considering the low variability frequently reported for silk fibres in the literature. Based on this, we prove that tensile testing of 10 fibres per type is representative of a silk fibre population. Finally, we show that the ideal shape of the stress–strain curve for spider silk, characterized by a pronounced exponential stiffening regime, occurs in only 25% of all tested spider silk fibres.
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13
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Pérez-Rigueiro J, Elices M, Plaza GR, Guinea GV. Basic Principles in the Design of Spider Silk Fibers. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26061794. [PMID: 33806736 PMCID: PMC8004941 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26061794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Revised: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The prominence of spider silk as a hallmark in biomimetics relies not only on its unrivalled mechanical properties, but also on how these properties are the result of a set of original design principles. In this sense, the study of spider silk summarizes most of the main topics relevant to the field and, consequently, offers a nice example on how these topics could be considered in other biomimetic systems. This review is intended to present a selection of some of the essential design principles that underlie the singular microstructure of major ampullate gland silk, as well as to show how the interplay between them leads to the outstanding tensile behavior of spider silk. Following this rationale, the mechanical behavior of the material is analyzed in detail and connected with its main microstructural features, specifically with those derived from the semicrystalline organization of the fibers. Establishing the relationship between mechanical properties and microstructure in spider silk not only offers a vivid image of the paths explored by nature in the search for high performance materials, but is also a valuable guide for the development of new artificial fibers inspired in their natural counterparts.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Pérez-Rigueiro
- Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28223 Madrid, Spain; (M.E.); (G.R.P.); (G.V.G.)
- Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
- Biomedical Research Networking Center in Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-9174304
| | - Manuel Elices
- Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28223 Madrid, Spain; (M.E.); (G.R.P.); (G.V.G.)
- Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Gustavo R. Plaza
- Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28223 Madrid, Spain; (M.E.); (G.R.P.); (G.V.G.)
- Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Gustavo V. Guinea
- Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28223 Madrid, Spain; (M.E.); (G.R.P.); (G.V.G.)
- Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
- Biomedical Research Networking Center in Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), 28029 Madrid, Spain
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14
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Cohen N, Levin M, Eisenbach CD. On the Origin of Supercontraction in Spider Silk. Biomacromolecules 2021; 22:993-1000. [PMID: 33481568 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.0c01747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Spider silk is a protein material that exhibits extraordinary and nontrivial properties such as the ability to soften and decrease its length by up to ∼60% upon exposure to high humidity. This process is commonly called supercontraction and is the result of a transition from a highly oriented glassy phase to a disoriented rubbery phase. In this work, we derive a microscopically motivated and energy-based model that captures the underlying mechanisms that give rise to supercontraction. We propose that the increase in relative humidity and the consequent wetting of a spider silk have two main consequences: (1) the dissociation of hydrogen bonds and (2) the swelling of the fiber. From a mechanical viewpoint, the first consequence leads to the formation of rubbery domains. This process is associated with an entropic gain and a loss of orientation of chains in the silk network, which motivates the contraction of the spider silk. The swelling of the fiber is accompanied by the extension of chains in order to accommodate the influx of water molecules. Supercontraction occurs when the first consequence is more dominant than the second. The model presented in this work allows us to qualitatively track the transition of the chains from glassy to rubbery states and determine the increase in entropy, the loss of orientation, and the swelling as the relative humidity increases. We also derive explicit expressions for the stiffness and the mechanical response of a spider silk under given relative humidity conditions. To illustrate the merit of this model, we show that the model is capable of capturing several experimental findings. The insights from this work can be used as a microstructural design guide to enable the development of new materials with unique spider-like properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noy Cohen
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 3200003, Israel
| | - Michal Levin
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 3200003, Israel
| | - Claus D Eisenbach
- Materials Research Laboratory, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States.,Institute for Polymer Chemistry, University of Stuttgart, D-70569 Stuttgart, Germany
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15
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Forcibly spun dragline silk fibers from web-building spider Trichonephila clavata ensure robustness irrespective of spinning speed and humidity. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 168:550-557. [PMID: 33333091 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.12.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Revised: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Web-building spiders secrete dragline silk fibers to sustain their body and use them as frameworks during web construction. They spin dragline silk fibers at various spinning speed and humidity conditions depending on their natural habitat. Here, we investigated the effect of spinning speed and humidity on the structural and mechanical properties of dragline silk fibers from web-building spider Trichonephila clavata obtained by the forcibly spinning method. We found that the crystal and morphological structures did not rely on the spinning speed and humidity. Furthermore, the mechanical strength and extensibility of the dragline silk fibers were maintained, demonstrating that dragline silk fibers ensure robustness irrespective of the spinning speed and humidity. The results obtained in the present study are helpful not only to understand the biological basis of the silk fiber formation of spiders but also contribute to consider the spinning conditions for the process of creating synthetic silk fibers.
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16
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Application of the Spider Silk Standardization Initiative (S 3I) methodology to the characterization of major ampullate gland silk fibers spun by spiders from Pantanos de Villa wetlands (Lima, Peru). J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2020; 111:104023. [PMID: 32818773 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2020.104023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2020] [Revised: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Spider silk is a natural material with unique properties and a great potential for engineering and biomedical applications. In spite of its simple composition and highly conserved and stereotypical production, spider silks show a wide range of variability in their mechanical properties which, for long, have defied their classification and standardization. Here we propose to launch the Spider Silk Standardization Initiative (S3I), a methodology based on the definition of the α* parameter, in an attempt to define a systematic procedure to classify the tensile properties exhibited by major ampullate gland silk (MAS) spun by Entelegynae spiders. The α* parameter is calculated from the comparison of the true stress-true strain curve of any MAS fiber after being subjected to maximum supercontraction, with the true stress-true strain curve of the species Argiope aurantia, which is set as a reference curve. This work presents the details of the S3I methodology and, as an example, shows its application to an assemblage of Entelegynae spiders from different families collected at the Pantanos de Villa wetlands (Lima, Peru). The systematic and objective classification of the tensile properties of MAS fibers allowed by the S3I will offer insights into key aspects of the biological evolution of the material, and address questions such as how history and adaptation contributed to shape those properties. In addition, it will surely have far reaching consequences in fields such as Materials Science, and Molecular and Evolutionary Biology, by organizing the range of tensile properties exhibited by spider silk fibers.
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17
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Fraternali F, Stehling N, Amendola A, Tiban Anrango BA, Holland C, Rodenburg C. Tensegrity Modelling and the High Toughness of Spider Dragline Silk. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 10:E1510. [PMID: 32752054 PMCID: PMC7466511 DOI: 10.3390/nano10081510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Revised: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
This work establishes a tensegrity model of spider dragline silk. Tensegrity systems are ubiquitous in nature, being able to capture the mechanics of biological shapes through simple and effective modes of deformation via extension and contraction. Guided by quantitative microstructural characterization via air plasma etching and low voltage scanning electron microscopy, we report that this model is able to capture experimentally observed phenomena such as the Poisson effect, tensile stress-strain response, and fibre toughness. This is achieved by accounting for spider silks' hierarchical organization into microfibrils with radially variable properties. Each fibril is described as a chain of polypeptide tensegrity units formed by crystalline granules operating under compression, which are connected to each other by amorphous links acting under tension. Our results demonstrate, for the first time, that a radial variability in the ductility of tensegrity chains is responsible for high fibre toughness, a defining and desirable feature of spider silk. Based on this model, a discussion about the use of graded tensegrity structures for the optimal design of next-generation biomimetic fibres is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Fraternali
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Salerno, 84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy
| | - Nicola Stehling
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, University of Sheffield, Sir Robert Hadfield Building, Mappin Street, Sheffield S1 3JD, UK
| | - Ada Amendola
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Salerno, 84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy
| | - Bryan Andres Tiban Anrango
- Centre for Biomedical and Chemical Science School of Science, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
| | - Chris Holland
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, University of Sheffield, Sir Robert Hadfield Building, Mappin Street, Sheffield S1 3JD, UK
| | - Cornelia Rodenburg
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, University of Sheffield, Sir Robert Hadfield Building, Mappin Street, Sheffield S1 3JD, UK
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18
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Zhu H, Rising A, Johansson J, Zhang X, Lin Y, Zhang L, Yi T, Mi J, Meng Q. Tensile properties of synthetic pyriform spider silk fibers depend on the number of repetitive units as well as the presence of N- and C-terminal domains. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 154:765-772. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.03.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2020] [Revised: 03/04/2020] [Accepted: 03/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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19
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Wang Z, Cang Y, Kremer F, Thomas EL, Fytas G. Determination of the Complete Elasticity of Nephila pilipes Spider Silk. Biomacromolecules 2020; 21:1179-1185. [PMID: 31935074 PMCID: PMC7307882 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.9b01607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Spider silks are
remarkable materials designed by nature to have
extraordinary elasticity. Their elasticity, however, remains poorly
understood, as typical stress–strain experiments only allow
access to the axial Young’s modulus. In this work, micro-Brillouin
light spectroscopy (micro-BLS), a noncontact, nondestructive technique,
is utilized to probe the direction-dependent phonon propagation in
the Nephila pilipes spider silk and
hence solve its full elasticity. To the best of our knowledge, this
is the first demonstration on the determination of the anisotropic
Young’s moduli, shear moduli, and Poisson’s ratios of
a single spider fiber. The axial and lateral Young’s moduli
are found to be 20.9 ± 0.8 and 9.2 ± 0.3 GPa, respectively,
and the anisotropy of the Young’s moduli further increases
upon stretching. In contrast, the shear moduli and Poisson’s
ratios exhibit very weak anisotropy and are robust to stretching.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuyuan Wang
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Yu Cang
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Friedrich Kremer
- Institute of Experimental Physics I, University of Leipzig, Linnéstr. 5, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Edwin L Thomas
- Department of Materials Science and Nano-Engineering, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77030, United States
| | - George Fytas
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, 55128 Mainz, Germany.,Institute of Electronic Structure and Laser, F.O.R.T.H, 70013 Heraklion, Greece
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20
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The Evolution of Dragline Initiation in Spiders: Multiple Transitions from Multi- to Single-Gland Usage. DIVERSITY-BASEL 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/d12010004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Despite the recognition of spider silk as a biological super-material and its dominant role in various aspects of a spider’s life, knowledge on silk use and silk properties is incomplete. This is a major impediment for the general understanding of spider ecology, spider silk evolution and biomaterial prospecting. In particular, the biological role of different types of silk glands is largely unexplored. Here, I report the results from a comparative study of spinneret usage during silk anchor and dragline spinning. I found that the use of both anterior lateral spinnerets (ALS) and posterior median spinnerets (PMS) is the plesiomorphic state of silk anchor and dragline spinning in the Araneomorphae, with transitions to ALS-only use in the Araneoidea and some smaller lineages scattered across the spider tree of life. Opposing the reduction to using a single spinneret pair, few taxa have switched to using all ALS, PMS and the posterior lateral spinnerets (PLS) for silk anchor and dragline formation. Silk fibres from the used spinnerets (major ampullate, minor ampullate and aciniform silk) were generally bundled in draglines after the completion of silk anchor spinning. Araneoid spiders were highly distinct from most other spiders in their draglines, being composed of major ampullate silk only. This indicates that major ampullate silk properties reported from comparative measurements of draglines should be handled with care. These observations call for a closer investigation of the function of different silk glands in spiders.
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Ruiz V, Jiang P, Müller C, Jorge I, Vázquez J, Ridruejo Á, Aznar-Cervantes SD, Cenis JL, Messeguer-Olmo L, Elices M, Guinea GV, Pérez-Rigueiro J. Preparation and characterization of Nephila clavipes tubuliform silk gut. SOFT MATTER 2019; 15:2960-2970. [PMID: 30901019 DOI: 10.1039/c9sm00212j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Tubuliform silk glands were dissected from Nephila clavipes spiders, and silk gut fibers were produced by immersing the glands in a mild acid solution and subsequent stretching. The tensile properties of the as produced fibers were obtained through tensile tests, and the stress-strain curves were compared with those of naturally spun tubuliform silk fibers. The influence on the mechanical properties of the fibers after immersion in water and drying was also discerned. The microstructure of the silk guts was obtained by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). It was found that the stress-strain curves of the stretched tubuliform silk guts concur with those of their natural counterparts (tubuliform silk fibers).
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Affiliation(s)
- Víctor Ruiz
- Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28223, Pozuelo de Alarcón, Madrid, Spain.
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22
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Pérez-Rigueiro J, Madurga R, Gañán-Calvo AM, Elices M, Guinea GV, Tasei Y, Nishimura A, Matsuda H, Asakura T. Emergence of supercontraction in regenerated silkworm (Bombyx mori) silk fibers. Sci Rep 2019; 9:2398. [PMID: 30787337 PMCID: PMC6382804 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-38712-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 12/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
The conditions required for the emergence of supercontraction in regenerated silkworm (Bombyx mori) silk fibers are assessed through an experimental approach that combines the spinning of regenerated fibers with controlled properties and their characterization by 13C solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). Both supercontracting and non-supercontracting regenerated fibers are produced using the straining flow spinning (SFS) technique from 13C labeled cocoons. The short-range microstructure of the fibers is assessed through 13C CP/MAS in air and 13C DD/MAS in water, and the main microstructural features are identified and quantified. The mechanical properties of the regenerated fibers and their microstructures are compared with those of natural silkworm silk. The combined analysis highlights two possible key elements as responsible for the emergence of supercontraction: (1) the existence of an upper and a lower limit of the amorphous phase compatible with supercontraction, and (2) the existence of two ordered phases, β-sheet A and B, which correspond to different packing arrangements of the protein chains.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Pérez-Rigueiro
- Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28223, Pozuelo de Alarcón, (Madrid), Spain. .,Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain. .,Biomedical Research Networking Center in Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Madrid, Spain.
| | - Rodrigo Madurga
- Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28223, Pozuelo de Alarcón, (Madrid), Spain.,Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Alfonso M Gañán-Calvo
- Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros, Universidad de Sevilla, 41092, Sevilla, Spain
| | - Manuel Elices
- Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28223, Pozuelo de Alarcón, (Madrid), Spain.,Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Gustavo V Guinea
- Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28223, Pozuelo de Alarcón, (Madrid), Spain.,Departamento de Ciencia de Materiales, ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain.,Biomedical Research Networking Center in Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Madrid, Spain
| | - Yugo Tasei
- Department of Biotechnology, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 2-24-16 Nakacho, Koganei, Tokyo, 184-8588, Japan
| | - Akio Nishimura
- Department of Biotechnology, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 2-24-16 Nakacho, Koganei, Tokyo, 184-8588, Japan
| | - Hironori Matsuda
- Department of Biotechnology, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 2-24-16 Nakacho, Koganei, Tokyo, 184-8588, Japan
| | - Tetsuo Asakura
- Department of Biotechnology, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 2-24-16 Nakacho, Koganei, Tokyo, 184-8588, Japan.
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Comparison of the effects of post-spinning drawing and wet stretching on regenerated silk fibers produced through straining flow spinning. POLYMER 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2018.07.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Dionne J, Lefèvre T, Bilodeau P, Lamarre M, Auger M. A quantitative analysis of the supercontraction-induced molecular disorientation of major ampullate spider silk. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2018; 19:31487-31498. [PMID: 29159351 DOI: 10.1039/c7cp05739c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Spider silks exhibit remarkable properties, among which the so-called supercontraction, a physical phenomenon by which fibers undergo a longitudinal shrinkage and a radial swelling when exposed to water. The process is marked by a significant decrease in chain orientation resulting from plasticisation of the amorphous phase. Despite several studies that determined the Hermans orientation function, more quantitative data are required to be able to describe theoretically the macroscopic water-induced shrinkage from molecular reorganization. Here, we have examined the supercontraction of the major ampullate silk single fibers of Nephila clavipes (Nc) and Araneus diadematus (Ad) using polarized Raman spectromicroscopy. We determined the order parameters, the orientation distribution and the secondary structure content. Our data suggest that supercontraction induces a slight increase in β-sheet content, consistently with previous works. The β-sheet orientation is slightly affected by supercontraction compared to that of the amorphous phase, which becomes almost isotropic with shrinkage. Despite an initially lower orientation level, the Ad fiber shows a larger orientation decrease than Nc, consistently with its higher shrinkage amplitude. Although they share similar trends, absolute values of the orientation parameters from this work differ from those found in the literature. We took advantage of having determined the distribution of orientation to estimate the amplitude of shrinkage from changes in macromolecular size resulting from molecular disorientation. Our calculations show that more realistic models are needed to correlate molecular reorientation/refolding to macroscopic shrinkage. This work also underlines that more accurate data relative to molecular orientation are necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Dionne
- Département de chimie, Regroupement québécois de Recherche sur la Fonction, l'Ingénierie et les Applications des Protéines (PROTEO), Centre de Recherche sur les Matériaux Avancés (CERMA), Centre Québécois sur les Matériaux Fonctionnels (CQMF), Université Laval, Pavillon Alexandre-Vachon, QC G1V 0A6, Canada.
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Mohammadi P, Toivonen MS, Ikkala O, Wagermaier W, Linder MB. Aligning cellulose nanofibril dispersions for tougher fibers. Sci Rep 2017; 7:11860. [PMID: 28928371 PMCID: PMC5605715 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-12107-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2017] [Accepted: 09/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Nanocomposite materials made from cellulose show a great potential as future high-performance and sustainable materials. We show how high aspect ratio cellulose nanofibrils can be efficiently aligned in extrusion to fibers, leading to increased modulus of toughness (area under the stress-strain curve), Young’s modulus, and yield strength by increasing the extrusion capillary length, decreasing its diameter, and increasing the flow rate. The materials showed significant property combinations, manifesting as high modulus of toughness (~28–31 MJ/m3) vs. high stiffness (~19–20 GPa), and vs. high yield strength (~130–150 MPa). Wide angle X-ray scattering confirmed that the enhanced mechanical properties directly correlated with increased alignment. The achieved moduli of toughness are approximately double or more when compared to values reported in the literature for corresponding strength and stiffness. Our results highlight a possibly general pathway that can be integrated to gel-spinning process, suggesting the hypothesis that that high stiffness, strength and toughness can be achieved simultaneously, if the alignment is induced while the CNF are in the free-flowing state during the extrusion step by shear at relatively low concentration and in pure water, after which they can be coagulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pezhman Mohammadi
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, School of Chemical Engineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16100, FI-16100, Espoo, Finland
| | - Matti S Toivonen
- Department of Applied Physics, School of Science, Aalto University, P.O. Box 15100, FI-00076, Espoo, Finland
| | - Olli Ikkala
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, School of Chemical Engineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16100, FI-16100, Espoo, Finland.,Department of Applied Physics, School of Science, Aalto University, P.O. Box 15100, FI-00076, Espoo, Finland
| | - Wolfgang Wagermaier
- Department of Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, D-14424, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Markus B Linder
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, School of Chemical Engineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16100, FI-16100, Espoo, Finland.
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Xie L, Xu H, Li LB, Hsiao BS, Zhong GJ, Li ZM. Biomimetic Nanofibrillation in Two-Component Biopolymer Blends with Structural Analogs to Spider Silk. Sci Rep 2016; 6:34572. [PMID: 27694989 PMCID: PMC5046138 DOI: 10.1038/srep34572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2016] [Accepted: 09/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the enormous potential in bioinspired fabrication of high-strength structure by mimicking the spinning process of spider silk, currently accessible routes (e.g., microfluidic and electrospinning approaches) still have substantial function gaps in providing precision control over the nanofibrillar superstructure, crystalline morphology or molecular orientation. Here the concept of biomimetic nanofibrillation, by copying the spiders’ spinning principles, was conceived to build silk-mimicking hierarchies in two-phase biodegradable blends, strategically involving the stepwise integration of elongational shear and high-pressure shear. Phase separation confined on nanoscale, together with deformation of discrete phases and pre-alignment of polymer chains, was triggered in the elongational shear, conferring the readiness for direct nanofibrillation in the latter shearing stage. The orderly aligned nanofibrils, featuring an ultralow diameter of around 100 nm and the “rigid−soft” system crosslinked by nanocrystal domains like silk protein dopes, were secreted by fine nanochannels. The incorporation of multiscale silk-mimicking structures afforded exceptional combination of strength, ductility and toughness for the nanofibrillar polymer composites. The proposed spider spinning-mimicking strategy, offering the biomimetic function integration unattainable with current approaches, may prompt materials scientists to pursue biopolymer mimics of silk with high performance yet light weight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lan Xie
- Department of Polymer Materials and Engineering, College of Materials and Metallurgy, Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China
| | - Huan Xu
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
| | - Liang-Bin Li
- National Synchrotron Radiation Lab, CAS Key Laboratory of Soft Matter Chemistry, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China
| | - Benjamin S Hsiao
- Department of Chemistry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794-3400, United States
| | - Gan-Ji Zhong
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
| | - Zhong-Ming Li
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
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The complexity of silk under the spotlight of synthetic biology. Biochem Soc Trans 2016; 44:1151-7. [DOI: 10.1042/bst20160058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
For centuries silkworm filaments have been the focus of R&D innovation centred on textile manufacture with high added value. Most recently, silk research has focused on more fundamental issues concerning bio-polymer structure–property–function relationships. This essay outlines the complexity and fundamentals of silk spinning, and presents arguments for establishing this substance as an interesting and important subject at the interface of systems biology (discovery) and synthetic biology (translation). It is argued that silk is a generic class of materials where each type of silk presents a different embodiment of emergent properties that combine genetically determined (anticipatory) and environmentally responsive components. In spiders’ webs the various silks have evolved to form the interactive components of an intricate fabric that provides an extended phenotype to the spider's body morphology.
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