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Zeng X, Soreze TSC, Ballegaard M, Petersen PM. Integrative Lighting Aimed at Patients with Psychiatric and Neurological Disorders. Clocks Sleep 2023; 5:806-830. [PMID: 38131751 PMCID: PMC10742818 DOI: 10.3390/clockssleep5040052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2023] [Revised: 12/07/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the impact of circadian lighting-induced melatonin suppression on patients with psychiatric and neurological disorders in hospital wards by using an ad-hoc metrology framework and the subsequent metrics formalized by the CIE in 2018. A measurement scheme was conducted in hospital ward rooms in the Department of Neurology, Zealand University Hospital, at Roskilde in Denmark, to evaluate the photometric and colorimetric characteristics of the lighting system, as well as its influence on the circadian rhythm of the occupants. The measurement scheme included point measurements and data logging, using a spectrophotometer mounted on a tripod with adjustable height to assess the newly installed circadian lighting system. The measured spectra were uploaded to the Luox platform to calculate illuminance, CCT, MEDI, etc., in accordance with the CIE S026 standard. Furthermore, the MLIT based on MEDI data logging results was calculated. In addition to CIE S026, we have investigated the usefulness of melatonin suppression models for the assessment of circadian performance regarding measured light. From the results, the lighting conditions in the patient room for both minimal and abundant daylight access were evaluated and compared; we found that access to daylight is essential for both illumination and circadian entrainment. It can be concluded that the measurement scheme, together with the use of the Luox platform and Canva template, is suitable for the accurate and satisfactory measurement of integrative lighting that aligns with CIE requirements and recommendations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinxi Zeng
- Department of Electrical and Photonics Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark; (X.Z.); (P.M.P.)
| | - Thierry Silvio Claude Soreze
- Department of Electrical and Photonics Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark; (X.Z.); (P.M.P.)
| | - Martin Ballegaard
- Department of Neurology, Copenhagen University Hospital—Zealand University Hospital Roskilde, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark;
- Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Paul Michael Petersen
- Department of Electrical and Photonics Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark; (X.Z.); (P.M.P.)
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2
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Bhoi JD, Goel M, Ribelayga CP, Mangel SC. Circadian clock organization in the retina: From clock components to rod and cone pathways and visual function. Prog Retin Eye Res 2023; 94:101119. [PMID: 36503722 PMCID: PMC10164718 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2022.101119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Revised: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Circadian (24-h) clocks are cell-autonomous biological oscillators that orchestrate many aspects of our physiology on a daily basis. Numerous circadian rhythms in mammalian and non-mammalian retinas have been observed and the presence of an endogenous circadian clock has been demonstrated. However, how the clock and associated rhythms assemble into pathways that support and control retina function remains largely unknown. Our goal here is to review the current status of our knowledge and evaluate recent advances. We describe many previously-observed retinal rhythms, including circadian rhythms of morphology, biochemistry, physiology, and gene expression. We evaluate evidence concerning the location and molecular machinery of the retinal circadian clock, as well as consider findings that suggest the presence of multiple clocks. Our primary focus though is to describe in depth circadian rhythms in the light responses of retinal neurons with an emphasis on clock control of rod and cone pathways. We examine evidence that specific biochemical mechanisms produce these daily light response changes. We also discuss evidence for the presence of multiple circadian retinal pathways involving rhythms in neurotransmitter activity, transmitter receptors, metabolism, and pH. We focus on distinct actions of two dopamine receptor systems in the outer retina, a dopamine D4 receptor system that mediates circadian control of rod/cone gap junction coupling and a dopamine D1 receptor system that mediates non-circadian, light/dark adaptive regulation of gap junction coupling between horizontal cells. Finally, we evaluate the role of circadian rhythmicity in retinal degeneration and suggest future directions for the field of retinal circadian biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob D Bhoi
- Ruiz Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, McGovern Medical School, UTHEALTH-The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA; Neuroscience Honors Research Program, William Marsh Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Manvi Goel
- Department of Neuroscience, Wexner Medical Center, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Christophe P Ribelayga
- Ruiz Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, McGovern Medical School, UTHEALTH-The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA; Neuroscience Honors Research Program, William Marsh Rice University, Houston, TX, USA.
| | - Stuart C Mangel
- Department of Neuroscience, Wexner Medical Center, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA.
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3
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Zhang C, Zhu Z, Zhao J, Li Y, Zhang Z, Zheng Y. Ubiquitous light-emitting diodes: Potential threats to retinal circadian rhythms and refractive development. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 862:160809. [PMID: 36502986 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.160809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2022] [Revised: 11/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The use of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) has increased considerably in the 21st century with humans living in a modern photoperiod with brighter nights and dimmer days. Prolonged exposure to LEDs, especially at night, is considered a new source of pollution because it may affect the synthesis and secretion of retinal melatonin and dopamine, resulting in negative impacts on retinal circadian clocks and potentially disrupting retinal circadian rhythms. The control of ocular refraction is believed to be related to retinal circadian rhythms. Moreover, the global prevalence of myopia has increased at an alarming rate in recent decades. The widespread use of LEDs and the rapid increase in the prevalence of myopia overlap, which is unlikely to be a coincidence. The connection among LEDs, retinal circadian rhythms, and refractive development is both fascinating and confusing. In this review, we aim to develop a systematic framework that includes LEDs, retinal circadian rhythms and refractive development. This paper summarizes the possible mechanisms by which LEDs may disrupt retinal circadian rhythms. We propose that prolonged exposure to LEDs may induce myopia by disrupting retinal circadian rhythms. Finally, we suggest several possible countermeasures to prevent LED interference on retinal circadian rhythms, with the hope of reducing the onset and progression of myopia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenchen Zhang
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130000, China
| | - Zhe Zhu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Eye Hospital of Shandong First Medical University, Shandong Eye Institute, Jinan 250000, China
| | - Jing Zhao
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130000, China
| | - Yanxia Li
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130000, China
| | - Zhaoying Zhang
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130000, China
| | - Yajuan Zheng
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130000, China.
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4
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Liu AL, Liu YF, Wang G, Shao YQ, Yu CX, Yang Z, Zhou ZR, Han X, Gong X, Qian KW, Wang LQ, Ma YY, Zhong YM, Weng SJ, Yang XL. The role of ipRGCs in ocular growth and myopia development. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2022; 8:eabm9027. [PMID: 35675393 PMCID: PMC9176740 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abm9027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The increasing global prevalence of myopia calls for elaboration of the pathogenesis of this disease. Here, we show that selective ablation and activation of intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) in developing mice induced myopic and hyperopic refractive shifts by modulating the corneal radius of curvature (CRC) and axial length (AL) in an opposite way. Melanopsin- and rod/cone-driven signals of ipRGCs were found to influence refractive development by affecting the AL and CRC, respectively. The role of ipRGCs in myopia progression is evidenced by attenuated form-deprivation myopia magnitudes in ipRGC-ablated and melanopsin-deficient animals and by enhanced melanopsin expression/photoresponses in form-deprived eyes. Cell subtype-specific ablation showed that M1 subtype cells, and probably M2/M3 subtype cells, are involved in ocular development. Thus, ipRGCs contribute substantially to mouse eye growth and myopia development, which may inspire novel strategies for myopia intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Shi-Jun Weng
- Corresponding author. (X.-L.Y.); (S.-J.W.); (Y.-M.Z.)
| | - Xiong-Li Yang
- Corresponding author. (X.-L.Y.); (S.-J.W.); (Y.-M.Z.)
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5
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Brown DM, Mazade R, Clarkson-Townsend D, Hogan K, Datta Roy PM, Pardue MT. Candidate pathways for retina to scleral signaling in refractive eye growth. Exp Eye Res 2022; 219:109071. [PMID: 35447101 PMCID: PMC9701099 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2022.109071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2022] [Revised: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The global prevalence of myopia, or nearsightedness, has increased at an alarming rate over the last few decades. An eye is myopic if incoming light focuses prior to reaching the retinal photoreceptors, which indicates a mismatch in its shape and optical power. This mismatch commonly results from excessive axial elongation. Important drivers of the myopia epidemic include environmental factors, genetic factors, and their interactions, e.g., genetic factors influencing the effects of environmental factors. One factor often hypothesized to be a driver of the myopia epidemic is environmental light, which has changed drastically and rapidly on a global scale. In support of this, it is well established that eye size is regulated by a homeostatic process that incorporates visual cues (emmetropization). This process allows the eye to detect and minimize refractive errors quite accurately and locally over time by modulating the rate of elongation of the eye via remodeling its outermost coat, the sclera. Critically, emmetropization is not dependent on post-retinal processing. Thus, visual cues appear to influence axial elongation through a retina-to-sclera, or retinoscleral, signaling cascade, capable of transmitting information from the innermost layer of the eye to the outermost layer. Despite significant global research interest, the specifics of retinoscleral signaling pathways remain elusive. While a few pharmacological treatments have proven to be effective in slowing axial elongation (most notably topical atropine), the mechanisms behind these treatments are still not fully understood. Additionally, several retinal neuromodulators, neurotransmitters, and other small molecules have been found to influence axial length and/or refractive error or be influenced by myopigenic cues, yet little progress has been made explaining how the signal that originates in the retina crosses the highly vascular choroid to affect the sclera. Here, we compile and synthesize the evidence surrounding three of the major candidate pathways receiving significant research attention - dopamine, retinoic acid, and adenosine. All three candidates have both correlational and causal evidence backing their involvement in axial elongation and have been implicated by multiple independent research groups across diverse species. Two hypothesized mechanisms are presented for how a retina-originating signal crosses the choroid - via 1) all-trans retinoic acid or 2) choroidal blood flow influencing scleral oxygenation. Evidence of crosstalk between the pathways is discussed in the context of these two mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dillon M Brown
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology/Emory University, 313 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA; Center for Visual and Neurocognitive Rehabilitation, Atlanta Veterans Affairs Healthcare System, 1670 Clairmont Rd, Atlanta, GA, 30033, USA
| | - Reece Mazade
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology/Emory University, 313 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA; Center for Visual and Neurocognitive Rehabilitation, Atlanta Veterans Affairs Healthcare System, 1670 Clairmont Rd, Atlanta, GA, 30033, USA
| | - Danielle Clarkson-Townsend
- Center for Visual and Neurocognitive Rehabilitation, Atlanta Veterans Affairs Healthcare System, 1670 Clairmont Rd, Atlanta, GA, 30033, USA; Division of Sleep and Circadian Disorders, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 221 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA, 02115, USA; Division of Sleep Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA; Gangarosa Department of Environmental Health, Emory University, 1518 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Kelleigh Hogan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology/Emory University, 313 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA; Center for Visual and Neurocognitive Rehabilitation, Atlanta Veterans Affairs Healthcare System, 1670 Clairmont Rd, Atlanta, GA, 30033, USA
| | - Pooja M Datta Roy
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology/Emory University, 313 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA; Center for Visual and Neurocognitive Rehabilitation, Atlanta Veterans Affairs Healthcare System, 1670 Clairmont Rd, Atlanta, GA, 30033, USA
| | - Machelle T Pardue
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology/Emory University, 313 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA; Center for Visual and Neurocognitive Rehabilitation, Atlanta Veterans Affairs Healthcare System, 1670 Clairmont Rd, Atlanta, GA, 30033, USA.
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6
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Aung MH, Hogan K, Mazade RE, Park HN, Sidhu CS, Iuvone PM, Pardue MT. ON than OFF pathway disruption leads to greater deficits in visual function and retinal dopamine signaling. Exp Eye Res 2022; 220:109091. [PMID: 35487263 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2022.109091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2022] [Revised: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The visual system uses ON and OFF pathways to signal luminance increments and decrements. Increasing evidence suggests that ON and OFF pathways have different signaling properties and serve specialized visual functions. However, it is still unclear the contribution of ON and OFF pathways to visual behavior. Therefore, we examined the effects on optomotor response and the retinal dopamine system in nob mice with ON pathway dysfunction and Vsx1-/- mice with partial OFF pathway dysfunction. Spatial frequency and contrast sensitivity thresholds were determined, and values were compared to age-matched wild-type controls. Retinas were collected immediately after visual testing to measure levels of dopamine and its metabolite, DOPAC. At 4 weeks of age, we found that nob mice had significantly reduced spatial frequency (19%) and contrast sensitivity (60%) thresholds compared to wild-type mice. Vsx1-/- mice also exhibited reductions in optomotor responses (3% in spatial frequency; 18% in contrast sensitivity) at 4 weeks, although these changes were significantly smaller than those found in nob mice. Furthermore, nob mice had significantly lower DOPAC levels (53%) and dopamine turnover (41%) compared to controls while Vsx1-/- mice displayed a transient increase in DOPAC levels at 4 weeks of age (55%). Our results show that dysfunction of ON pathways leads to reductions in contrast sensitivity, spatial frequency threshold, and retinal dopamine and DOPAC levels whereas partial loss of the OFF pathway has minimal effect. We conclude that ON pathways play a critical role in visual reflexes and retinal dopamine signaling, highlighting a potential association for future investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moe H Aung
- Center for Visual and Neurocognitive Rehabilitation, Atlanta VA Health Care System, 1670 Clairmont Rd, Decatur, GA, 30033, USA; Neuroscience Program, Emory University School of Medicine, 1365 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA; Department of Ophthalmology, Dell Medical School, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
| | - Kelleigh Hogan
- Center for Visual and Neurocognitive Rehabilitation, Atlanta VA Health Care System, 1670 Clairmont Rd, Decatur, GA, 30033, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 313 Ferst Dr, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
| | - Reece E Mazade
- Center for Visual and Neurocognitive Rehabilitation, Atlanta VA Health Care System, 1670 Clairmont Rd, Decatur, GA, 30033, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 313 Ferst Dr, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
| | - Han Na Park
- Neuroscience Program, Emory University School of Medicine, 1365 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA; Department of Ophthalmology, Emory University School of Medicine, 1365 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA, 0322, USA
| | - Curran S Sidhu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Emory University School of Medicine, 1365 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA, 0322, USA
| | - P Michael Iuvone
- Neuroscience Program, Emory University School of Medicine, 1365 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA; Department of Ophthalmology, Emory University School of Medicine, 1365 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA, 0322, USA
| | - Machelle T Pardue
- Center for Visual and Neurocognitive Rehabilitation, Atlanta VA Health Care System, 1670 Clairmont Rd, Decatur, GA, 30033, USA; Neuroscience Program, Emory University School of Medicine, 1365 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 313 Ferst Dr, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA; Department of Ophthalmology, Emory University School of Medicine, 1365 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA, 0322, USA.
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7
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van der Sande E, Haarman AEG, Quint WH, Tadema KCD, Meester-Smoor MA, Kamermans M, De Zeeuw CI, Klaver CCW, Winkelman BHJ, Iglesias AI. The Role of GJD2(Cx36) in Refractive Error Development. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2022; 63:5. [PMID: 35262731 PMCID: PMC8934558 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.63.3.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Refractive errors are common eye disorders characterized by a mismatch between the focal power of the eye and its axial length. An increased axial length is a common cause of the refractive error myopia (nearsightedness). The substantial increase in myopia prevalence over the last decades has raised public health concerns because myopia can lead to severe ocular complications later in life. Genomewide association studies (GWAS) have made considerable contributions to the understanding of the genetic architecture of refractive errors. Among the hundreds of genetic variants identified, common variants near the gap junction delta-2 (GJD2) gene have consistently been reported as one of the top hits. GJD2 encodes the connexin 36 (Cx36) protein, which forms gap junction channels and is highly expressed in the neural retina. In this review, we provide current evidence that links GJD2(Cx36) to the development of myopia. We summarize the gap junctional communication in the eye and the specific role of GJD2(Cx36) in retinal processing of visual signals. Finally, we discuss the pathways involving dopamine and gap junction phosphorylation and coupling as potential mechanisms that may explain the role of GJD2(Cx36) in refractive error development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilie van der Sande
- Department of Ophthalmology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience (NIN), Royal Dutch Academy of Art & Science (KNAW), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Annechien E. G. Haarman
- Department of Ophthalmology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wim H. Quint
- Department of Ophthalmology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Kirke C. D. Tadema
- Department of Ophthalmology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Magda A. Meester-Smoor
- Department of Ophthalmology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Maarten Kamermans
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience (NIN), Royal Dutch Academy of Art & Science (KNAW), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Biomedical Physics and Biomedical Photonics, Amsterdam University Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Chris I. De Zeeuw
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience (NIN), Royal Dutch Academy of Art & Science (KNAW), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Caroline C. W. Klaver
- Department of Ophthalmology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Ophthalmology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Institute of Molecular and Clinical Ophthalmology, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Beerend H. J. Winkelman
- Department of Ophthalmology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience (NIN), Royal Dutch Academy of Art & Science (KNAW), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Adriana I. Iglesias
- Department of Ophthalmology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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8
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Hoseini-Yazdi H, Read SA, Alonso-Caneiro D, Collins MJ. Retinal OFF-Pathway Overstimulation Leads to Greater Accommodation-Induced Choroidal Thinning. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2021; 62:5. [PMID: 34636878 PMCID: PMC8525845 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.62.13.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose To examine the interactions between accommodation and overstimulation of the retinal ON- and OFF-pathways, and their association with changes in choroidal thickness (ChT) and vascularity. Methods Optical coherence tomography imaging of the choroid of twenty young adults (ages 25 ± 5 years) was performed before and after a series of 30-minute-long viewing tasks, including reading a bright text on dark background (ON-pathway overstimulation) and dark text on bright background (OFF-pathway overstimulation), and a control task of viewing a movie with unbiased ON-/OFF-pathway activation. The viewing tasks were performed with relaxed, and 5 diopter (D) accommodation (induced by soft contact lenses) demands. Both reading texts were matched for the mean luminance (35 cd/m2), luminance contrast (87%), and letter size (approximately 11.8 arc minutes). The change in ChT from baseline associated with contrast polarity and accommodation was examined using linear mixed model analysis. Results The subfoveal ChT decreased significantly by −7 ± 1 µm with 5 D accommodation compared with relaxed accommodation (−3 ± 1 µm; P < 0.001), and by −9 ± 1 µm with OFF-pathway compared with ON-pathway overstimulation (−4 ± 1 µm; P = 0.002) and the control condition (−2 ± 1 µm; P < 0.001). Overstimulation of the OFF-pathway, but not the ON-pathway, resulted in a significantly greater choroidal thinning compared with the control condition, both at relaxed (−7 ± 1 µm; P = 0.003) and 5 D (−11 ± 1 µm; P = 0.005) accommodation levels. Similar changes were also observed for macular total, stromal, and luminal ChT. Conclusions Retinal OFF-pathway stimulation enhanced the choroidal thinning associated with accommodation, thereby providing a potential mechanism that involves accommodation and the retinal OFF-signaling pathway, linking near work and myopia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hosein Hoseini-Yazdi
- Contact Lens and Visual Optics Laboratory, Centre for Vision and Eye Research, School of Optometry and Vision Science, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Scott A Read
- Contact Lens and Visual Optics Laboratory, Centre for Vision and Eye Research, School of Optometry and Vision Science, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - David Alonso-Caneiro
- Contact Lens and Visual Optics Laboratory, Centre for Vision and Eye Research, School of Optometry and Vision Science, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Michael J Collins
- Contact Lens and Visual Optics Laboratory, Centre for Vision and Eye Research, School of Optometry and Vision Science, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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9
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The effects of reduced ambient lighting on lens compensation in infant rhesus monkeys. Vision Res 2021; 187:14-26. [PMID: 34144362 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2021.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2021] [Revised: 05/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Although reduced ambient lighting (~50 lx) does not increase the degree of form-deprivation myopia (FDM) in chickens or infant monkeys, it does reduce the probability that monkeys will recover from FDM and that the normal age-dependent reduction in hyperopia will occur in monkeys reared with unrestricted vision. These findings suggest that low ambient lighting levels affect the regulatory mechanism responsible for emmetropization. To study this issue, infant rhesus monkeys (age ~ 24 days) were reared under dim light (55 ± 9 lx) with monocular -3D (dim-light lens-induced myopia, DL-LIM, n = 8) or +3D spectacle lenses (dim-light lens-induced hyperopia, DL-LIH, n = 7) until approximately 150 days of age. Refractive errors, ocular parameters and sub-foveal choroidal thickness were measured periodically and compared with normal-light-reared, lens-control monkeys (NL-LIM, n = 16; NL-LIH, n = 7). Dim light rearing significantly attenuated the degree of compensatory anisometropias in both the DL-LIM (-0.63 ± 0.77D vs. -2.11 ± 1.10D in NL-LIM) and DL-LIH treatment groups (-0.18 ± 1.93D vs. +1.71 ± 0.39D in NL-LIH). These effects came about because the treated and fellow control eyes had a lower probability of responding appropriately to the eye's effective refractive state. Vision-induced interocular differences in choroidal thickness were only observed in monkeys that exhibited compensating refractive changes, suggesting that failures in detecting the relative magnitude of optical errors underlay the abnormal refractive responses. Our findings suggest that low ambient lighting levels reduce the efficacy of the vision-dependent mechanisms that regulate refractive development.
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10
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Berkowitz BA, Podolsky RH, Childers KL, Roberts R, Schneider M, Graffice E, Sinan K, Berri A, Harp L. Correcting QUEST Magnetic Resonance Imaging-Sensitive Free Radical Production in the Outer Retina In Vivo Does Not Correct Reduced Visual Performance in 24-Month-Old C57BL/6J Mice. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2021; 62:24. [PMID: 34036313 PMCID: PMC8164372 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.62.6.24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose To test the hypothesis that acutely correcting a sustained presence of outer retina free radicals measured in vivo in 24-month-old mice corrects their reduced visual performance. Methods Male C57BL/6J mice two and 24 months old were noninvasively evaluated for unremitted production of paramagnetic free radicals based on whether 1/T1 in retinal laminae are reduced after acute antioxidant administration (QUEnch-assiSTed [QUEST] magnetic resonance imaging [MRI]). Superoxide production was measured in freshly excised retina (lucigenin assay). Combining acute antioxidant administration with optical coherence tomography (i.e., QUEST OCT) tested for excessive free radical–induced shrinkage of the subretinal space volume. Combining antioxidant administration with optokinetic tracking tested for a contribution of uncontrolled free radical production to cone-based visual performance declines. Results At two months, antioxidants had no effect on 1/T1 in vivo in any retinal layer. At 24 months, antioxidants reduced 1/T1 only in superior outer retina. No age-related change in retinal superoxide production was measured ex vivo, suggesting that free radical species other than superoxide contributed to the positive QUEST MRI signal at 24 months. Also, subretinal space volume did not show evidence for age-related shrinkage and was unresponsive to antioxidants. Finally, visual performance declined with age and was not restored by antioxidants that were effective per QUEST MRI. Conclusions An ongoing uncontrolled production of outer retina free radicals as measured in vivo in 24 mo C57BL/6J mice appears to be insufficient to explain reductions in visual performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce A Berkowitz
- Department of Ophthalmology, Visual and Anatomical Sciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan, United States
| | - Robert H Podolsky
- Beaumont Research Institute, Beaumont Health, Royal Oak, Michigan, United States
| | - Karen Lins Childers
- Beaumont Research Institute, Beaumont Health, Royal Oak, Michigan, United States
| | - Robin Roberts
- Department of Ophthalmology, Visual and Anatomical Sciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan, United States
| | - Michael Schneider
- Department of Ophthalmology, Visual and Anatomical Sciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan, United States
| | - Emma Graffice
- Department of Ophthalmology, Visual and Anatomical Sciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan, United States
| | - Kenan Sinan
- Department of Ophthalmology, Visual and Anatomical Sciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan, United States
| | - Ali Berri
- Department of Ophthalmology, Visual and Anatomical Sciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan, United States
| | - Lamis Harp
- Department of Ophthalmology, Visual and Anatomical Sciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan, United States
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11
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Goel M, Mangel SC. Dopamine-Mediated Circadian and Light/Dark-Adaptive Modulation of Chemical and Electrical Synapses in the Outer Retina. Front Cell Neurosci 2021; 15:647541. [PMID: 34025356 PMCID: PMC8131545 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2021.647541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The vertebrate retina, like most other brain regions, undergoes relatively slow alterations in neural signaling in response to gradual changes in physiological conditions (e.g., activity changes to rest), or in response to gradual changes in environmental conditions (e.g., day changes into night). As occurs elsewhere in the brain, the modulatory processes that mediate slow adaptation in the retina are driven by extrinsic signals (e.g., changes in ambient light level) and/or by intrinsic signals such as those of the circadian (24-h) clock in the retina. This review article describes and discusses the extrinsic and intrinsic modulatory processes that enable neural circuits in the retina to optimize their visual performance throughout day and night as the ambient light level changes by ~10 billion-fold. In the first synaptic layer of the retina, cone photoreceptor cells form gap junctions with rods and signal cone-bipolar and horizontal cells (HCs). Distinct extrinsic and intrinsic modulatory processes in this synaptic layer are mediated by long-range feedback of the neuromodulator dopamine. Dopamine is released by dopaminergic cells, interneurons whose cell bodies are located in the second synaptic layer of the retina. Distinct actions of dopamine modulate chemical and electrical synapses in day and night. The retinal circadian clock increases dopamine release in the day compared to night, activating high-affinity dopamine D4 receptors on cones. This clock effect controls electrical synapses between rods and cones so that rod-cone electrical coupling is minimal in the day and robust at night. The increase in rod-cone coupling at night improves the signal-to-noise ratio and the reliability of very dim multi-photon light responses, thereby enhancing detection of large dim objects on moonless nights.Conversely, maintained (30 min) bright illumination in the day compared to maintained darkness releases sufficient dopamine to activate low-affinity dopamine D1 receptors on cone-bipolar cell dendrites. This non-circadian light/dark adaptive process regulates the function of GABAA receptors on ON-cone-bipolar cell dendrites so that the receptive field (RF) surround of the cells is strong following maintained bright illumination but minimal following maintained darkness. The increase in surround strength in the day following maintained bright illumination enhances the detection of edges and fine spatial details.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manvi Goel
- Department of Neuroscience, Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Stuart C Mangel
- Department of Neuroscience, Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, United States
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12
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Wang Z, Ji S, Huang Y, Liao K, Cui Z, Chu F, Chen J, Tang S. The daily gene transcription cycle in mouse retina. Exp Eye Res 2021; 207:108565. [PMID: 33838143 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2021.108565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Revised: 03/23/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Many physiological retinal processes, such as outer segment disk shedding and visual sensitivity, exhibit a daily rhythm. However, the detailed transcriptome dynamics and related biological processes of the retina are not fully understood. Retinal tissues were collected from C57BL/6J male mice housed in a 12h light/12h dark (LD) cycle for 4 weeks, at Zeitgeber time (ZT) 0, 4, 8, 12, 16, and 20. Total RNA was extracted from the tissues and used for unique identifier RNA sequencing experiments. The rhythmicity of gene expression was determined using the MetaCycle R package. We found that 1741 genes (10.26%) were rhythmically expressed in the retina. According to the expression patterns, the rhythmically expressed genes were assigned to four clusters, each with about 361-492 genes, using the Mfuzz R package. The Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) and Gene Ontology (GO) analyses were conducted to identify pathways and biological processes of the profiled genes. Genes in Clusters 1 and 4 were associated with glycolysis and energy production, showed higher activity at night (from ZT16 to ZT20), and were enriched in the Hif-1α signaling pathway and low-oxygen-related terms. Genes in Cluster 2 were predominantly involved in cilium assembly and organization and were relatively upregulated during the day. Genes in Cluster 3 were associated with ribosome biosynthesis and were highly expressed during the day-night transition period. Taken together, these results demonstrate that a large proportion of retinal genes are expressed rhythmically. Genes involved in energy production and glycolysis are highly expressed at night, leading to relative hypoxia and activation of the Hif-1α signaling pathway. Genes associated with the formation of photoreceptor cilia are expressed during the day.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhijie Wang
- Aier School of Ophthalmology, Central South University, Changsha, China; Aier Eye Institute, Changsha, China
| | | | - Yinhua Huang
- Aier School of Ophthalmology, Central South University, Changsha, China; Aier Eye Institute, Changsha, China
| | - Kai Liao
- Aier School of Ophthalmology, Central South University, Changsha, China; Aier Eye Institute, Changsha, China
| | | | - Feixue Chu
- Hangzhou Xihu Zhijiang Eye Hospital, China
| | - Jiansu Chen
- Aier School of Ophthalmology, Central South University, Changsha, China; Aier Eye Institute, Changsha, China; Key Laboratory for Regenerative Medicine, Ministry of Education, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China; Institute of Ophthalmology, Medical College, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China.
| | - Shibo Tang
- Aier School of Ophthalmology, Central South University, Changsha, China; Aier Eye Institute, Changsha, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China.
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13
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Landis EG, Park HN, Chrenek M, He L, Sidhu C, Chakraborty R, Strickland R, Iuvone PM, Pardue MT. Ambient Light Regulates Retinal Dopamine Signaling and Myopia Susceptibility. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2021; 62:28. [PMID: 33502461 PMCID: PMC7846952 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.62.1.28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Exposure to high-intensity or outdoor lighting has been shown to decrease the severity of myopia in both human epidemiological studies and animal models. Currently, it is not fully understood how light interacts with visual signaling to impact myopia. Previous work performed in the mouse retina has demonstrated that functional rod photoreceptors are needed to develop experimentally-induced myopia, alluding to an essential role for rod signaling in refractive development. Methods To determine whether dim rod-dominated illuminance levels influence myopia susceptibility, we housed male C57BL/6J mice under 12:12 light/dark cycles with scotopic (1.6 × 10−3 candela/m2), mesopic (1.6 × 101 cd/m2), or photopic (4.7 × 103 cd/m2) lighting from post-natal day 23 (P23) to P38. Half the mice received monocular exposure to −10 diopter (D) lens defocus from P28–38. Molecular assays to measure expression and content of DA-related genes and protein were conducted to determine how illuminance and lens defocus alter dopamine (DA) synthesis, storage, uptake, and degradation and affect myopia susceptibility in mice. Results We found that mice exposed to either scotopic or photopic lighting developed significantly less severe myopic refractive shifts (lens treated eye minus contralateral eye; –1.62 ± 0.37D and −1.74 ± 0.44D, respectively) than mice exposed to mesopic lighting (–3.61 ± 0.50D; P < 0.005). The 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid /DA ratio, indicating DA activity, was highest under photopic light regardless of lens defocus treatment (controls: 0.09 ± 0.011 pg/mg, lens defocus: 0.08 ± 0.008 pg/mg). Conclusions Lens defocus interacted with ambient conditions to differentially alter myopia susceptibility and DA-related genes and proteins. Collectively, these results show that scotopic and photopic lighting protect against lens-induced myopia, potentially indicating that a broad range of light levels are important in refractive development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica G Landis
- Department of Neuroscience, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States.,Center for Visual and Neurocognitive Rehabilitation, Atlanta VA Healthcare System, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
| | - Han Na Park
- Department of Ophthalmology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
| | - Micah Chrenek
- Department of Ophthalmology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
| | - Li He
- Department of Ophthalmology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
| | - Curran Sidhu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
| | - Ranjay Chakraborty
- Department of Ophthalmology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States.,Center for Visual and Neurocognitive Rehabilitation, Atlanta VA Healthcare System, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
| | - Ryan Strickland
- Department of Neuroscience, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
| | - P Michael Iuvone
- Department of Ophthalmology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States.,Department of Pharmacology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
| | - Machelle T Pardue
- Department of Neuroscience, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States.,Center for Visual and Neurocognitive Rehabilitation, Atlanta VA Healthcare System, Atlanta, Georgia, United States.,Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
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14
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Malan L, Hamer M, von Känel R, Kotliar K, van Wyk RD, Lambert GW, Vilser W, Ziemssen T, Schlaich MP, Smith W, Magnusson M, Wentzel A, Myburgh CE, Steyn HS, Malan NT. Delayed retinal vein recovery responses indicate both non-adaptation to stress as well as increased risk for stroke: the SABPA study. Cardiovasc J Afr 2021; 32:5-16. [PMID: 33104153 PMCID: PMC8756074 DOI: 10.5830/cvja-2020-031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2019] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Low or high sympatho-adrenal-medullary axis (SAM) and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) dysregulation reflect chronic stress. Retinal vessel dynamics may relate to SAM, HPA activity and stroke risk. Our objectives were therefore to assess the relationships between retinal vessel, SAM and HPA responses, and to determine stroke risk. METHODS A prospective bi-ethnic gender cohort (n = 275, 45 ± 9 years) was included. Urine/serum/saliva samples for SAM [norepinephrine:creatinine ratio (u-NE)] and HPA [adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), cortisol] were obtained at baseline, three-year follow up and upon flicker light-induced provocation. Diastolic ocular perfusion pressure was measured as a marker of hypo-perfusion. Retinal arterial narrowing and venous widening calibres were quantified from digital images in the mydriatic eye. A validated stress and stroke risk score was applied. RESULTS An interaction term was fitted for venous dilation in u-NE tertiles (p ≤ 0.05) and not in u-NE median/quartiles/quintiles. Independent of race or gender, tertile 1 (low u-NE) had a 112% increase in u-NE, decreases in cortisol, and no changes in ACTH over three years (positive feedback). Tertile 3 (high u-NE) contradictorily had decreases in u-NE and cortisol, and increases in ACTH (negative feedback). In tertile 1, reduced arterial dilation, and faster arterial vasoconstriction and narrowing were related to higher SAM activity and hypo-perfusion (p ≤ 0.05), whereas delayed venous dilation, recovery and widening were related to cortisol hypo-secretion (p ≤ 0.05). In tertile 1, delayed venous recovery responses predicted stress and stroke risk [odds ratio 4.8 (1.2-19.6); p = 0.03]. These associations were not found in u-NE tertiles 2 and 3. CONCLUSIONS In response to low norepinephrine, a reflex increase in SAM activity occurred, enhancing arterial vasoconstriction and hypo-perfusion. Concomitant HPA dysregulation attenuated retinal vein vasoactivity and tone, reflecting delayed vein recovery responses and non-adaptation to stress. These constrained vein recovery responses are indicative of increased chronic stress and stroke risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leoné Malan
- Hypertension in Africa Research Team (HART), North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa.
| | - Mark Hamer
- Division of Surgery & Interventional Science, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University College London, United Kingdom
| | - Roland von Känel
- Hypertension in Africa Research Team (HART), North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa; Department of Consultation-Liaison Psychiatry and Psychosomatic Medicine, University Hospital Zurich 8091, Switzerland
| | - Konstantin Kotliar
- Department of Medical Engineering and Technomathematics, FH Aachen University of Applied Sciences, Jülich, Germany
| | | | - Gavin W Lambert
- Iverson Health Innovation Research Institute, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn; Baker Heart & Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, Australia
| | | | - Tjalf Ziemssen
- Autonomic and Neuroendocrinological Laboratory Dresden, University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden, Germany
| | - Markus P Schlaich
- Dobney Hypertension Centre, School of Medicine, Royal Perth Hospital Unit, University Western Australia, Perth, Australia
| | - Wayne Smith
- Hypertension in Africa Research Team (HART), North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa; Medical Research Council Research Unit: Hypertension and Cardiovascular Disease, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Martin Magnusson
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Malmö, Lund University; Wallenberg Centre for Molecular Medicine, Malmö, Lund University; Department of Cardiology, Malmö, Skåne University Hospital, Sweden
| | - Annemarie Wentzel
- Hypertension in Africa Research Team (HART), North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Carlien E Myburgh
- Hypertension in Africa Research Team (HART), North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Hendrik S Steyn
- Statistical Consultation Services, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Nico T Malan
- Hypertension in Africa Research Team (HART), North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
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15
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Serfozo C, Barta AG, Horvath E, Sumanszki C, Csakany B, Resch M, Nagy ZZ, Reismann P. Altered visual functions, macular ganglion cell and papillary retinal nerve fiber layer thickness in early-treated adult PKU patients. Mol Genet Metab Rep 2020; 25:100649. [PMID: 32995291 PMCID: PMC7516291 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymgmr.2020.100649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Revised: 09/07/2020] [Accepted: 09/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Retinal changes are poorly described in early treated phenylketonuria (ETPKU). We aimed to investigate possible visual functional and ocular microstructural changes in adult patients with ETPKU. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) and its angiography (OCTA) data from patients with PKU were compared to healthy controls. Methods In this prospective, monocentric, cross-sectional, case-control study 50 patients with ETPKU and 50 healthy subjects were evaluated with OCT and OCTA. Measurements were performed on right eyes. The following visual function parameters were studied: best corrected visual acuity (BCVA), spherical equivalent (SE), contrast sensitivity and near stereoacuity; microstructural parameters: retinal nerve fiber layer thickness (RNFLT), ganglion cell layer (GCC) thickness, focal loss of volume (FLV), global loss of volume (GLV), peripapillary, papillary vessel density (VD), ocular axial length (AL) and intraocular pressure (IOP). Results Among functional tests there were significant differences in contrast sensitivity at 1.5 (p < 0.001), 6 (p < 0.013), 12 (p < 0.001), 18 (p < 0.003) cycles per degree, in near stereoacuity (Titmus Wirt circles, p < 0.001) and in best corrected visual acuity (BCVA, p < 0.001). A statistically significant, moderate positive linear correlation was observed between BCVA and average Phe levels over the last ten years (β = 0.49, p < 0.001). The average (p < 0.001), superior (p < 0.001) inferior GCC (p < 0.001), the FLV (p < 0.003), GLV (p < 0.001) and the average RNFLT (p < 0.004) values of the PKU group were significantly lower than the controls. The serum phenylalanine level (Phe) in the PKU group negatively correlated with inferior (−0.32, p < 0.007), superior (r = −0.26, p < 0.028) and average (−0.29 p < 0.014) RNFL and with AL (−0.32, p < 0.026). In AL we detected a significant difference (p < 0.04) between the good and suboptimal dietary controlled group. There was no significant difference between the ETPKU and control group in the measured vessel density parameters and in IOP. Conclusions Our results suggest that functional and ocular microstructural defects are present in patients with PKU, and some of them may depend on dietary control. The mechanism is unclear, but the correlation indicates the importance of strict dietary control in terms of preservation of retinal functions.
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Key Words
- AAS, aminoacid supplements
- AL, axial length
- BCVA, best corrected visual acuity
- BH4, Tetrahydrobiopterine
- D, diopters
- DA, dopamine
- Dopamine
- ETDRS, early treatment diabetic retinopathy study
- ETPKU, early-treated phenylketonuria
- FLV, focal loss of volume
- GCC, ganglion cell layer thickness
- GLV, global loss of volume
- GMP, Glycomacropeptide
- Ganglion cell layer thickness
- IOP, intraocular pressure
- LogMAR, logarithm of the minimum angle of resolution
- Myopia
- OCT, optical coherence tomography
- OCTA, optical coherence tomography angiography
- Optical coherence tomography angiography
- PD, Parkinson's disease
- PKU, phenylketonuria
- Phe, phenylalanine
- Phenylalanine level
- Phenylketonuria
- RNFL, retinal nerve fiber layer
- RNFLT, retinal nerve fiber layer thickness
- Retinal nerve fiber layer thickness
- SD, spectral domain
- SE, spherical equivalent
- SWCT, sine wave contrast test
- VD, vessel density
- VEPs, Visual evoked potentials
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Affiliation(s)
- Csilla Serfozo
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Maria utca 39, Budapest 1085, Hungary
| | - Andras Gellert Barta
- Department of Internal Medicine and Oncology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Koranyi Sandor utca 2/a, Budapest 1083, Hungary
| | - Endre Horvath
- Independent statistician, H-1171, Alsodabas park 4/2, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Csaba Sumanszki
- Department of Internal Medicine and Oncology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Koranyi Sandor utca 2/a, Budapest 1083, Hungary
| | - Bela Csakany
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Maria utca 39, Budapest 1085, Hungary
| | - Miklos Resch
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Maria utca 39, Budapest 1085, Hungary
| | - Zoltan Zsolt Nagy
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Maria utca 39, Budapest 1085, Hungary
| | - Peter Reismann
- Department of Internal Medicine and Oncology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Koranyi Sandor utca 2/a, Budapest 1083, Hungary
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16
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Light adaptation in the chick retina: Dopamine, nitric oxide, and gap-junction coupling modulate spatiotemporal contrast sensitivity. Exp Eye Res 2020; 195:108026. [PMID: 32246982 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2020.108026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2019] [Revised: 03/25/2020] [Accepted: 03/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Adaptation to changes in ambient light intensity, in retinal cells and circuits, optimizes visual functions. In the retina, light-adaptation results in changes in light-sensitivity and spatiotemporal tuning of ganglion cells. Under light-adapted conditions, contrast sensitivity (CS) of ganglion cells is a bandpass function of spatial frequency; in contrast, dark-adaptation reduces CS, especially at higher spatial frequencies. In this work, we aimed to understand intrinsic neuromodulatory mechanisms that underlie retinal adaptation to changes in ambient light level. Specifically, we investigated how CS is affected by dopamine (DA), nitric oxide (NO), and modifiers of electrical coupling through gap junctions, under different conditions of adapting illumination. Using the optokinetic response as a behavioral readout of direction-selective ganglion cell activity, we characterized the spatial CS of chicks under high- and low-photopic conditions and how it was regulated by DA, NO, and gap-junction uncouplers. We observed that: (1) DA D2R-family agonists and a donor of NO increased CS tested in low-photopic illumination, as if observed in the high-photopic light; whereas (2) removing their effects using either DA antagonists or NO- synthase inhibitors mimicked low-photopic CS; (3) simulation of high-photopic CS by DA agonists was abolished by NO-synthase inhibitors; and (4) selectively blocking coupling via connexin 35/36-containing gap junctions, using a "designer" mimetic peptide, increased CS, as does strong illumination. We conclude that, in the chicken retina: (1) DA and NO induce changes in spatiotemporal processing, similar to those driven by increasing illumination, (2) DA possibly acts through stimulating NO synthesis, and (3) blockade of coupling via gap junctions containing connexin 35/36 also drives a change in retinal CS functions. As a noninvasive method, the optokinetic response can provide rapid, conditional, and reversible assessment of retinal functions when pharmacological reagents are injected into the vitreous humor. Finally, the chick's large eyes, and the many similarities between their adaptational circuit functions and those in mammals such as the mouse, make them a promising model for future retinal research.
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17
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Ko GYP. Circadian regulation in the retina: From molecules to network. Eur J Neurosci 2020; 51:194-216. [PMID: 30270466 PMCID: PMC6441387 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.14185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2018] [Revised: 08/16/2018] [Accepted: 08/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The mammalian retina is the most unique tissue among those that display robust circadian/diurnal oscillations. The retina is not only a light sensing tissue that relays light information to the brain, it has its own circadian "system" independent from any influence from other circadian oscillators. While all retinal cells and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) possess circadian oscillators, these oscillators integrate by means of neural synapses, electrical coupling (gap junctions), and released neurochemicals (such as dopamine, melatonin, adenosine, and ATP), so the whole retina functions as an integrated circadian system. Dysregulation of retinal clocks not only causes retinal or ocular diseases, it also impacts the circadian rhythm of the whole body, as the light information transmitted from the retina entrains the brain clock that governs the body circadian rhythms. In this review, how circadian oscillations in various retinal cells are integrated, and how retinal diseases affect daily rhythms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gladys Y-P Ko
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
- Texas A&M Institute for Neuroscience, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
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18
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Liu LL, Alessio EJ, Spix NJ, Zhang DQ. Expression of GluA2-containing calcium-impermeable AMPA receptors on dopaminergic amacrine cells in the mouse retina. Mol Vis 2019; 25:780-790. [PMID: 31819340 PMCID: PMC6882663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2019] [Accepted: 11/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose The neuromodulator dopamine plays an important role in light adaptation for the visual system. Light can stimulate dopamine release from dopaminergic amacrine cells (DACs) by activating three classes of photosensitive retinal cells: rods, cones, and melanopsin-expressing intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs). However, the synaptic mechanisms by which these photoreceptors excite DACs remain poorly understood. Our previous work demonstrated that α-amino-3-hydroxyl-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionate (AMPA) receptors contribute to light regulation of DAC activity. AMPA receptors are classified into Ca2+-permeable and Ca2+-impermeable subtypes. We sought to identify which subtype of AMPA receptors is involved in light regulation of DAC activity. Methods AMPA receptor-mediated light responses and miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents were recorded from genetically labeled DACs in mouse retinas with the whole-cell voltage-clamp mode. Immunostaining with antibodies against tyrosine hydroxylase, GluA2 (GluR2), and PSD-95 was performed in vertical retinal slices. Results The biophysical and pharmacological data showed that only Ca2+-impermeable AMPA receptors contribute to DAC light responses driven by ipRGCs or cones (via depolarizing bipolar cells). We further found that the same subtype of AMPA receptors mediates miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents of DACs. These findings are supported by the immunohistochemical results demonstrating that DACs express the PSD-95 with GluA2, a subunit that is essential for determining the impermeability of AMPA receptors to calcium. Conclusions The results indicated that GluA2-containing Ca2+-impermeable AMPA receptors contribute to signal transmission from photosensitive retinal cells to DACs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei-Lei Liu
- Eye Research Institute, Oakland University, Rochester, MI
| | | | - Nathan J Spix
- Eye Research Institute, Oakland University, Rochester, MI
| | - Dao-Qi Zhang
- Eye Research Institute, Oakland University, Rochester, MI
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19
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Wu XS, Wang YC, Liu TT, Wang L, Sun XH, Wang LQ, Weng SJ, Zhong YM. Morphological alterations of intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells after ablation of mouse photoreceptors with selective photocoagulation. Exp Eye Res 2019; 188:107812. [PMID: 31550445 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.107812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2019] [Revised: 09/06/2019] [Accepted: 09/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
In this work, we investigated changes in the morphology of intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs), M1 subtype, and pupillary light reflex following local and selective ablation of photoreceptors in mice. Laser photocoagulation was used to selectively destroy four patches of photoreceptors per eye at around 4 papillary diameters from the optic disc and at the 3, 6, 9, and 12 o'clock positions between the retinal vessels in the adult mouse retina, leaving cells in the inner retina intact. Morphological parameters of individual M1 cells specifically labeled by the antibody against melanopsin (PA1-780), including dendritic field size, total dendritic length, and dendritic branch number, were examined 1, 2, 4, and 8 weeks after photocoagulation with Neurolucida software. A considerable reduction in these parameters in M1 cells in the "lesioned areas" was found at all the four time points after photocoagulation, as compared with those in the "unlesioned areas". Although M1 cells in the lesioned areas showed significant changes as early as 1 week after laser treatment and the changes gradually increased, reaching a peak value at 2 weeks, morphological restoration was clearly seen in these cells over time. However, no difference in the morphological parameters of M1 cells was observed between the unlesioned areas of laser-treated mice and the corresponding areas of age-matched normal mice without laser lesions. Fluorescence intensity of the somata of melanopsin-positive M1 cells located inside the lesioned areas was significantly decreased at all the four time points after photocoagulation, whereas no changes in pupillary light reflex were detected at different light irradiations, indicating that photocoagulation-induced local photoreceptor loss and alterations of ipRGCs may be insufficient to cause abnormalities in non-image-forming (NIF) visual functions. The results suggest that intact photoreceptors could be crucial for maintaining the expression levels of melanopsin and normal morphology of M1 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Sha Wu
- Department of Ophthalmology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontier Center for Brain Science, Institutes of Brain Science and Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, PR China
| | - Yong-Chen Wang
- Department of Ophthalmology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontier Center for Brain Science, Institutes of Brain Science and Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, PR China
| | - Ting-Ting Liu
- Department of Ophthalmology at Eye & ENT Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, PR China
| | - Lu Wang
- Department of Ophthalmology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontier Center for Brain Science, Institutes of Brain Science and Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, PR China
| | - Xing-Huai Sun
- Department of Ophthalmology at Eye & ENT Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, PR China
| | - Li-Qin Wang
- Department of Ophthalmology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontier Center for Brain Science, Institutes of Brain Science and Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, PR China
| | - Shi-Jun Weng
- Department of Ophthalmology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontier Center for Brain Science, Institutes of Brain Science and Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, PR China.
| | - Yong-Mei Zhong
- Department of Ophthalmology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontier Center for Brain Science, Institutes of Brain Science and Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, PR China.
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20
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Landis EG, Yang V, Brown DM, Pardue MT, Read SA. Dim Light Exposure and Myopia in Children. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2019; 59:4804-4811. [PMID: 30347074 PMCID: PMC6181186 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.18-24415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Experimental myopia in animal models suggests that bright light can influence refractive error and prevent myopia. Additionally, animal research indicates activation of rod pathways and circadian rhythms may influence eye growth. In children, objective measures of personal light exposure, recorded by wearable light sensors, have been used to examine the effects of bright light exposure on myopia. The effect of time spent in a broad range of light intensities on childhood refractive development is not known. This study aims to evaluate dim light exposure in myopia. Methods We reanalyzed previously published data to investigate differences in dim light exposure across myopic and nonmyopic children from the Role of Outdoor Activity in Myopia (ROAM) study in Queensland, Australia. The amount of time children spent in scotopic (<1-1 lux), mesopic (1-30 lux), indoor photopic (>30-1000 lux), and outdoor photopic (>1000 lux) light over both weekdays and weekends was measured with wearable light sensors. Results We found significant differences in average daily light exposure between myopic and nonmyopic children. On weekends, myopic children received significantly less scotopic light (P = 0.024) and less outdoor photopic light than nonmyopic children (P < 0.001). In myopic children, more myopic refractive errors were correlated with increased time in mesopic light (R = -0.46, P = 0.002). Conclusions These findings suggest that in addition to bright light exposure, rod pathways stimulated by dim light exposure could be important to human myopia development. Optimal strategies for preventing myopia with environmental light may include both dim and bright light exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica G Landis
- Neuroscience, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States.,Department of Ophthalmology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States.,Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
| | - Victoria Yang
- Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Atlanta, Georgia, United States.,Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
| | - Dillon M Brown
- Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Atlanta, Georgia, United States.,Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
| | - Machelle T Pardue
- Neuroscience, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States.,Department of Ophthalmology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States.,Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Atlanta, Georgia, United States.,Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
| | - Scott A Read
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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21
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Roy S, Field GD. Dopaminergic modulation of retinal processing from starlight to sunlight. J Pharmacol Sci 2019; 140:86-93. [PMID: 31109761 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphs.2019.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2018] [Revised: 03/13/2019] [Accepted: 03/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuromodulators such as dopamine, enable context-dependent plasticity of neural circuit function throughout the central nervous system. For example, in the retina, dopamine tunes visual processing for daylight and nightlight conditions. Specifically, high levels of dopamine release in the retina tune vision for daylight (photopic) conditions, while low levels tune it for nightlight (scotopic) conditions. This review covers the cellular and circuit-level mechanisms within the retina that are altered by dopamine. These mechanisms include changes in gap junction coupling and ionic conductances, both of which are altered by the activation of diverse types of dopamine receptors across diverse types of retinal neurons. We contextualize the modulatory actions of dopamine in terms of alterations and optimizations to visual processing under photopic and scotopic conditions, with particular attention to how they differentially impact distinct cell types. Finally, we discuss how transgenic mice and disease models have shaped our understanding of dopaminergic signaling and its role in visual processing. Cumulatively, this review illustrates some of the diverse and potent mechanisms through which neuromodulation can shape brain function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suva Roy
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Greg D Field
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, USA.
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22
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Zheng H, Tse DY, Tang X, To C, Lam TC. The Interactions Between Bright Light and Competing Defocus During Emmetropization in Chicks. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2019; 59:2932-2943. [PMID: 30025112 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.17-22973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose The environment comprises multiple optical signals that affect eye growth. We aimed to determine if the inhibitory effects of myopic defocus and bright light (BL) against myopia are additive in the presence of the myopia-genic hyperopic defocus. Methods In experiment 1, three groups of 24 chicks each were fitted with the following multizone dual-power lenses (pl): pl/-10 D (50:50 area), +10/-10 D (50:50 area), and +10/-10 D (33:67 area) monocularly for 6 days. Half of each group were raised under normal illumination of 500 lux, 12/12-hour light/dark cycle, whereas the remainder were exposed to 6-hour BL of 40 klx and 6-hour 500 lux during the light cycle. In experiment 2, 38 chicks wore +10/-10 D (33:67 area) lenses monocularly for 8 days and were exposed to one of four light intensities for 6 hours per day-500 lux, 10 klx, 20 klx, or 40 klx-and received 500 lux for the remainder of the light cycle. Results In experiment 1, interocular difference in refractions after 6 days for the three groups were -3.6 D, +2.0 D, and -4.2 D, respectively, under normal light and were -0.9 D, +4.2 D, and +0.67 D under BL, manifesting as a shorter anterior segment and vitreous chamber. In experiment 2, the effect of BL increased with light intensity in the +10/-10 D (33:67) group, with a significant difference in refraction between the 10 klx and 20 klx groups (interocular difference -2.75 ± 2.76 D vs. 1.70 ± 2.40 D, P < 0.01), but plateaued between 20 klx and 40 klx (1.70 ± 2.40 D vs. 1.70 ± 0.35 D, P > 0.05). Conclusions The protective effects of myopic defocus and BL against experimental myopia were additive. The inhibitory effect of BL against myopia was dose dependent at 10 klx and above but plateaued at 20 klx.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Zheng
- Centre for Myopia Research, School of Optometry, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China.,School of Medicine, Nankai University, Tianjin, China.,Tianjin Eye Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Dennis Y Tse
- Centre for Myopia Research, School of Optometry, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
| | - Xin Tang
- School of Medicine, Nankai University, Tianjin, China.,Tianjin Eye Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Chiho To
- Centre for Myopia Research, School of Optometry, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
| | - Thomas Chuen Lam
- Centre for Myopia Research, School of Optometry, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
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23
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Rod Photoreceptor Activation Alone Defines the Release of Dopamine in the Retina. Curr Biol 2019; 29:763-774.e5. [PMID: 30799247 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2019.01.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2018] [Revised: 11/27/2018] [Accepted: 01/15/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Retinal dopamine is released by a specialized subset of amacrine cells in response to light and has a potent influence on how the retina responds to, and encodes, visual information. Here, we address the critical question of which retinal photoreceptor is responsible for coordinating the release of this neuromodulator. Although all three photoreceptor classes-rods, cones, and melanopsin-containing retinal ganglion cells (mRGCs)-have been shown to provide electrophysiological inputs to dopaminergic amacrine cells (DACs), we show here that the release of dopamine is defined only by rod photoreceptors. Remarkably, this rod signal coordinates both a suppressive signal at low intensities and drives dopamine release at very bright light intensities. These data further reveal that dopamine release does not necessarily correlate with electrophysiological activity of DACs and add to a growing body of evidence that rods define aspects of retinal function at very bright light levels.
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24
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Munteanu T, Noronha KJ, Leung AC, Pan S, Lucas JA, Schmidt TM. Light-dependent pathways for dopaminergic amacrine cell development and function. eLife 2018; 7:39866. [PMID: 30403373 PMCID: PMC6221543 DOI: 10.7554/elife.39866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2018] [Accepted: 10/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Retinal dopamine is a critical modulator of high acuity, light-adapted vision and photoreceptor coupling in the retina. Dopaminergic amacrine cells (DACs) serve as the sole source of retinal dopamine, and dopamine release in the retina follows a circadian rhythm and is modulated by light exposure. However, the retinal circuits through which light influences the development and function of DACs are still unknown. Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) have emerged as a prime target for influencing retinal dopamine levels because they costratify with DACs in the inner plexiform layer and signal to them in a retrograde manner. Surprisingly, using genetic mouse models lacking specific phototransduction pathways, we find that while light influences the total number of DACs and retinal dopamine levels, this effect does not require ipRGCs. Instead, we find that the rod pathway is a critical modulator of both DAC number and retinal dopamine levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teona Munteanu
- Department of Neurobiology, Northwestern University, Evanston, United States
| | - Katelyn J Noronha
- Department of Neurobiology, Northwestern University, Evanston, United States
| | - Amanda C Leung
- Department of Neurobiology, Northwestern University, Evanston, United States
| | - Simon Pan
- Department of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, United States
| | - Jasmine A Lucas
- Department of Neurobiology, Northwestern University, Evanston, United States
| | - Tiffany M Schmidt
- Department of Neurobiology, Northwestern University, Evanston, United States
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25
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Zhang Z, Silveyra E, Jin N, Ribelayga CP. A congenic line of the C57BL/6J mouse strain that is proficient in melatonin synthesis. J Pineal Res 2018; 65:e12509. [PMID: 29768727 PMCID: PMC6167157 DOI: 10.1111/jpi.12509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2018] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The C57BL/6J (B6) is the most common inbred mouse strain used in biomedical research in the United States. Yet, this strain is notoriously known for being deficient in the biosynthesis of melatonin, an important effector of circadian clocks in the brain and in the retina. Melatonin deficiency in this strain results from nonfunctional alleles of the genes coding 2 key enzymes of the melatonin synthesis pathway: arylalkylamine-N-acetyltransferase (Aanat) and N-acetylserotonin-O-methyltransferase (Asmt). By introducing functional alleles of the Aanat and Asmt genes from the melatonin-proficient CBA/CaJ (CBA) mouse strain to B6, we have generated a B6 congenic line that has acquired the capacity of rhythmic melatonin synthesis. In addition, the melatonin-dependent rhythm of dopamine release in the retina is restored in the B6 congenic line. Finally, we have partially characterized the Aanat and Asmt genes of the CBA strain and have identified multiple differences between CBA and B6 alleles, including single nucleotide polymorphism and deletion/insertion of DNA segments of various sizes. As an improved model organism with functional components of the melatonin synthesis pathway and melatonin-dependent circadian regulations, the new line will be useful to researchers studying melatonin physiological functions in a variety of fields including, but not limited to, circadian biology and neuroscience. In particular, the congenic line will be useful to speed up introduction of melatonin production capacity into genetically modified mouse lines of interest such as knockout lines, many of which are on B6 or mixed B6 backgrounds. The melatonin-proficient B6 congenic line will be widely distributed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhijing Zhang
- Ruiz Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, McGovern Medical School, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX
| | - Eduardo Silveyra
- Ruiz Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, McGovern Medical School, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX
| | - Nange Jin
- Ruiz Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, McGovern Medical School, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX
| | - Christophe P. Ribelayga
- Ruiz Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, McGovern Medical School, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX
- MD Anderson Cancer Center UTHealth Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX
- Program in Neuroscience, MD Anderson Cancer Center UTHealth Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX
- Program in Biochemistry and Cell Biology, MD Anderson Cancer Center UTHealth Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX
- Neuroscience Research Center, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX
- Corresponding Author: Christophe P. Ribelayga, Ruiz Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, McGovern Medical School, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, 6431 Fannin St., MSB 7.024, Houston, TX 77030, U.S.A., phone: (713)-500-5673,
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26
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Pérez-Fernández V, Harman DG, Morley JW, Cameron MA. Optimized Method to Quantify Dopamine Turnover in the Mammalian Retina. Anal Chem 2017; 89:12276-12283. [PMID: 29057649 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.7b03216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Measurement of dopamine (DA) release in the retina allows the interrogation of the complex neural circuits within this tissue. A number of previous methods have been used to quantify this neuromodulator, the most common of which is HPLC with electrochemical detection (HPLC-ECD). However, this technique can produce significant concentration uncertainties. In this present study, we report a sensitive and accurate UHPLC-MS/MS method for the quantification of DA and its primary metabolite 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) in mouse retina. Internal standards DA-d4 and DOPAC-d5 result in standard curve linearity for DA from 0.05-100 ng/mL (LOD = 6 pg/mL) and DOPAC from 0.5-100 ng/mL (LOD = 162 pg/mL). A systematic study of tissue extraction conditions reveals that the use of formic acid (1%), in place of the more commonly used perchloric acid, combined with 0.5 mM ascorbic acid prevents significant oxidation of the analytes. When the method is applied to mouse retinae a significant increase in the DOPAC/DA ratio is observed following in vivo light stimulation. We additionally examined the effect of anesthesia on DA and DOPAC levels in the retina in vivo and find that basal dark-adapted concentrations are not affected. Light caused a similar increase in DOPAC/DA ratio but interindividual variation was significantly reduced. Together, we systematically describe the ideal conditions to accurately and reliably measure DA turnover in the mammalian retina.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - David G Harman
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University , Sydney, Australia
| | - John W Morley
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University , Sydney, Australia
| | - Morven A Cameron
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University , Sydney, Australia
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27
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Liu LL, Spix NJ, Zhang DQ. NMDA Receptors Contribute to Retrograde Synaptic Transmission from Ganglion Cell Photoreceptors to Dopaminergic Amacrine Cells. Front Cell Neurosci 2017; 11:279. [PMID: 28959188 PMCID: PMC5603656 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2017.00279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2017] [Accepted: 08/29/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently, a line of evidence has demonstrated that the vertebrate retina possesses a novel retrograde signaling pathway. In this pathway, phototransduction is initiated by the photopigment melanopsin, which is expressed in a small population of retinal ganglion cells. These ganglion cell photoreceptors then signal to dopaminergic amacrine cells (DACs) through glutamatergic synapses, influencing visual light adaptation. We have previously demonstrated that in Mg2+-containing solution, α-amino-3-hydroxyl-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionate (AMPA) receptors mediate this glutamatergic transmission. Here, we demonstrate that removing extracellular Mg2+ enhances melanopsin-based DAC light responses at membrane potentials more negative than −40 mV. Melanopsin-based responses in Mg2+-free solution were profoundly suppressed by the selective N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist D-AP5. In addition, application of NMDA to the retina produced excitatory inward currents in DACs. These data strongly suggest that DACs express functional NMDA receptors. We further found that in the presence of Mg2+, D-AP5 reduced the peak amplitude of melanopsin-based DAC responses by ~70% when the cells were held at their resting membrane potential (−50 mV), indicating that NMDA receptors are likely to contribute to retrograde signal transmission to DACs under physiological conditions. Moreover, our data show that melanopsin-based NMDA-receptor-mediated responses in DACs are suppressed by antagonists specific to either the NR2A or NR2B receptor subtype. Immunohistochemical results show that NR2A and NR2B subunits are expressed on DAC somata and processes. These results suggest that DACs express functional NMDA receptors containing both NR2A and NR2B subunits. Collectively, our data reveal that, along with AMPA receptors, NR2A- and NR2B-containing NMDA receptors mediate retrograde signal transmission from ganglion cell photoreceptors to DACs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei-Lei Liu
- Eye Research Institute, Oakland UniversityRochester, MI, United States
| | - Nathan J Spix
- Eye Research Institute, Oakland UniversityRochester, MI, United States
| | - Dao-Qi Zhang
- Eye Research Institute, Oakland UniversityRochester, MI, United States
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28
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Qiao SN, Zhou W, Liu LL, Zhang DQ, Zhong YM. Orexin-A Suppresses Signal Transmission to Dopaminergic Amacrine Cells From Outer and Inner Retinal Photoreceptors. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2017; 58:4712-4721. [PMID: 28910447 PMCID: PMC5598320 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.17-21835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose The neuropeptides orexin-A and orexin-B are widely expressed in the vertebrate retina; however, their role in visual function is unclear. This study investigates whether and how orexins modulate signal transmission to dopaminergic amacrine cells (DACs) from both outer retinal photoreceptors (rods and cones) and inner retinal photoreceptors (melanopsin-expressing intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells [ipRGCs]). Methods A whole-cell voltage-clamp technique was used to record light-induced responses from genetically labeled DACs in flat-mount mouse retinas. Rod and cone signaling to DACs was confirmed pharmacologically (in wild-type retinas), whereas retrograde melanopsin signaling to DACs was isolated either pharmacologically (in wild-type retinas) or by genetic deletion of rod and cone function (in transgenic mice). Results Orexin-A attenuated rod/cone-mediated light responses in the majority of DACs and inhibited all DACs that exhibited melanopsin-based light responses, suggesting that exogenous orexin suppresses signal transmission from rods, cones, and ipRGCs to DACs. In addition, orexin receptor 1 antagonist SB334867 and orexin receptor 2 antagonist TCS OX229 enhanced melanopsin-based DAC responses, indicating that endogenous orexins inhibit signal transmission from ipRGCs to DACs. We further found that orexin-A inhibits melanopsin-based DAC responses via orexin receptors on DACs, whereas orexin-A may modulate signal transmission from rods and cones to DACs through activation of orexin receptors on DACs and their upstream neurons. Conclusions Our results suggest that orexins could influence visual function via the dopaminergic system in the mammalian retina.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng-Nan Qiao
- Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,Eye Research Institute, Oakland University, Rochester, Michigan, United States
| | - Wei Zhou
- Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lei-Lei Liu
- Eye Research Institute, Oakland University, Rochester, Michigan, United States
| | - Dao-Qi Zhang
- Eye Research Institute, Oakland University, Rochester, Michigan, United States
| | - Yong-Mei Zhong
- Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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29
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Zhao X, Wong KY, Zhang DQ. Mapping physiological inputs from multiple photoreceptor systems to dopaminergic amacrine cells in the mouse retina. Sci Rep 2017; 7:7920. [PMID: 28801634 PMCID: PMC5554153 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-08172-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2017] [Accepted: 07/07/2017] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
In the vertebrate retina, dopamine is synthesized and released by a specialized type of amacrine cell, the dopaminergic amacrine cell (DAC). DAC activity is stimulated by rods, cones, and melanopsin-expressing intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells upon illumination. However, the relative contributions of these three photoreceptor systems to the DAC light-induced response are unknown. Here we found that rods excite dark-adapted DACs across a wide range of stimulation intensities, primarily through connexin-36-dependent rod pathways. Similar rod-driven responses were observed in both ventral and dorsal DACs. We further found that in the dorsal retina, M-cones and melanopsin contribute to dark-adapted DAC responses with a similar threshold intensity. In the ventral retina, however, the threshold intensity for M-cone-driven responses was two log units greater than that observed in dorsal DACs, and melanopsin-driven responses were almost undetectable. We also examined the DAC response to prolonged adapting light and found such responses to be mediated by rods under dim lighting conditions, rods/M-cones/melanopsin under intermediate lighting conditions, and cones and melanopsin under bright lighting conditions. Our results elucidate the relative contributions of the three photoreceptor systems to DACs under different lighting conditions, furthering our understanding of the role these cells play in the visual system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiwu Zhao
- Eye Research Institute, Oakland University, Rochester, MI, United States.,Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Kwoon Y Wong
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States.,Department of Molecular, Cellular & Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Dao-Qi Zhang
- Eye Research Institute, Oakland University, Rochester, MI, United States.
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30
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Dandekar MP, Luse D, Hoffmann C, Cotton P, Peery T, Ruiz C, Hussey C, Giridharan VV, Soares JC, Quevedo J, Fenoy AJ. Increased dopamine receptor expression and anti-depressant response following deep brain stimulation of the medial forebrain bundle. J Affect Disord 2017; 217:80-88. [PMID: 28395208 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2017.03.074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2016] [Revised: 03/24/2017] [Accepted: 03/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Among several potential neuroanatomical targets pursued for deep brain stimulation (DBS) for treating those with treatment-resistant depression (TRD), the superolateral-branch of the medial forebrain bundle (MFB) is emerging as a privileged location. We investigated the antidepressant-like phenotypic and chemical changes associated with reward-processing dopaminergic systems in rat brains after MFB-DBS. METHODS Male Wistar rats were divided into three groups: sham-operated, DBS-Off, and DBS-On. For DBS, a concentric bipolar electrode was stereotactically implanted into the right MFB. Exploratory activity and depression-like behavior were evaluated using the open-field and forced-swimming test (FST), respectively. MFB-DBS effects on the dopaminergic system were evaluated using immunoblotting for tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), dopamine transporter (DAT), and dopamine receptors (D1-D5), and high-performance liquid chromatography for quantifying dopamine, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC), and homovanillic acid (HVA) in brain homogenates of prefrontal cortex (PFC), hippocampus, amygdala, and nucleus accumbens (NAc). RESULTS Animals receiving MFB-DBS showed a significant increase in swimming time without alterations in locomotor activity, relative to the DBS-Off (p<0.039) and sham-operated groups (p<0.014), indicating an antidepressant-like response. MFB-DBS led to a striking increase in protein levels of dopamine D2 receptors and DAT in the PFC and hippocampus, respectively. However, we did not observe appreciable differences in the expression of other dopamine receptors, TH, or in the concentrations of dopamine, DOPAC, and HVA in PFC, hippocampus, amygdala, and NAc. LIMITATIONS This study was not performed on an animal model of TRD. CONCLUSION MFB-DBS rescues the depression-like phenotypes and selectively activates expression of dopamine receptors in brain regions distant from the target area of stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manoj P Dandekar
- Translational Psychiatry Program, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth) McGovern Medical School, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Dustin Luse
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth) McGovern Medical School, Department of Neurosurgery, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Carson Hoffmann
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth) McGovern Medical School, Department of Neurosurgery, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Patrick Cotton
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth) McGovern Medical School, Department of Neurosurgery, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Travis Peery
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth) McGovern Medical School, Department of Neurosurgery, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Christian Ruiz
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth) McGovern Medical School, Department of Neurosurgery, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Caroline Hussey
- Translational Psychiatry Program, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth) McGovern Medical School, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Vijayasree V Giridharan
- Translational Psychiatry Program, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth) McGovern Medical School, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Jair C Soares
- Center of Excellence on Mood Disorders, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth) McGovern Medical School, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Joao Quevedo
- Translational Psychiatry Program, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth) McGovern Medical School, Houston, TX, USA; Center of Excellence on Mood Disorders, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth) McGovern Medical School, Houston, TX, USA; Neuroscience Graduate Program, The University of Texas Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences at Houston, Houston, TX, USA; Laboratory of Neurosciences, Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Health Sciences Unit, University of Southern Santa Catarina (UNESC), Criciúma, SC, Brazil
| | - Albert J Fenoy
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth) McGovern Medical School, Department of Neurosurgery, Houston, TX, USA.
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31
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Zhou X, Pardue MT, Iuvone PM, Qu J. Dopamine signaling and myopia development: What are the key challenges. Prog Retin Eye Res 2017; 61:60-71. [PMID: 28602573 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2017.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2017] [Revised: 05/23/2017] [Accepted: 06/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
In the face of an "epidemic" increase in myopia over the last decades and myopia prevalence predicted to reach 2.5 billion people by the end of this decade, there is an urgent need to develop effective and safe therapeutic interventions to slow down this "myopia booming" and prevent myopia-related complications and vision loss. Dopamine (DA) is an important neurotransmitter in the retina and mediates diverse functions including retina development, visual signaling, and refractive development. Inspired by the convergence of epidemiological and animal studies in support of the inverse relationship between outdoor activity and risk of developing myopia and by the close biological relationship between light exposure and dopamine release/signaling, we felt it is timely and important to critically review the role of DA in myopia development. This review will revisit several key points of evidence for and against DA mediating light control of myopia: 1) the causal role of extracellular retinal DA levels, 2) the mechanism and action of dopamine D1 and D2 receptors and 3) the roles of cellular/circuit retinal pathways. We examine the experiments that show causation by altering DA, DA receptors and visual pathways using pharmacological, transgenic, or visual environment approaches. Furthermore, we critically evaluate the safety issues of a DA-based treatment strategy and some approaches to address these issues. The review identifies the key questions and challenges in translating basic knowledge on DA signaling and myopia from animal studies into effective pharmacological treatments for myopia in children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangtian Zhou
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, 270 Xueyuan Road, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325003, China; State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Vision Science. 270 Xueyuan Road, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325003, China
| | - Machelle T Pardue
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 313 Ferst Dr, Atlanta, GA 30332, United States; Center for Visual and Neurocognitive Rehabilitation, Atlanta VA Medical Center, 1670 Clairmont Rd, Decatur, GA 30033, United States
| | - P Michael Iuvone
- Department of Ophthalmology, Emory University School of Medicine, 1365B Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States; Department of Pharmacology, Emory University School of Medicine, 1365B Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States
| | - Jia Qu
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, 270 Xueyuan Road, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325003, China; State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Vision Science. 270 Xueyuan Road, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325003, China.
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Goodings L, He J, Wood AJ, Harris WA, Currie PD, Jusuf PR. In vivo expression of Nurr1/Nr4a2a in developing retinal amacrine subtypes in zebrafish Tg(nr4a2a:eGFP) transgenics. J Comp Neurol 2017; 525:1962-1979. [PMID: 28177524 DOI: 10.1002/cne.24185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2016] [Revised: 01/29/2017] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The Nuclear receptor subfamily 4 group A member 2 (Nr4a2) is crucial for the formation or maintenance of dopaminergic neurons in the central nervous system including the retina, where dopaminergic amacrine cells contribute to visual function. Little is known about which cells express Nr4a2 at which developmental stage. Furthermore, whether Nr4a2 functions in combination with other genes is poorly understood. Thus, we generated a novel transgenic to visualize Nr4a2 expression in vivo during zebrafish retinogenesis. A 4.1 kb fragment of the nr4a2a promoter was used to drive green fluorescent protein expression in this Tg(nr4a2a:eGFP) line. In situ hybridization showed that transgene expression follows endogenous RNA expression at a cellular level. Temporal expression and lineages were quantified using in vivo time-lapse imaging in embryos. Nr4a2 expressing retinal subtypes were characterized immunohistochemically. Nr4a2a:eGFP labeled multiple neuron subtypes including 24.5% of all amacrine interneurons. Nr4a2a:eGFP labels all tyrosine hydroxylase labeled dopaminergic amacrine cells, and other nondopaminergic GABAergic amacrine populations. Nr4a2a:eGFP is confined to a specific progenitor lineage identified by sequential expression of the bhlh transcription factor Atonal7 (Atoh7) and Pancreas transcription factor 1a (Ptf1a), and labels postmitotic postmigratory amacrine cells. Thus, developmental Nr4a2a expression indicates a role during late differentiation of specific amacrine interneurons. Tg(nr4a2a:eGFP) is an early marker of distinct neurons including dopaminergic amacrine cells. It can be utilized to assess consequences of gene manipulations and understand whether Nr4a2 only carries out its role in the presence of specific coexpressed genes. This will allow Nr4a2 use to be refined for regenerative approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liana Goodings
- Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jie He
- Institute of Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Alasdair J Wood
- Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - William A Harris
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Peter D Currie
- Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Patricia R Jusuf
- Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.,School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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