P[8] and P[4] Rotavirus Infection Associated with Secretor Phenotypes Among Children in South China

Vaccine Take of RV3-BB Rotavirus Vaccine Observed in Indonesian Infants Regardless of HBGA Status

BACKGROUND

Histo-blood group antigen (HBGA) status may affect vaccine efficacy due to rotavirus strains binding to HBGAs in a P genotype-dependent manner. This study aimed to determine if HBGA status affected vaccine take of the G3P[6] neonatal vaccine RV3-BB.

METHODS

DNA was extracted from stool samples collected in a subset (n = 164) of the RV3-BB phase IIb trial in Indonesian infants. FUT2 and FUT3 genes were amplified and sequenced, with any single-nucleotide polymorphisms analyzed to infer Lewis and secretor status. Measures of positive cumulative vaccine take were defined as serum immune response (immunoglobulin A or serum-neutralizing antibody) and/or stool excretion of RV3-BB virus. Participants were stratified by HBGA status and measures of vaccine take.

RESULTS

In 147 of 164 participants, Lewis and secretor phenotype were determined. Positive vaccine take was recorded for 144 (97.9%) of 147 participants with the combined phenotype determined. Cumulative vaccine take was not significantly associated with secretor status (relative risk, 1.00 [95% CI, .94-1.06]; P = .97) or Lewis phenotype (relative risk, 1.03 [95% CI, .94-1.14]; P = .33), nor was a difference observed when analyzed by each component of vaccine take.

CONCLUSIONS

The RV3-BB vaccine produced positive cumulative vaccine take, irrespective of HBGA status in Indonesian infants.

Emergence of equine-like G3 and porcine-like G9 rotavirus strains in Sarawak, Malaysia: 2019-2021

Rotavirus is the leading causative viral agent of pediatric acute gastroenteritis globally, infecting mostly children 5 years old and below. Data on rotavirus prevalence in Malaysia is scarce, despite the WHO's recommendation for continuous rotavirus surveillance, and has underestimated the need for national rotavirus vaccination. Characteristics of the current rotavirus strains in Malaysia have to be determined to understand the rotavirus epidemiology and vaccine compatibility. This study sought to determine the genetic relatedness of Sarawak rotavirus strains with global strains and to determine the antigenic coverage and epitope compatibility of Rotarix and RotaTeq vaccines with the Sarawak rotavirus strains via in silico analysis. A total of 89 stool samples were collected from pediatric patients (<5 years old) with acute gastroenteritis at private hospitals in Kuching, Sarawak. Rotavirus was detected using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Positive amplicons were analyzed using nucleotide sequencing before phylogenetic analyses and assessment of epitope compatibility. Genotyping revealed G1P[8] (1/13; 7.7%), G3P[8] (3/13; 23%), G9P[4] (1/13; 7.7%), and G9P[8] (3/13; 23%), G9P[X] (1/13; 7.7%), GXP[4] (1/13; 7.7%), and GXP[8] (3/13; 23%) in samples. All wild-type Sarawak rotavirus strains, with the exception of G1, showed variations in their phylogenetic and antigenic epitope characteristics.

Development and evaluation of a new luciferase immunosorbent assay to detect GII.6 norovirus-specific IgG in different domestic and wild animals

Noroviruses (NoVs) are the leading viral pathogens globally causing acute gastroenteritis (AGE) in humans, posing a significant global health threat and economic burden. Recent investigations revealed that human NoVs had been detected in different animals, which raises concerns about whether NoVs are potential zoonotic diseases. This study developed a novel luciferase immunosorbent assay (LISA) to detect GII.6 NoV IgG based on P protein of VP1. The LISA showed high specificity (99.20%) and sensitivity (92.00%) with 4-16 times more sensitivity compared with an ELISA. NoV-LISA was reproducible with human serum regarding the inter- and intra-assay coefficient of variance values. Potential cross-reactivity was also evaluated using mice serum immunized by other antigens, which showed that NoV-LISA could differentiate GII.6 NoV from rotavirus and various genotypes of NoV. Specific GII.6 NoV IgG was widely detected in different domestic and wild animals, including dogs, pigs, bats, rats, and home shrews, with various IgG-positive rates ranging from 2.5 to 74.4%. In conclusion, our newly developed NoV-LISA assay is suitable for NoV-specific IgG detection in humans and animals. The wide distribution of IgG antibodies against human NoV indicates potential zoonotic transmission between humans and animals.

Extent of the protection afforded by histo-blood group polymorphism against rotavirus gastroenteritis in metropolitan France and French Guiana

Human rotaviruses attach to histo-blood group antigens glycans and null alleles of the ABO, FUT2 and FUT3 genes seem to confer diminished risk of gastroenteritis. Yet, the true extent of this protection remains poorly quantified. Here, we conducted a prospective study to evaluate the risk of consulting at the hospital in non-vaccinated pediatric patients according to the ABO, FUT2 (secretor) and FUT3 (Lewis) polymorphisms, in Metropolitan France and French Guiana. At both locations, P genotypes were largely dominated by P [8]-3, with P [6] cases exclusively found in French Guiana. The FUT2 null (nonsecretor) and FUT3 null (Lewis negative) phenotypes conferred near full protection against severe gastroenteritis due to P [8]-3 strains (OR 0.03, 95% CI [0.00–0.21] and 0.1, 95% CI [0.01–0.43], respectively in Metropolitan France; OR 0.08, 95% CI [0.01–0.52] and 0.14, 95%CI [0.01–0.99], respectively in French Guiana). Blood group O also appeared protective in Metropolitan France (OR 0.38, 95% CI [0.23–0.62]), but not in French Guiana. The discrepancy between the two locations was explained by a recruitment at the hospital of less severe cases in French Guiana than in Metropolitan France. Considering the frequencies of the null ABO, Secretor and Lewis phenotypes, the data indicate that in a Western European population, 34% (95% CI [29%; 39%]) of infants are genetically protected against rotavirus gastroenteritis of sufficient severity to lead to hospital visit.

Microbiota-induced regulatory T cells associate with FUT2-dependent susceptibility to rotavirus gastroenteritis

The FUT2 α1,2fucosyltransferase contributes to the synthesis of fucosylated glycans used as attachment factors by several pathogens, including noroviruses and rotaviruses, that can induce life-threatening gastroenteritis in young children. FUT2 genetic polymorphisms impairing fucosylation are strongly associated with resistance to dominant strains of both noroviruses and rotaviruses. Interestingly, the wild-type allele associated with viral gastroenteritis susceptibility inversely appears to be protective against several inflammatory or autoimmune diseases for yet unclear reasons, although a FUT2 influence on microbiota composition has been observed. Here, we studied a cohort of young healthy adults and showed that the wild-type FUT2 allele was associated with the presence of anti-RVA antibodies, either neutralizing antibodies or serum IgA, confirming its association with the risk of RVA gastroenteritis. Strikingly, it was also associated with the frequency of gut microbiota-induced regulatory T cells (Tregs), so-called DP8α Tregs, albeit only in individuals who had anti-RVA neutralizing antibodies or high titers of anti-RVA IgAs. DP8α Tregs specifically recognize the human symbiont Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, which strongly supports their induction by this anti-inflammatory bacterium. The proportion of F. prausnitzii in feces was also associated with the FUT2 wild-type allele. These observations link the FUT2 genotype with the risk of RVA gastroenteritis, the microbiota and microbiota-induced DP8α Treg cells, suggesting that the anti-RVA immune response might involve an induction/expansion of these T lymphocytes later providing a balanced immunological state that confers protection against inflammatory diseases.

The Association between Symptomatic Rotavirus Infection and Histo-Blood Group Antigens in Young Children with Diarrhea in Pretoria, South Africa

OBJECTIVES

Recently, histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) have been identified as receptors or attachment factors of several viral pathogens. Among rotaviruses, HBGAs interact with the outer viral protein, VP4, which has been identified as a potential susceptibility factor, although the findings are inconsistent throughout populations due to HBGA polymorphisms. We investigated the association between HBGA phenotypes and rotavirus infection in children with acute gastroenteritis in northern Pretoria, South Africa.

METHODS

Paired diarrheal stool and saliva samples were collected from children aged ≤ 59 months (n = 342) with acute moderate to severe diarrhea, attending two health care facilities. Rotaviruses in the stool samples were detected by commercial EIA and the rotavirus strains were characterized by RT-PCR targeting the outer capsid VP7 (G-type) and VP4 (P-type) antigens for genotyping. Saliva-based ELISAs were performed to determine A, B, H, and Lewis antigens for blood group typing.

RESULTS

Blood type O was the most common blood group (62.5%) in this population, followed by groups A (26.0%), B (9.3%), and AB (2.2%). The H1-based secretors were common (82.7%) compared to the non-secretors (17.3%), and the Lewis antigen positive phenotypes (Le^(a+b+)) were predominant (54.5%). Blood type A children were more likely to be infected by rotavirus (38.8%) than any other blood types. P[4] rotaviruses (21/49; 42.9%) infected only secretor individuals, whereas P[6] rotaviruses (3/49; 6.1%) only infected Le^(a-b-), although the numbers were very low. On the contrary, P[8] rotaviruses infected children with a wide range of blood group phenotypes, including Le^(a-b-) and non-secretors.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings demonstrated that Lewis antigens, or the lack thereof, may serve as susceptibility factors to rotaviral infection by specific VP4 genotypes as observed elsewhere. Potentially, the P[8] strains remain the predominant human VP4 genotype due to their ability to bind to a variety of HBGA phenotypes.

Association of histo-blood group antigens and predisposition to gastrointestinal diseases

Infectious gastroenteritis is a common illness afflicting people worldwide. The two most common etiological agents of viral gastroenteritis, rotavirus and norovirus are known to recognize histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) as attachment receptors. ABO, Lewis, and secretor HBGAs are distributed abundantly on mucosal epithelia, red blood cell membranes, and also secreted in biological fluids, such as saliva, intestinal content, milk, and blood. HBGAs are fucosylated glycans that have been implicated in the attachment of some enteric pathogens such as bacteria, parasites, and viruses. Single nucleotide polymorphisms in the genes encoding ABO (H), fucosyltransferase gene FUT2 (Secretor/Se), FUT3 (Lewis/Le) have been associated with changes in enzyme expression and HBGAs production. The highly polymorphic HBGAs among different populations and races influence genotype-specific susceptibility or resistance to enteric pathogens and its epidemiology, and vaccination seroconversion. Therefore, there is an urgent need to conduct population-based investigations to understand predisposition to enteric infections and gastrointestinal diseases. This review focuses on the relationship between HBGAs and predisposition to common human gastrointestinal illnesses caused by viral, bacterial, and parasitic agents.

Rotavirus Interactions With Host Intestinal Epithelial Cells

Rotavirus (RV) is the foremost enteric pathogen associated with severe diarrheal illness in young children (<5years) and animals worldwide. RV primarily infects mature enterocytes in the intestinal epithelium causing villus atrophy, enhanced epithelial cell turnover and apoptosis. Intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) being the first physical barrier against RV infection employs a range of innate immune strategies to counteract RVs invasion, including mucus production, toll-like receptor signaling and cytokine/chemokine production. Conversely, RVs have evolved numerous mechanisms to escape/subvert host immunity, seizing translation machinery of the host for effective replication and transmission. RV cell entry process involve penetration through the outer mucus layer, interaction with cell surface molecules and intestinal microbiota before reaching the IECs. For successful cell attachment and entry, RVs use sialic acid, histo-blood group antigens, heat shock cognate protein 70 and cell-surface integrins as attachment factors and/or (co)-receptors. In this review, a comprehensive summary of the existing knowledge of mechanisms underlying RV-IECs interactions, including the role of gut microbiota, during RV infection is presented. Understanding these mechanisms is imperative for developing efficacious strategies to control RV infections, including development of antiviral therapies and vaccines that target specific immune system antagonists within IECs.

The Role of Host Glycobiology and Gut Microbiota in Rotavirus and Norovirus Infection, an Update

Rotavirus (RV) and norovirus (NoV) are the leading causes of acute gastroenteritis (AGE) worldwide. Several studies have demonstrated that histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) have a role in NoV and RV infections since their presence on the gut epithelial surfaces is essential for the susceptibility to many NoV and RV genotypes. Polymorphisms in genes that code for enzymes required for HBGAs synthesis lead to secretor or non-secretor and Lewis positive or Lewis negative individuals. While secretor individuals appear to be more susceptible to RV infections, regarding NoVs infections, there are too many discrepancies that prevent the ability to draw conclusions. A second factor that influences enteric viral infections is the gut microbiota of the host. In vitro and animal studies have determined that the gut microbiota limits, but in some cases enhances enteric viral infection. The ways that microbiota can enhance NoV or RV infection include virion stabilization and promotion of virus attachment to host cells, whereas experiments with microbiota-depleted and germ-free animals point to immunoregulation as the mechanism by which the microbiota restrict infection. Human trials with live, attenuated RV vaccines and analysis of the microbiota in responder and non-responder individuals also allowed the identification of bacterial taxa linked to vaccine efficacy. As more information is gained on the complex relationships that are established between the host (glycobiology and immune system), the gut microbiota and intestinal viruses, new avenues will open for the development of novel anti-NoV and anti-RV therapies.

Structural basis of P[II] rotavirus evolution and host ranges under selection of histo-blood group antigens

Group A rotaviruses cause severe gastroenteritis in infants and young children worldwide, with P[II] genogroup rotaviruses (RVs) responsible for >90% of global cases. RVs have diverse host ranges in different human and animal populations determined by host histo-blood group antigen (HBGA) receptor polymorphism, but details governing diversity, host ranges, and species barriers remain elusive. In this study, crystal structures of complexes of the major P[II] genogroup P[4] and P[8] genotype RV VP8* receptor-binding domains together with Lewis epitope-containing LNDFH I glycans in combination with VP8* receptor-glycan ligand affinity measurements based on NMR titration experiments revealed the structural basis for RV genotype-specific switching between ββ and βα HBGA receptor-binding sites that determine RV host ranges. The data support the hypothesis that P[II] RV evolution progressed from animals to humans under the selection of type 1 HBGAs guided by stepwise host synthesis of type 1 ABH and Lewis HBGAs. The results help explain disease burden, species barriers, epidemiology, and limited efficacy of current RV vaccines in developing countries. The structural data has the potential to impact the design of future vaccine strategies against RV gastroenteritis.

Effect of Infant and Maternal Secretor Status on Rotavirus Vaccine Take-An Overview

Histo-blood group antigens, which are present on gut epithelial surfaces, function as receptors or attachment factors and mediate susceptibility to rotavirus infection. The major determinant for susceptibility is a functional FUT2 enzyme which mediates the presence of α-1,2 fucosylated blood group antigens in mucosa and secretions, yielding the secretor-positive phenotype. Secretors are more susceptible to infection with predominant rotavirus genotypes, as well as to the commonly used live rotavirus vaccines. Difference in susceptibility to the vaccines is one proposed factor for the varying degree of efficacy observed between countries. Besides infection susceptibility, secretor status has been found to modulate rotavirus specific antibody levels in adults, as well as composition of breastmilk in mothers and microbiota of the infant, which are other proposed factors affecting rotavirus vaccine take. Here, the known and possible effects of secretor status in both infant and mother on rotavirus vaccine take are reviewed and discussed.

Virus Etiology, Diversity and Clinical Characteristics in South African Children Hospitalised with Gastroenteritis

BACKGROUND

Viral gastroenteritis remains a major cause of hospitalisation in young children. This study aimed to determine the distribution and diversity of enteric viruses in children ≤5 years, hospitalised with gastroenteritis at Kalafong Provincial Tertiary Hospital, Pretoria, South Africa, between July 2016 and December 2017.

METHODS

Stool specimens (n = 205) were screened for norovirus GI and GII, rotavirus, sapovirus, astrovirus and adenovirus by multiplex RT-PCR. HIV exposure and FUT2 secretor status were evaluated. Secretor status was determined by FUT2 genotyping.

RESULTS

At least one gastroenteritis virus was detected in 47% (96/205) of children. Rotavirus predominated (46/205), followed by norovirus (32/205), adenovirus (15/205), sapovirus (9/205) and astrovirus (3/205). Norovirus genotypes GI.3, GII.2, GII.3, GII.4, GII.7, GII.12, GII.21, and rotavirus strains G1P[8], G2P[4], G2P[6], G3P[4], G3P[8], G8P[4], G8P[6], G9P[6], G9P[8] and sapovirus genotypes GI.1, GI.2, GII.1, GII.4, GII.8 were detected; norovirus GII.4[P31] and rotavirus G3P[4] predominated. Asymptomatic norovirus infection (GI.3, GI.7, GII.4, GII.6, GII.13) was detected in 22% of 46 six-week follow up stools. HIV exposure (30%) was not associated with more frequent or severe viral gastroenteritis hospitalisations compared to unexposed children. Rotavirus preferentially infected secretor children (p = 0.143) and norovirus infected 78% secretors and 22% non-secretors.

CONCLUSION

Rotavirus was still the leading cause of gastroenteritis hospitalisations, but norovirus caused more severe symptoms.

Characterization of a hospital-based gastroenteritis outbreak caused by GII.6 norovirus in Jinshan, China

An acute gastroenteritis (AGE) outbreak caused by a norovirus occurred at a hospital in Shanghai, China, was studied for molecular epidemiology, host susceptibility and serological roles. Rectal and environmental swabs, paired serum samples and saliva specimens were collected. Pathogens were detected by real-time polymerase chain reaction and DNA sequencing. Histo-blood group antigens (HBGA) phenotypes of saliva samples and their binding to norovirus protruding proteins were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The HBGA-binding interfaces and the surrounding region were analysed by the MegAlign program of DNAstar 7.1. Twenty-seven individuals in two care units were attacked with AGE at attack rates of 9.02 and 11.68%. Eighteen (78.2%) symptomatic and five (38.4%) asymptomatic individuals were GII.6/b norovirus positive. Saliva-based HBGA phenotyping showed that all symptomatic and asymptomatic cases belonged to A, B, AB or O secretors. Only four (16.7%) out of the 24 tested serum samples showed low blockade activity against HBGA-norovirus binding at the acute phase, whereas 11 (45.8%) samples at the convalescence stage showed seroconversion of such blockade. Specific blockade antibody in the population played an essential role in this norovirus epidemic. A wide HBGA-binding spectrum of GII.6 supports a need for continuous health attention and surveillance in different settings.

FUT2 Secretor Status Influences Susceptibility to VP4 Strain-Specific Rotavirus Infections in South African Children

Gastroenteritis is a preventable cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Rotavirus vaccination has significantly reduced the disease burden, but the sub-optimal vaccine efficacy observed in low-income regions needs improvement. Rotavirus VP4 'spike' proteins interact with FUT2-defined, human histo-blood group antigens on mucosal surfaces, potentially influencing strain circulation and the efficacy of P[8]-based rotavirus vaccines. Secretor status was investigated in 500 children <5 years-old hospitalised with diarrhoea, including 250 previously genotyped rotavirus-positive cases (P[8] = 124, P[4] = 86, and P[6] = 40), and 250 rotavirus-negative controls. Secretor status genotyping detected the globally prevalent G428A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) and was confirmed by Sanger sequencing in 10% of participants. The proportions of secretors in rotavirus-positive cases (74%) were significantly higher than in the rotavirus-negative controls (58%; p < 0.001). The rotavirus genotypes P[8] and P[4] were observed at significantly higher proportions in secretors (78%) than in non-secretors (22%), contrasting with P[6] genotypes with similar proportions amongst secretors (53%) and non-secretors (47%; p = 0.001). This suggests that rotavirus interacts with secretors and non-secretors in a VP4 strain-specific manner; thus, secretor status may partially influence rotavirus VP4 wild-type circulation and P[8] rotavirus vaccine efficacy. The study detected a mutation (rs1800025) ~50 bp downstream of the G428A SNP that would overestimate non-secretors in African populations when using the TaqMan® SNP Genotyping Assay.

FUT2, Secretor Status and FUT3 Polymorphisms of Children with Acute Diarrhea Infected with Rotavirus and Norovirus in Brazil

Host susceptibility according to human histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) is widely known for norovirus infection, but is less described for rotavirus. Due to the variable HBGA polymorphism among populations, we aimed to evaluate the association between HBGA phenotypes (ABH, Lewis and secretor status) and susceptibility to rotavirus and norovirus symptomatic infection, and the polymorphisms of FUT2 and FUT3, of children from southeastern Brazil. Paired fecal-buccal specimens from 272 children with acute diarrhea were used to determine rotavirus/norovirus genotypes and HBGAs phenotypes/genotypes, respectively. Altogether, 100 (36.8%) children were infected with rotavirus and norovirus. The rotavirus P[8] genotype predominates (85.7%). Most of the noroviruses (93.8%) belonged to genogroup II (GII). GII.4 Sydney represented 76% (35/46) amongst five other genotypes. Rotavirus and noroviruses infected predominantly children with secretor status (97% and 98.5%, respectively). However, fewer rotavirus-infected children were Lewis-negative (8.6%) than the norovirus-infected ones (18.5%). FUT3 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) occurred mostly at the T59G > G508A > T202C > C314T positions. Our results reinforce the current knowledge that secretors are more susceptible to infection by both rotavirus and norovirus than non-secretors. The high rate for Lewis negative (17.1%) and the combination of SNPs, beyond the secretor status, may reflect the highly mixed population in Brazil.

Epidemiology and HBGA-susceptibility investigation of a G9P[8] rotavirus outbreak in a school in Lechang, China

Rotaviruses cause severe gastroenteritis in infants, in which the viruses interact with human histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) as attachment and host susceptibility factors. While gastroenteritis outbreaks caused by rotaviruses are uncommon in adolescents, we reported here one that occurred in a middle school in China. Rectal swabs and saliva samples were collected from symptomatic and asymptomatic students, and samples were also collected from the environment. Using PCR, followed by DNA sequencing, a single G9P[8] rotavirus strain was identified as the causative agent. The attack rate of the outbreak was 13.5% for boarders, which was significantly higher than that of day students (1.8%). Person-to-person transmission was the most plausible transmission mode. The HBGA phenotypes of the individuals in the study were determined by enzyme immunoassay, using saliva samples, while recombinant VP8* protein of the causative rotavirus strain was produced for HBGA binding assays to evaluate the host susceptibility. Our data showed that secretor individuals had a significantly higher risk of infection than nonsecretors. Accordingly, the VP8* protein bound nearly all secretor saliva samples, but not those of nonsecretors, explaining the observed infection of secretor individuals only. This is the first single-outbreak-based investigation showing that P[8] rotavirus infected only secretors. Our investigation also suggests that health education of school students is an important countermeasure against an outbreak of communicable disease.

Structural Basis of Glycan Recognition in Globally Predominant Human P[8] Rotavirus

Rotavirus (RV) causes acute gastroenteritis in infants and children worldwide. Recent studies showed that glycans such as histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) function as cell attachment factors affecting RV host susceptibility and prevalence. P[8] is the predominant RV genotype in humans, but the structural basis of how P[8] RVs interact with glycan ligands remains elusive. In this study, we characterized the interactions between P[8] VP8*s and glycans which showed that VP8*, the RV glycan binding domain, recognized both mucin core 2 and H type 1 antigens according to the ELISA-based oligosaccharide binding assays. Importantly, we determined the structural basis of P[8] RV-glycans interaction from the crystal structures of a Rotateq P[8] VP8* in complex with core 2 and H type 1 glycans at 1.8 Å and 2.3 Å, respectively, revealing a common binding pocket and similar binding mode. Structural and sequence analysis demonstrated that the glycan binding site is conserved among RVs in the P[II] genogroup, while genotype-specific amino acid variations determined different glycan binding preference. Our data elucidated the detailed structural basis of the interactions between human P[8] RVs and different host glycan factors, shedding light on RV infection, epidemiology, and development of anti-viral agents.

Molecular basis of P[II] major human rotavirus VP8* domain recognition of histo-blood group antigens

Initial cell attachment of rotavirus (RV) to specific cell surface glycan receptors, which is the essential first step in RV infection, is mediated by the VP8* domain of the spike protein VP4. Recently, human histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) have been identified as receptors or attachment factors for human RV strains. RV strains in the P[4] and P[8] genotypes of the P[II] genogroup share common recognition of the Lewis b (Le^b) and H type 1 antigens, however, the molecular basis of receptor recognition by the major human P[8] RVs remains unknown due to lack of experimental structural information. Here, we used nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy-based titration experiments and NMR-derived high ambiguity driven docking (HADDOCK) methods to elucidate the molecular basis for P[8] VP8* recognition of the Le^b (LNDFH I) and type 1 HBGAs. We also used X-ray crystallography to determine the molecular details underlying P[6] recognition of H type 1 HBGAs. Unlike P[6]/P[19] VP8*s that recognize H type 1 HBGAs in a binding surface composed of an α-helix and a β-sheet, referred as the “βα binding site”, the P[8] and P[4] VP8*s bind Le^b HBGAs in a previously undescribed pocket formed by the edges of two β-sheets, referred to as the “ββ binding site”. Importantly, the P[8] and P[4] VP8*s retain binding capability to non-Le^b type 1 HBGAs using the βα binding site. The presence of two distinct binding sites for Le^b and non-Le^b HBGA glycans in the P[8] and P[4] VP8* domains suggests host-pathogen co-evolution under structural and functional adaptation of RV pathogens to host glycan polymorphisms. Assessment and understanding of the precise impact of this co-evolutionary process in determining RV host ranges and cross-species RV transmission should facilitate improved RV vaccine development and prediction of future RV strain emergence and epidemics.

Rotaviruses (RV)s are the main cause of severe diarrhea in humans and animals. Significant advances in understanding RV diversity, evolution and epidemiology have been made after discovering that RVs recognize histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) as host cell receptors or attachment factors. While different RV strains are known to have distinct binding preferences for HBGA receptor ligands, their molecular basis in controlling strain-specific host ranges remains unclear. In this study, we used solution nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and X-ray crystallography to determine the molecular-level details for interactions of the human P[8] and P[6] RV VP8* domains with their HBGA receptors ligands. The distinct binding patterns observed between these major human RVs and their respective glycan ligands provide insight into the evolutionary relationships between different P[II] genotypes that ultimately determine host ranges, disease burden, zoonosis and epidemiology, which may impact future strategies for development of vaccines to protect against RV infections.

The Impact of Human Genetic Polymorphisms on Rotavirus Susceptibility, Epidemiology, and Vaccine Take

Innate resistance to viral infections can be attributed to mutations in genes involved in the immune response, or to the receptor/ligand. A remarkable example of the latter is the recently described Mendelian trait resistance to clinically important and globally predominating genotypes of rotavirus, the most common agent of severe dehydrating gastroenteritis in children worldwide. This resistance appears to be rotavirus genotype-dependent and is mainly mediated by histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs), which function as a receptor or attachment factors on gut epithelial surfaces. HBGA synthesis is mediated by fucosyltransferases and glycosyltransferases under the genetic control of the FUT2 (secretor), FUT3 (Lewis), and ABO (H) genes on chromosome 19. Significant genotypic and phenotypic diversity of HBGA expression exists between different human populations. This genetic diversity has an effect on genotype-specific susceptibility, molecular epidemiology, and vaccine take. Here, we will discuss studies on genetic susceptibility to rotavirus infection and place them in the context of population susceptibility, rotavirus epidemiology, vaccine take, and public health impact.

Accumulation and Depuration Kinetics of Rotavirus in Mussels Experimentally Contaminated

Bivalve mollusks as filter-feeders concentrate in their digestive tissue microorganisms likely present in the harvesting water, thus becoming risky food especially if consumed raw or poorly cooked. To eliminate bacteria and viruses eventually accumulated, they must undergo a depuration process which efficacy on viruses is on debate. To better clarify the worth of the depuration process on virus elimination from mussels, in this study we investigated rotavirus kinetics of accumulation and depuration in Mytilus galloprovincialis experimentally contaminated. Depuration process was monitored for 9 days and virus residual presence and infectivity were evaluated by real time quantitative polymerase chain reaction, cell culture and electron microscopy at days 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9 of depuration. Variables like presence of ozone and of microalgae feeding were also analyzed as possible depuration enhancers. Results showed a two-phase virus removal kinetic with a high decrease in the first 24 h of depuration and 5 days necessary to completely remove rotavirus.

Nonsecretor Histo-blood Group Antigen Phenotype Is Associated With Reduced Risk of Clinical Rotavirus Vaccine Failure in Malawian Infants

BACKGROUND

Histo-blood group antigen (HBGA) Lewis/secretor phenotypes predict genotype-specific susceptibility to rotavirus gastroenteritis (RVGE). We tested the hypothesis that nonsecretor/Lewis-negative phenotype leads to reduced vaccine take and lower clinical protection following vaccination with G1P[8] rotavirus vaccine (RV1) in Malawian infants.

METHODS

A cohort study recruited infants receiving RV1 at age 6 and 10 weeks. HBGA phenotype was determined by salivary enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). RV1 vaccine virus shedding was detected by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) in stool collected on alternate days for 10 days post-immunization. Plasma rotavirus-specific immunoglobulin A was determined by ELISA pre- and post-immunization. In a case-control study, HBGA phenotype distribution was compared between RV1-vaccinated infants with RVGE and 1:1 age-matched community controls. Rotavirus genotype was determined by RT-PCR.

RESULTS

In 202 cohort participants, neither overall vaccine virus fecal shedding nor seroconversion differed by HBGA phenotype. In 238 case-control infants, nonsecretor phenotype was less common in infants with clinical vaccine failure (odds ratio [OR], 0.39; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.20-0.75). Nonsecretor phenotype was less common in infants with P[8] RVGE (OR, 0.12; 95% CI, 0.03-0.50) and P[4] RVGE (OR, 0.17; 95% CI, 0.04-0.75). Lewis-negative phenotype was more common in infants with P[6] RVGE (OR, 3.2; 95% CI, 1.4-7.2).

CONCLUSIONS

Nonsecretor phenotype was associated with reduced risk of rotavirus vaccine failure. There was no significant association between HBGA phenotype and vaccine take. These data refute the hypothesis that high prevalence of nonsecretor/Lewis-negative phenotypes contributes to lower rotavirus vaccine effectiveness in Malawi.

Histo-blood group antigens and rotavirus vaccine shedding in Nicaraguan infants

ABO, Lewis and secretor histo-blood group antigens (HBGA) are susceptibility factors for rotavirus in a P-genotype dependent manner and can influence IgA seroconversion rates following rotavirus vaccination. To investigate the association between HBGA phenotypes and rotavirus vaccine shedding fecal samples (n = 304) from a total of 141 infants vaccinated with Rotarix (n = 71) and RotaTeq (n = 70) were prospectively sampled in three time frames (≤3, 4–7 and ≥8 days) after first vaccination dose. Rotavirus was detected with qPCR and genotypes determined by G/P multiplex PCR and/or sequencing. HBGAs were determined by hemagglutination and saliva based ELISA. Low shedding rates were observed, with slightly more children vaccinated with RotaTeq (19%) than Rotarix (11%) shedding rotavirus at ≥4 days post vaccination (DPV). At ≥4 DPV no infant of Lewis A (n = 6) or nonsecretor (n = 9) phenotype in the Rotarix cohort shed rotavirus; the same observation was made for Lewis A infants (n = 7) in the RotaTeq cohort. Putative in-vivo gene reassortment among RotaTeq strains occurred, yielding mainly G1P[8] strains. The bovine derived P[5] genotype included in RotaTeq was able to replicate and be shed at long time frames (>13 DPV). The results of this study are consistent with that HBGA phenotype influences vaccine strain shedding as similarly observed for natural infections. Due to the low overall shedding rates observed, additional studies are however warranted.

Histo-Blood Group Antigen Phenotype Determines Susceptibility to Genotype-Specific Rotavirus Infections and Impacts Measures of Rotavirus Vaccine Efficacy

Background

Lewis and secretor histo–blood group antigens (HBGAs) have been associated with decreased susceptibility to P[8] genotype rotavirus (RV) infections. Efficacy of vaccines containing attenuated P[8] strains is decreased in low-income countries. Host phenotype might impact vaccine efficacy (VE) by altering susceptibility to vaccination or RV diarrhea (RVD). We performed a substudy in a monovalent RV vaccine (RV1) efficacy trial in Bangladesh to determine the impact of Lewis and secretor status on risk of RVD and VE.

Methods

In infants randomized to receive RV1 or no RV1 at 10 and 17 weeks with 1 year of complete active diarrheal surveillance, we performed Lewis and secretor phenotyping and genotyped the infecting strain of each episode of RVD.

Results

A vaccine containing P[8] RV protected secretors and nonsecretors similarly. However, unvaccinated nonsecretors had a reduced risk of RVD (relative risk, 0.53 [95% confidence interval, .36–.79]) mediated by complete protection from P[4] but not P[8] RVs. This effect reduced VE in nonsecretors to 31.7%, compared to 56.2% among secretors, and decreased VE for the overall cohort.

Conclusions

Host HBGA status may impact VE estimates by altering susceptibility to RV in unvaccinated children; future trials should therefore account for HBGA status.

Clinical Trials Registration

NCT01375647.

Effects of Child and Maternal Histo-Blood Group Antigen Status on Symptomatic and Asymptomatic Enteric Infections in Early Childhood

BACKGROUND

Histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) such as fucosyltransferase (FUT)2 and 3 may act as innate host factors that differentially influence susceptibility of individuals and their offspring to pediatric enteric infections.

METHODS

In 3 community-based birth cohorts, FUT2 and FUT3 statuses were ascertained for mother-child dyads. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction panels tested 3663 diarrheal and 18 148 asymptomatic stool samples for 29 enteropathogens. Cumulative diarrhea and infection incidence were compared by child (n = 520) and mothers' (n = 519) HBGA status and hazard ratios (HRs) derived for all-cause diarrhea and specific enteropathogens.

RESULTS

Children of secretor (FUT2 positive) mothers had a 38% increased adjusted risk of all-cause diarrhea (HR = 1.38; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.15-1.66) and significantly reduced time to first diarrheal episode. Child FUT2 and FUT3 positivity reduced the risk for all-cause diarrhea by 29% (HR = 0.81; 95% CI, 0.71-0.93) and 27% (HR = 0.83; 95% CI, 0.74-0.92), respectively. Strong associations between HBGAs and pathogen-specific infection and diarrhea were observed, particularly for noroviruses, rotaviruses, enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, and Campylobacter jejuni/coli.

CONCLUSIONS

Histo-blood group antigens affect incidence of all-cause diarrhea and enteric infections at magnitudes comparable to many common disease control interventions. Studies measuring impacts of interventions on childhood enteric disease should account for both child and mothers' HBGA status.

Histo-Blood Group Antigens in Children with Symptomatic Rotavirus Infection

Group A rotaviruses are a major cause of acute gastroenteritis in children. The diversity and unequal geographical prevalence of rotavirus genotypes have been linked to histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) in different human populations. In order to evaluate the role of HBGAs in rotavirus infections in our population, secretor status (FUT2+), ABO blood group, and Lewis antigens were determined in children attended for rotavirus gastroenteritis in Valencia, Spain. During three consecutive years (2013-2015), stool and saliva samples were collected from 133 children with rotavirus infection. Infecting viral genotypes and HBGAs were determined in patients and compared to a control group and data from blood donors. Rotavirus G9P[8] was the most prevalent strain (49.6%), followed by G1P[8] (20.3%) and G12P[8] (14.3%). Rotavirus infected predominantly secretor (99%) and Lewis b positive (91.7%) children. Children with blood group A and AB were significantly more prone to rotavirus gastroenteritis than those with blood group O. Our results confirm that a HBGA genetic background is linked to rotavirus P[8] susceptibility. Rotavirus P[8] symptomatic infection is manifestly more frequent in secretor-positive (FUT2+) than in non-secretor individuals, although no differences between rotavirus G genotypes were found.

Histo-blood group antigen-binding specificities of human rotaviruses are associated with gastroenteritis but not with in vitro infection

Human strains of rotavirus A (RVAs) recognize fucosylated glycans belonging to histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) through their spike protein VP8*. Lack of these ligands due to genetic polymorphisms is associated with resistance to gastroenteritis caused by P[8] genotype RVAs. With the aim to delineate the contribution of HBGAs in the process, we analyzed the glycan specificity of VP8* proteins from various P genotypes. Binding to saliva of VP8* from P[8] and P[4] genotypes required expression of both FUT2 and FUT3 enzymes, whilst binding of VP8* from the P[14] genotype required FUT2 and A enzymes. We further defined a glycan motif, GlcNAcβ3Galβ4GlcNAc, recognized by P[6] clinical strains. Conversion into Lewis antigens by the FUT3 enzyme impaired recognition, explaining their lower binding to saliva of Lewis positive phenotype. In addition, the presence of neutralizing antibodies was associated with the presence of the FUT2 wild type allele in sera from young healthy adults. Nonetheless, in vitro infection of transformed cell lines was independent of HBGAs expression, indicating that HBGAs are not human RV receptors. The match between results from saliva-based binding assays and the epidemiological data indicates that the polymorphism of human HBGAs controls susceptibility to RVAs, although the exact mechanism remains unclear.

Glycan recognition in globally dominant human rotaviruses

Rotaviruses (RVs) cause life-threatening diarrhea in infants and children worldwide. Recent biochemical and epidemiological studies underscore the importance of histo-blood group antigens (HBGA) as both cell attachment and susceptibility factors for the globally dominant P[4], P[6], and P[8] genotypes of human RVs. How these genotypes interact with HBGA is not known. Here, our crystal structures of P[4] and a neonate-specific P[6] VP8*s alone and in complex with H-type I HBGA reveal a unique glycan binding site that is conserved in the globally dominant genotypes and allows for the binding of ABH HBGAs, consistent with their prevalence. Remarkably, the VP8* of P[6] RVs isolated from neonates displays subtle structural changes in this binding site that may restrict its ability to bind branched glycans. This provides a structural basis for the age-restricted tropism of some P[6] RVs as developmentally regulated unbranched glycans are more abundant in the neonatal gut.

Human rotaviruses (RV) bind to histo-blood group antigens (HBGA) for attachment, but how different viral genotypes interact with HBGA isn’t known. Here, Hu et al. report crystal structures of a prevalent and a neonate-specific RV in complex with HBGA and provide insights into glycan recognition and age-restricted tropism of RVs.

Human Milk Oligosaccharides as Promising Antivirals

Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are diverse unconjugated carbohydrates that are highly abundant in human breast milk. These glycans are investigated in the context of exhibiting multiple functions in infant growth and development. They seem to provide protection against infectious diseases, including a number of poorly manageable viral infections. Although the potential mechanism of the HMO antiviral protection is rather broad, much of the current experimental work has focused on studying of HMO antiadhesive properties. HMOs may mimic structures of viral receptors and block adherence to target cells, thus preventing infection. Still, the potential of HMOs as a source for new antiviral drugs is relatively unexploited. This can be partly attributed to the extreme complexity of the virus-carbohydrate interactions and technical difficulties in HMO isolation, characterization, and manufacturing procedures. Fortunately, we are currently entering a period of major technological advances that have enabled deeper insights into carbohydrate mediated viral entry, rational selection of HMOs as anti-entry inhibitors, and even evaluation of individual synthetic HMO structures. Here, we provide an up-to-date review on glycan binding studies for rotaviruses, noroviruses, influenza viruses, and human immunodeficiency viruses. We also discuss the preventive and therapeutic potential of HMOs as anti-entry inhibitors and address challenges on the route from fundamental studies to clinical trials.

The Lewis A phenotype is a restriction factor for Rotateq and Rotarix vaccine-take in Nicaraguan children

Histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) and the Lewis and secretor antigens are associated with susceptibility to rotavirus infection in a genotype-dependent manner. Nicaraguan children were prospectively enrolled in two cohorts vaccinated with either RotaTeq RV5 (n = 68) or Rotarix RV1 (n = 168). Lewis and secretor antigens were determined by saliva phenotyping and genotyping. Seroconversion was defined as a 4-fold increase in plasma IgA antibody titer 1 month after administration of the first dose of the vaccine. Regardless of the vaccine administered, significantly fewer of the children with Lewis A phenotype (0/14) seroconverted after receiving the first vaccine dose compared to 26% (45/175) of those with the Lewis B phenotype and 32% (15/47) of the Lewis negative individuals (P < 0.01). Furthermore, following administration of the RV1 vaccine, secretor-positive ABO blood group B children seroconverted to a significantly lesser extent (5%) compared to secretor-positive children with ABO blood groups A (26%) and O (27%) (P < 0.05). Other factors such as pre-vaccination titers, sex, breastfeeding, and calprotectin levels did not influence vaccine-take. Differences in HBGA expression appear to be a contributing factor in the discrepancy in vaccine-take and thus, in vaccine efficacy in different ethnic populations.

Position and orientation measurement adopting camera calibrated by projection geometry of Plücker matrices of three-dimensional lines

A position and orientation measurement method is investigated by adopting a camera calibrated by the projection geometry of the skew-symmetric Plücker matrices of 3D lines. The relationship between the Plücker matrices of the dual 3D lines and the 2D projective lines is provided in two vertical world coordinate planes. The transform matrix is generated from the projections of the 3D lines. The differences between the coordinates of the reprojective lines and the coordinates of extracted lines are employed to verify the calibration validity. Moreover, the differences between the standard movement distance of the target and the measurement distance are also presented to compare the calibration accuracy of the 3D line to 2D line method and the point-based method. Furthermore, we also explore the noise immunity of the two methods by adding Gaussian noises. Finally, an example to measure the position and orientation of a cart is performed as an application case of this method. The results are tabled for the reproduction by the readers. The results demonstrate that the line to line method contributes higher calibration accuracy and better noise immunity. The position and orientation measurement adopting the line to line method is valid for the future applications.