Down-regulation of β-arrestin2 promotes tumour invasion and indicates poor prognosis of hepatocellular carcinoma

Insight into the regulatory mechanism of β-arrestin2 and its emerging role in diseases

β-arrestin2, a member of the arrestin family, mediates the desensitization and internalization of most G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and functions as a scaffold protein in signalling pathways. Previous studies have demonstrated that β-arrestin2 expression is dysregulated in malignant tumours, fibrotic diseases, cardiovascular diseases and metabolic diseases, suggesting its pathological roles. Transcription and post-transcriptional modifications can affect the expression of β-arrestin2. Furthermore, post-translational modifications, such as phosphorylation, ubiquitination, SUMOylation and S-nitrosylation affect the cellular localization of β-arrestin2 and its interaction with downstream signalling molecules, which further regulate the activity of β-arrestin2. This review summarizes the structure and function of β-arrestin2 and reveals the mechanisms involved in the regulation of β-arrestin2 at multiple levels. Additionally, recent studies on the role of β-arrestin2 in some major diseases and its therapeutic prospects have been discussed to provide a reference for the development of drugs targeting β-arrestin2.

Comprehensive analyses for the coagulation and macrophage-related genes to reveal their joint roles in the prognosis and immunotherapy of lung adenocarcinoma patients

Purpose

This study aims to explore novel biomarkers related to the coagulation process and tumor-associated macrophage (TAM) infiltration in lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD).

Methods

The macrophage M2-related genes were obtained by Weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analysis (WGCNA) in bulk RNA-seq data, while the TAM marker genes were identified by analyzing the scRNA-seq data, and the coagulation-associated genes were obtained from MSigDB and KEGG databases. Survival analysis was performed for the intersectional genes. A risk score model was subsequently constructed based on the survival-related genes for prognosis prediction and validated in external datasets.

Results

In total, 33 coagulation and macrophage-related (COMAR) genes were obtained, 19 of which were selected for the risk score model construction. Finally, 10 survival-associated genes (APOE, ARRB2, C1QB, F13A1, FCGR2A, FYN, ITGB2, MMP9, OLR1, and VSIG4) were involved in the COMAR risk score model. According to the risk score, patients were equally divided into low- and high-risk groups, and the prognosis of patients in the high-risk group was significantly worse than that in the low-risk group. The ROC curve indicated that the risk score model had high sensitivity and specificity, which was validated in multiple external datasets. Moreover, the model also had high efficacy in predicting the clinical outcomes of LUAD patients who received anti-PD-1/PD-L1 immunotherapy.

Conclusion

The COMAR risk score model constructed in this study has excellent predictive value for the prognosis and immunotherapeutic clinical outcomes of patients with LUAD, which provides potential biomarkers for the treatment and prognostic prediction.

β-arrestin 2 negatively regulates lung cancer progression by inhibiting the TRAF6 signaling axis for NF-κB activation and autophagy induced by TLR3 and TLR4

β-arrestin 2 (ARRB2) is functionally implicated in cancer progression via various signaling pathways. However, its role in lung cancer remains unclear. To obtain clinical insight on its function in lung cancer, microarray data from lung tumor tissues (LTTs) and matched lung normal tissues (mLNTs) of primary non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients (n = 37) were utilized. ARRB2 expression levels were markedly decreased in all 37 LTTs compared to those in matched LNTs of NSCLC patients. They were significantly co-related to enrichment gene sets associated with oncogenic and cancer genes. Importantly, Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) between three LTTs with highly down-regulated ARRB2 and three LTTs with lowly down-regulated ARRB2 revealed significant enrichments related to toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling and autophagy genes in three LTTs with highly down-regulated ARRB2, suggesting that ARRB2 was negatively involved in TLR-mediated signals for autophagy induction in lung cancer. Biochemical studies for elucidating the molecular mechanism revealed that ARRB2 interacted with TNF receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6) and Beclin 1 (BECN1), thereby inhibiting the ubiquitination of TRAF6-TAB2 to activate NF-κB and TRAF6-BECN1 for autophagy stimulated by TLR3 and TLR4, suggesting that ARRB2 could inhibit the TRAF6-TAB2 signaling axis for NF-κB activation and TRAF6-BECN1 signaling axis for autophagy in response to TLR3 and TLR4. Notably, ARRB2-knockout (ARRB2KO) lung cancer cells exhibited marked enhancements of cancer migration, invasion, colony formation, and proliferation in response to TLR3 and TLR4 stimulation. Altogether, our current data suggest that ARRB2 can negatively regulate lung cancer progression by inhibiting TLR3- and TLR4-induced autophagy.

A Novel Splice Variant of BCAS1 Inhibits β-Arrestin 2 to Promote the Proliferation and Migration of Glioblastoma Cells, and This Effect Was Blocked by Maackiain

Brain-enriched myelin-associated protein 1 (BCAS1) is frequently highly expressed in human cancer, but its detailed function is unclear. Here, we identified a novel splice variant of the BCAS1 gene in glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) named BCAS1-SV1. The expression of BCAS1-SV1 was weak in heathy brain cells but high in GBM cell lines. The overexpression of BCAS1-SV1 significantly increased the proliferation and migration of GBM cells, whereas the RNA-interference-mediated knockdown of BCAS1-SV1 reduced proliferation and migration. Moreover, using a yeast-two hybrid assay, immunoprecipitation, and immunofluorescence staining, we confirmed that β-arrestin 2 is an interaction partner of BCAS1-SV1 but not BCAS1. The downregulation of β-arrestin 2 directly enhanced the malignancy of GBM and abrogated the effects of BCAS1-SV1 on GBM cells. Finally, we used a yeast two-hybrid-based growth assay to identify that maackiain (MK) is a potential inhibitor of the interaction between BCAS1-SV1 and β-arrestin 2. MK treatment lessened the proliferation and migration of GBM cells and prolonged the lifespan of tumor-bearing mice in subcutaneous xenograft and intracranial U87-luc xenograft models. This study provides the first evidence that the gain-of-function BCAS1-SV1 splice variant promotes the development of GBM by suppressing the β-arrestin 2 pathway and opens up a new therapeutic perspective in GBM.

Deciphering the signaling mechanisms of β-arrestin1 and β-arrestin2 in regulation of cancer cell cycle and metastasis

β-Arrestins are ubiquitously expressed intracellular proteins with many functions which interact directly and indirectly with a wide number of cellular partners and mediate downstream signaling. Originally, β-arrestins were identified for their contribution to GPCR desensitization to agonist-mediated activation, followed by receptor endocytosis and ubiquitylation. However, current investigations have now recognized that in addition to GPCR arresting (hence the name arrestin). β-Arrestins are adaptor proteins that control the recruitment, activation, and scaffolding of numerous cytoplasmic signaling complexes and assist in G-protein receptor signaling, thus bringing them into close proximity. They have participated in various cellular processes such as cell proliferation, migration, apoptosis, and transcription via canonical and noncanonical pathways. Despite their significant recognition in several physiological processes, these activities are also involved in the onset and progression of various cancers. This review delivers a concise overview of the role of β-arrestins with a primary emphasis on the signaling processes which underlie the mechanism of β-arrestins in the onset of cancer. Understanding these processes has important implications for understanding the therapeutic intervention and treatment of cancer in the future.

β-arrestin2 regulating β2-adrenergic receptor signaling in hepatic stellate cells contributes to hepatocellular carcinoma progression

Background: β-arrestin2 and β2-adrenergic receptor (β2-AR) have important roles in malignant tumors, the present study aims to investigate the role of activated β2-AR in hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) during hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) progression and the regulatory effect of β-arrestin2.

Methods: Immunofluorescence and Western blot were used to detect the expression of β-arrestin2 and β2-AR in HSCs of liver tissues from human HCC samples and diethylnitrosamine (DEN)-induced HCC model mice. We next used β-arrestin2^-/- mice to demonstrate the regulatory role of β-arrestin2 in DEN mice. The subsets of T cells were quantified by flow cytometry. MTT and wound healing assay were applied to detect the proliferation and migration of cells. Co-immunoprecipitation assay was used to detect the link of β-arrestin2 and β2-AR in HSCs. Effect of β-arrestin2 overexpression on β2-AR downstream signaling pathway was verified by Western blot. The secretion of CCL2 was detected by ELISA.

Results: The expression of β2-AR was significantly increased, while β-arrestin2 was decreased in HSCs of HCC tissues. And β-arrestin2 deficiency exacerbates DEN-induced HCC accompanied with increased β2-AR expression. The results of flow cytometry showed that the percentage of activated T cells decreased gradually after DEN injection. β-arrestin2 knockout down-regulated the ratio of activated T cells. In vitro, selective activation of β2-AR in HSCs promoted the proliferation and migration of HCC cells. β-arrestin2 overexpression enhanced co-immunoprecipitation of β-arrestin2 and β2-AR in activated HSCs, and decreased its downstream Akt phosphorylation. Akt inhibitor decreased secretion of CCL2 in activated HSCs.

Conclusion: Our study demonstrated that β2-AR activation in HSCs induces the proliferation and migration of HCC cells may be through Akt signaling, and this effect appears to be regulated by β-arrestin2.

An Insight into GPCR and G-Proteins as Cancer Drivers

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest family of cell surface signaling receptors known to play a crucial role in various physiological functions, including tumor growth and metastasis. Various molecules such as hormones, lipids, peptides, and neurotransmitters activate GPCRs that enable the coupling of these receptors to highly specialized transducer proteins, called G-proteins, and initiate multiple signaling pathways. Integration of these intricate networks of signaling cascades leads to numerous biochemical responses involved in diverse pathophysiological activities, including cancer development. While several studies indicate the role of GPCRs in controlling various aspects of cancer progression such as tumor growth, invasion, migration, survival, and metastasis through its aberrant overexpression, mutations, or increased release of agonists, the explicit mechanisms of the involvement of GPCRs in cancer progression is still puzzling. This review provides an insight into the various responses mediated by GPCRs in the development of cancers, the molecular mechanisms involved and the novel pharmacological approaches currently preferred for the treatment of cancer. Thus, these findings extend the knowledge of GPCRs in cancer cells and help in the identification of therapeutics for cancer patients.

β-arrestin 2 stimulates degradation of HIF-1α and modulates tumor progression of glioblastoma

The basic function of β-arrestin 2 (Arrb2) is to negatively regulate the G-protein-coupled receptor signaling pathway through facilitating receptor desensitization and internalization. Arrb2 has also been reported to play various roles in cancer pathology including the proliferation, migration, invasion, metastasis, and apoptosis of solid tumors. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the tumorigenic capacities of Arrb2 have not been elucidated. Here, we show a novel function of Arrb2: Arrb2 facilitates the degradation of HIF-1α, which is a master regulator of oxygen homeostasis. We also demonstrate that Arrb2 interacts with HIF-1α and stimulates ubiquitin-mediated 26S proteasomal degradation of HIF-1α by recruiting PHD2 and pVHL. Overexpression of Arrb2 in human glioblastoma cells suppresses HIF-1α signaling, tumor growth, and angiogenesis. Consistent with this antitumorigenic effect of Arrb2, low Arrb2 expression levels correlate with high HIF-1α expression and poor glioblastoma patient survival. These results collectively reveal a novel function of Arrb2 in the oxygen-sensing mechanism that directly regulates HIF-1α stability in human cancers and suggest Arrb2 as a new potential therapeutic target for glioblastoma.

The Adipokine Component in the Molecular Regulation of Cancer Cell Survival, Proliferation and Metastasis

A hormonal imbalance may disrupt the rigorously monitored cellular microenvironment by hampering the natural homeostatic mechanisms. The most common example of such hormonal glitch could be seen in obesity where the uprise in adipokine levels is in virtue of the expanding bulk of adipose tissue. Such aberrant endocrine signaling disrupts the regulation of cellular fate, rendering the cells to live in a tumor supportive microenvironment. Previously, it was believed that the adipokines support cancer proliferation and metastasis with no direct involvement in neoplastic transformations and tumorigenesis. However, the recent studies have reported discrete mechanisms that establish the direct involvement of adipokine signaling in tumorigenesis. Moreover, the individual adipokine profile of the patients has never been considered in the prognosis and staging of the disease. Hence, the present manuscript has focused on the reported extensive mechanisms that culminate the basis of poor prognosis and diminished survival rate in obese cancer patients.

β-Arrestin2 Inhibits the Apoptosis and Facilitates the Proliferation of Fibroblast-like Synoviocytes in Diffuse-type Tenosynovial Giant Cell Tumor

BACKGROUND/AIM

Diffuse-type tenosynovial giant cell tumor (TGCT) is a rare benign proliferative synovial neoplasm of uncertain etiology, and the efficacy of surgical resection is not satisfactory. Therefore, there is an urgent need to explore the pathogenesis and identify novel therapeutic targets for TGCT.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Synovial tissues were collected from patients with TGCT and osteoarthritis (OA). Differences of mRNA expression between TGCT and OA were explored using mRNA-seq. In addition, fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) were treated with small interfering RNA (siRNA) or adenovirus in order to knockdown or overexpress β-arrestin2 (Arrb2), respectively. FLS proliferation and apoptosis were evaluated using the MTT assay and the caspase 3 activity assay, respectively.

RESULTS

The expression of Arrb2 in TGCT was significantly higher than that in OA. The overexpression of Arrb2 promoted the proliferation of FLS and inhibited its apoptosis, while knocking down Arrb2 had the opposite effect. Further studies showed that Arrb2 can activate the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, leading to increased proliferation of TGCT.

CONCLUSION

Arrb2 facilitates the proliferation and inhibits the apoptosis of TGCT FLS through activating the PI3K-Akt cell survival pathway, providing new insight into the molecular mechanism of TGCT.

The role and mechanism of β-arrestin2 in signal transduction

β-arrestin2 is a ubiquitously expressed scaffold protein localized on the cytoplasm and plasma membrane. It was originally found to bind to GPCRs, uncoupling G proteins and receptors' binding and inhibiting the signal transduction of the GPCRs. Further investigations have revealed that β-arrestin2 not only mediates the desensitization of GPCRs but also serves as a multifunctional scaffold to mediate receptor internalization, kinase activation, and regulation of various signaling pathways, such as TLR4/NF-κB, MAPK, Wnt, TGF-β, and AMPK/mTOR pathways. β-arrestin2 regulates cell invasion, migration, autophagy, angiogenesis, and anti-inflammatory effects by regulating various signaling pathways, which play a vital role in many physiological and pathological processes. This paper reviews the structure and function of β-arrestin2, the regulation of β-arrestin2 based signaling pathways. The role and mechanism of β-arrestin2 signaling have been delineated in sufficient detail. The prospect of regulating the expression and activity of β-arrestin2 in multisystem diseases holds substantial therapeutic promise.

Overexpression of β-Arrestins inhibits proliferation and motility in triple negative breast cancer cells

β-Arrestins (βArrs) are intracellular signal regulating proteins. Their expression level varies in some cancers and they have a significant impact on cancer cell function. In general, the significance of βArrs in cancer research comes from studies examining GPCR signalling. Given the diversity of different GPCR signals in cancer cell regulation, contradictory results are inevitable regarding the role of βArrs. Our approach examines the direct influence of βArrs on cellular function and gene expression profiles by changing their expression levels in breast cancer cells, MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468. Reducing expression of βArr1 or βArr2 tended to increase cell proliferation and invasion whereas increasing their expression levels inhibited them. The overexpression of βArrs caused cell cycle S-phase arrest and differential expression of cell cycle genes, CDC45, BUB1, CCNB1, CCNB2, CDKN2C and reduced HER3, IGF-1R, and Snail. Regarding to the clinical relevance of our results, low expression levels of βArr1 were inversely correlated with CDC45, BUB1, CCNB1, and CCNB2 genes compared to normal tissue samples while positively correlated with poorer prognosis in breast tumours. These results indicate that βArr1 and βArr2 are significantly involved in cell cycle and anticancer signalling pathways through their influence on cell cycle genes and HER3, IGF-1R, and Snail in TNBC cells.

ARRB2 promotes colorectal cancer growth through triggering WTAP

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most lethal cancers worldwide. The expression of β-arrestin2 (β-Arr2, ARRB2) in CRC has been well investigated; however, its exact mechanism causing the cancer progression remains unclear. In this study, we discovered that the expression level of ARRB2 was significantly upregulated in CRC as compared to the normal tissues by employing the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) data, western blot analysis, and immunohistochemistry. Furthermore, the level of ARRB2 was correlated with the patients' overall survival by Kaplan-Meier analysis. The higher expression of ARRB2 promoted CRC cell growth, enhanced the cell motility, and blocked cell apoptosis, which is crucial for tumor growth. Lastly, the suppression of ARRB2 expression was enough to attenuate the progression of CRC induced by azoxymethane/dextran sodium sulfate. Interestingly, we also found that the knockdown of ARRB2 decreased several cancer pathways mediated by the expression of Wilms tumor 1 associated protein (WTAP), which led to the inhibition of cell proliferation and migration. Altogether, our results demonstrated that ARRB2 promoted the growth and migration of CRC cells by regulating the WTAP expression.

Upregulated β-arrestin1 predicts poor prognosis and promotes metastasis via AKT/ERK signaling pathway in gastric cancer

BACKGROUND

β-Arrestins have been found to regulate cell proliferation, invasion and migration; transmit anti-apoptotic survival signals; and affect other characteristics of tumours. However, their role in gastric cancer (GC) is not clear. We investigated the role and mechanism of β-arrestins in the regulation of GC.

METHODS

We first examined β-arrestins mRNA levels in 17 pairs of GC tissues by qRT-PCR. We also used immunohistochemistry to further examine the expression of β-arrestins in 60 paraffin-embedded primary GC tissues and 20 normal gastric tissues. Then, the function of β-arrestin1 was investigated in vitro and in vivo.

RESULTS

β-Arrestin1 was upregulated in GC tissue and was associated with tumour stage, lymph node metastasis, invasion depth and patient sex. High expression of β-arrestin1 expression predicted poor prognosis in GC. β-Arrestin1 promoted GC cell proliferation, migration and invasion, and it suppressed E-cadherin expression and upregulated Vimentin expression via AKT/ERK signalling pathway. The in vivo metastasis assays showed that knockdown of β-arrestin1 reduced lung metastasis and inhibited EMT.

CONCLUSION

The upregulation of β-arrestin1 predicts poor prognosis and promotes metastasis and epithelial-mesenchymal transition in GC through AKT/ERK signalling pathway. This study may provide therapeutic advances for the treatment and early diagnosis of patients with metastatic GC.

GRK2 Suppresses Hepatocellular Carcinoma Metastasis and Invasion Through Down-Regulation of Prostaglandin E Receptor 2

Background

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is an aggressive form of human liver cancer and the fifth most common malignancy worldwide. Novel effective treatment strategies for HCC are urgently in clinical because of its poor response to conventional therapies. G protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs), including GRK2 and GRK3, are known that involves in various essential cellular processes and regulates numerous signaling pathways. However, the role of GRK2/3 in invasion and metastasis of HCC still remains unclear.

Materials and Methods

Immunohistochemistry, Western blot, laser confocal microscopy and qRT-PCR were used to detect the expression of GRK2/3 and EP2 in liver tissues of HCC patients and DEN-induced HCC mice. Wound healing and transwell assay were applied to measure the migration and invasion of HCC cells after transfected with GRK2 siRNA. The downstream pathway of Akt and ERK was verified by Western blot.

Results

The expression of GRK2 was significantly decreased, while GRK3 was not significantly changed in HCC tissues compared with noncancerous tissues of HCC patients. Moreover, GRK2 expression was reduced during liver tumorigenesis in diethylnitrosamine-induced liver tumor model. In addition, our in vitro study showed that GRK2 expression was gradually decreased with increasing HCC cell line metastatic potential, and GRK2 knockdown significantly promoted the migration and invasion of HCC cells. Furthermore, low GRK2 expression was associated with increased expression of EP2 receptor translocation to HCC cell membrane, and the activation of Akt pathway.

Conclusion

These data suggest that GRK2 inhibits HCC metastasis and invasion may be through regulating EP2 receptor translocation, and this effect appears to be mediated by Akt pathway.

β-Arrestin1 and β-Arrestin2 Are Required to Support the Activity of the CXCL12/HMGB1 Heterocomplex on CXCR4

The chemokine receptor CXCR4 plays a fundamental role in homeostasis and pathology by orchestrating recruitment and positioning of immune cells, under the guidance of a CXCL12 gradient. The ability of chemokines to form heterocomplexes, enhancing their function, represents an additional level of regulation on their cognate receptors. In particular, the multi-faceted activity of the heterocomplex formed between CXCL12 and the alarmin HMGB1 is emerging as an unexpected player able to modulate a variety of cell responses, spanning from tissue regeneration to chronic inflammation. Nowadays, little is known on the selective signaling pathways activated when CXCR4 is triggered by the CXCL12/HMGB1 heterocomplex. In the present work, we demonstrate that this heterocomplex acts as a CXCR4 balanced agonist, activating both G protein and β-arrestins-mediated signaling pathways to sustain chemotaxis. We generated β-arrestins knock out HeLa cells by CRISPR/Cas9 technology and show that the CXCL12/HMGB1 heterocomplex-mediated actin polymerization is primarily β-arrestin1 dependent, while chemotaxis requires both β-arrestin1 and β-arrestin2. Triggering of CXCR4 with the CXCL12/HMGB1 heterocomplex leads to an unexpected receptor retention on the cell surface, which depends on β-arrestin2. In conclusion, the CXCL12/HMGB1 heterocomplex engages the β-arrestin proteins differently from CXCL12, promoting a prompt availability of CXCR4 on the cell surface, and enhancing directional cell migration. These data unveil the signaling induced by the CXCL12/HMGB1 heterocomplex in view of identifying biased CXCR4 antagonists or agonists targeting the variety of functions it exerts.

CP-25 inhibits PGE2-induced angiogenesis by down-regulating EP4/AC/cAMP/PKA-mediated GRK2 translocation

G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 (GRK2), a type of cytosolic enzyme, transiently translocates to the plasma membrane upon G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) activation, and it also binds to extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) to inhibit the activation of ERK. GRK2 deficiency in endothelial cells (ECs) leads to increased pro-inflammatory signaling and promotes recruitment of leukocytes to activated ECs. However, the role of GRK2 in regulating angiogenesis remains unclear. Here, we show that GRK2 is a novel regulatory molecule on migration and tube formation of ECs, vessel sprouting ex vivo and angiogenesis in vivo. We identify that EP4/AC/cAMP/protein kinase A (PKA)-mediated GRK2 translocation to cells membrane decreases the binding of GRK2 and ERK1/2 to inhibit ERK1/2 activation, which promotes prostaglandin E2 (PGE2)-induced angiogenesis. GRK2 small interfering RNA (siRNA) inhibits the increase in PGE2-induced HUVECs migration and tube formation. In vivo, PGE2 increases ECs sprouting from normal murine aortic segments and angiogenesis in mice, but not from GRK2-deficient ones, on Matrigel. Further research found that Lys220 and Ser685 of GRK2 play an important role in angiogenesis by regulating GRK2 translocation. Paeoniflorin-6'-O-benzene sulfonate (CP-25), as a novel ester derivative of paeoniflorin (pae), has therapeutic potential for the treatment of adjuvant arthritis (AA) and collagen-induced arthritis (CIA), but the underlying mechanism of CP-25 on angiogenesis has not been elucidated. In our study, CP-25 inhibits the migration and tube formation of HUVECs, and angiogenesis in mice by down-regulating GRK2 translocation activation without affecting GRK2 total expression. Taken together, the present results revealed that CP-25 down-regulates EP4/AC/cAMP/PKA-mediated GRK2 translocation, restoring the inhibition of GRK2 for ERK1/2, thereby inhibiting PGE2-stimulated angiogenesis.

Insulin-Like Growth Factor Binding Protein-2 Promotes Proliferation and Predicts Poor Prognosis in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Background

Insulin-like growth factor binding protein-2 (IGFBP2) levels are significantly increased in the plasma of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) patients. However, the correlation between IGFBP2 levels and clinical parameters and the exact role of IGFBP2 in HCC are unclear. In this study, we identified the role and potential molecular mechanisms of IGFBP2 in HCC.

Materials and Methods

ELISA assays were used to detect plasma IGFBP2 levels in HCC patients and healthy controls, and the correlations with patients’ clinicopathological data were analyzed. The CCK8 assay was used to explore cell proliferation. Luciferase reporter, co-immunoprecipitation, and immunofluorescence assays were used to demonstrate the molecular mechanism of IGFBP2 in HCC.

Results

Plasma IGFBP2 levels were determined blindly in 37 HCC patients and 37 matched healthy controls. The mean plasma IGFBP2 concentrations in HCC patients were higher than in healthy controls, and IGFBP2 levels in HCC were positively correlated with the degree of differentiation, tumor size, metastasis, and portal venous invasion. Exogenous IGFBP2 activated integrin β1 and thus induced the combination and colocalization of activated integrin β1 and p-FAK, which promoted the phosphorylation of FAK, Erk, and Elk1, eventually inducing EGR1-mediated proliferation of the HCC cell lines HepG2 and HCCLM3. Meanwhile, neutralization of integrin β1 inhibited IGFBP2-induced FAK, Erk, Elk1, and EGR1 activation.

Conclusion

Taken together, these results indicated that exogenous IGFBP2 promoted the integrin β1/FAK/Erk/Elk1/EGR1 pathway, which stimulated the proliferation of HCC cells. Plasma IGFBP2 could be a novel prognostic biomarker for HCC patients.

β-Arrestin2 is a critical component of the GPCR-eNOS signalosome

Endothelial cell nitric oxide (NO) synthase (eNOS), the enzyme responsible for synthesis of NO in endothelial cells, is regulated by complex posttranslational mechanisms. Sinusoidal portal hypertension, a disorder characterized by liver sinusoidal endothelial cell (SEC) injury with resultant reduced eNOS activity and NO production within the liver, has been associated with defects in eNOS protein-protein interactions and posttranslational modifications. We and others have previously identified novel eNOS interactors, including G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) kinase interactor 1 (GIT1), which we found to play an unexpected stimulatory role in GPCR-mediated eNOS signaling. Here we report that β-arrestin 2 (β-Arr2), a canonical GPCR signaling partner, localizes in SECs with eNOS in a GIT1/eNOS/NO signaling module. Most importantly, we show that β-Arr2 stimulates eNOS activity, and that β-Arr2 expression is reduced and formation of the GIT1/eNOS/NO signaling module is interrupted during liver injury. In β-Arr2-deficient mice, bile duct ligation injury (BDL) led to significantly reduced eNOS activity and to a dramatic increase in portal hypertension compared to BDL in wild-type mice. Overexpression of β-Arr2 in injured or β-Arr2-deficient SECs rescued eNOS function by increasing eNOS complex formation and NO production. We also found that β-Arr2-mediated GIT1/eNOS complex formation is dependent on Erk1/2 and Src, two kinases known to interact with and be activated by β-Arr2 in response to GCPR activation. Our data emphasize that β-Arr2 is an integral component of the GIT1/eNOS/NO signaling pathway and have implications for the pathogenesis of sinusoidal portal hypertension.

Hedgehog Signal and Genetic Disorders

The hedgehog (Hh) family comprises sonic hedgehog (Shh), Indian hedgehog (Ihh), and desert hedgehog (Dhh), which are versatile signaling molecules involved in a wide spectrum of biological events including cell differentiation, proliferation, and survival; establishment of the vertebrate body plan; and aging. These molecules play critical roles from embryogenesis to adult stages; therefore, alterations such as abnormal expression or mutations of the genes involved and their downstream factors cause a variety of genetic disorders at different stages. The Hh family involves many signaling mediators and functions through complex mechanisms, and achieving a comprehensive understanding of the entire signaling system is challenging. This review discusses the signaling mediators of the Hh pathway and their functions at the cellular and organismal levels. We first focus on the roles of Hh signaling mediators in signal transduction at the cellular level and the networks formed by these factors. Then, we analyze the spatiotemporal pattern of expression of Hh pathway molecules in tissues and organs, and describe the phenotypes of mutant mice. Finally, we discuss the genetic disorders caused by malfunction of Hh signaling-related molecules in humans.

Regulators of the RAS-ERK pathway as therapeutic targets in thyroid cancer

Thyroid cancer is mostly an ERK-driven carcinoma, as up to 70% of thyroid carcinomas are caused by mutations that activate the RAS/ERK mitogenic signaling pathway. The incidence of thyroid cancer has been steadily increasing for the last four decades; yet, there is still no effective treatment for advanced thyroid carcinomas. Current research efforts are focused on impairing ERK signaling with small-molecule inhibitors, mainly at the level of BRAF and MEK. However, despite initial promising results in animal models, the clinical success of these inhibitors has been limited by the emergence of tumor resistance and relapse. The RAS/ERK pathway is an extremely complex signaling cascade with multiple points of control, offering many potential therapeutic targets: from the modulatory proteins regulating the activation state of RAS proteins to the scaffolding proteins of the pathway that provide spatial specificity to the signals, and finally, the negative feedbacks and phosphatases responsible for inactivating the pathway. The aim of this review is to give an overview of the biology of RAS/ERK regulators in human cancer highlighting relevant information on thyroid cancer and future areas of research.

New Routes in GPCR/β-Arrestin-Driven Signaling in Cancer Progression and Metastasis

Tumor cells acquire invasive and metastatic behavior by sensing changes in the localization and activation of signaling pathways, which in turn determine changes in actin cytoskeleton. The core-scaffold machinery associated to β-arrestin (β-arr) is a key mechanism of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCR) to achieve spatiotemporal specificity of different signaling complexes driving cancer progression. Within different cellular contexts, the scaffold proteins β-arr1 or β-arr2 may now be considered organizers of protein interaction networks involved in tumor development and metastatic dissemination. Studies have uncovered the importance of the β-arr engagement with a growing number of receptors, signaling molecules, cytoskeleton regulators, epigenetic modifiers, and transcription factors in GPCR-driven tumor promoting pathways. In many of these molecular complexes, β-arrs might provide a physical link to active dynamic cytoskeleton, permitting cancer cells to adapt and modify the tumor microenvironment to promote the metastatic spread. Given the complexity and the multidirectional β-arr-driven signaling in cancer cells, therapeutic targeting of specific GPCR/β-arr molecular mechanisms is an important avenue to explore when considering future new therapeutic options. The focus of this review is to integrate the most recent developments and exciting findings of how highly connected components of β-arr-guided molecular connections to other pathways allow precise control over multiple signaling pathways in tumor progression, revealing ways of therapeutically targeting the convergent signals in patients.

βArrestin2 Mediates Renal Cell Carcinoma Tumor Growth

Renal Cell Carcinoma (RCC) is one of the most lethal urological cancers worldwide. The disease does not present early clinical symptoms and is commonly diagnosed at an advanced stage. Limited molecular drivers have been identified for RCC, resulting in the lack of effective treatment for patients with progressive disease. Ubiquitous βArrestin2 (βArr2) is well established for its function in the desensitization and trafficking of G protein-coupled receptors. More recently, βArr2 has been implicated in the regulation of fundamental cellular functions, including proliferation and invasion. We used bioinformatic and genetic approaches to determine role of βArr2 in RCC tumor growth. Analysis of published human datasets shows that ARRB2 (gene encoding βArr2) expression is increased in RCC tumor compared to normal tissue and that high levels of ARRB2 correlate with worse patient survival. Experimentally, we show that knockout of ARRB2 decreases rate of RCC cell proliferation and migration in vitro and xenograft tumor growth in animals. Mechanistically, βArr2 regulates c-Src activity, Cyclin A expression and cell cycle progression that are involved in tumor growth. These results show that βArr2 is a critical regulator of RCC tumor growth and suggest its utility as a potential marker and drug target to treat advanced disease.

β-Arrestin2 mediates progression of murine primary myelofibrosis

Primary myelofibrosis is a myeloproliferative neoplasm associated with significant morbidity and mortality, for which effective therapies are lacking. β-Arrestins are multifunctional adaptor proteins involved in developmental signaling pathways. One isoform, β-arrestin2 (βarr2), has been implicated in initiation and progression of chronic myeloid leukemia, another myeloproliferative neoplasm closely related to primary myelofibrosis. Accordingly, we investigated the relationship between βarr2 and primary myelofibrosis. In a murine model of MPLW515L-mutant primary myelofibrosis, mice transplanted with donor βarr2-knockout (βarr2-/-) hematopoietic stem cells infected with MPL-mutant retrovirus did not develop myelofibrosis, whereas controls uniformly succumbed to disease. Although transplanted βarr2-/- cells homed properly to marrow, they did not repopulate long-term due to increased apoptosis and decreased self-renewal of βarr2-/- cells. In order to assess the effect of acute loss of βarr2 in established primary myelofibrosis in vivo, we utilized a tamoxifen-induced Cre-conditional βarr2-knockout mouse. Mice that received Cre (+) donor cells and developed myelofibrosis had significantly improved survival compared with controls. These data indicate that lack of antiapoptotic βarr2 mediates marrow failure of murine hematopoietic stem cells overexpressing MPLW515L. They also indicate that βarr2 is necessary for progression of primary myelofibrosis, suggesting that it may serve as a novel therapeutic target in this disease.

The role and mechanism of β‑arrestins in cancer invasion and metastasis (Review)

β-arrestins are a family of adaptor proteins that regulate the signaling and trafficking of various G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). They consist of β-arrestin1 and β-arrestin2 and are considered to be scaffolding proteins. β-arrestins regulate cell proliferation, promote cell invasion and migration, transmit anti-apoptotic survival signals and affect other characteristics of tumors, including tumor growth rate, angiogenesis, drug resistance, invasion and metastatic potential. It has been demonstrated that β-arrestins serve roles in various physiological and pathological processes and exhibit a similar function to GPCRs. β-arrestins serve primary roles in cancer invasion and metastasis via various signaling pathways. The present review assessed the function and mechanism of β-arrestins in cancer invasion and metastasis via multiple signaling pathways, including mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal regulated kinase, Wnt/β-catenin, nuclear factor-κB and phosphoinositide-3 kinase/Akt.