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McKay L, Petrelli B, Pind M, Reynolds JN, Wintle RF, Chudley AE, Drögemöller B, Fainsod A, Scherer SW, Hanlon-Dearman A, Hicks GG. Risk and Resilience Variants in the Retinoic Acid Metabolic and Developmental Pathways Associated with Risk of FASD Outcomes. Biomolecules 2024; 14:569. [PMID: 38785976 PMCID: PMC11117505 DOI: 10.3390/biom14050569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2024] [Revised: 05/01/2024] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) is a common neurodevelopmental disorder that affects an estimated 2-5% of North Americans. FASD is induced by prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) during pregnancy and while there is a clear genetic contribution, few genetic factors are currently identified or understood. In this study, using a candidate gene approach, we performed a genetic variant analysis of retinoic acid (RA) metabolic and developmental signaling pathway genes on whole exome sequencing data of 23 FASD-diagnosed individuals. We found risk and resilience alleles in ADH and ALDH genes known to normally be involved in alcohol detoxification at the expense of RA production, causing RA deficiency, following PAE. Risk and resilience variants were also identified in RA-regulated developmental pathway genes, especially in SHH and WNT pathways. Notably, we also identified significant variants in the causative genes of rare neurodevelopmental disorders sharing comorbidities with FASD, including STRA6 (Matthew-Wood), SOX9 (Campomelic Dysplasia), FDG1 (Aarskog), and 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (TBX1). Although this is a small exploratory study, the findings support PAE-induced RA deficiency as a major etiology underlying FASD and suggest risk and resilience variants may be suitable biomarkers to determine the risk of FASD outcomes following PAE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leo McKay
- Department of Biochemistry & Medical Genetics, Max Rady College of Medicine, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0J9, Canada
| | - Berardino Petrelli
- Department of Biochemistry & Medical Genetics, Max Rady College of Medicine, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0J9, Canada
| | - Molly Pind
- Department of Biochemistry & Medical Genetics, Max Rady College of Medicine, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0J9, Canada
| | - James N. Reynolds
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON K7L 2V7, Canada
| | - Richard F. Wintle
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Albert E. Chudley
- Department of Biochemistry & Medical Genetics, Max Rady College of Medicine, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0J9, Canada
- Department of Pediatrics and Child Health, Max Rady College of Medicine, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3A 1S1, Canada
| | - Britt Drögemöller
- Department of Biochemistry & Medical Genetics, Max Rady College of Medicine, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0J9, Canada
- Paul Albrechtsen Research Institute CancerCare Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0V9, Canada
- Children’s Hospital Research Institute of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3P4, Canada
- Centre on Aging, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - Abraham Fainsod
- Department of Developmental Biology and Cancer Research, Institute for Medical Research Israel-Canada, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, P.O. Box 12271, Jerusalem 9112102, Israel
| | - Stephen W. Scherer
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
- Department of Molecular Genetics and McLaughlin Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 1L7, Canada
- Program in Genetics and Genome Biology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Ana Hanlon-Dearman
- Department of Pediatrics and Child Health, Max Rady College of Medicine, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3A 1S1, Canada
| | - Geoffrey G. Hicks
- Department of Biochemistry & Medical Genetics, Max Rady College of Medicine, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0J9, Canada
- Paul Albrechtsen Research Institute CancerCare Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0V9, Canada
- Children’s Hospital Research Institute of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3P4, Canada
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2
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Zarate-Lopez D, Torres-Chávez AL, Gálvez-Contreras AY, Gonzalez-Perez O. Three Decades of Valproate: A Current Model for Studying Autism Spectrum Disorder. Curr Neuropharmacol 2024; 22:260-289. [PMID: 37873949 PMCID: PMC10788883 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x22666231003121513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Revised: 08/30/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 10/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder with increased prevalence and incidence in recent decades. Its etiology remains largely unclear, but it seems to involve a strong genetic component and environmental factors that, in turn, induce epigenetic changes during embryonic and postnatal brain development. In recent decades, clinical studies have shown that inutero exposure to valproic acid (VPA), a commonly prescribed antiepileptic drug, is an environmental factor associated with an increased risk of ASD. Subsequently, prenatal VPA exposure in rodents has been established as a reliable translational model to study the pathophysiology of ASD, which has helped demonstrate neurobiological changes in rodents, non-human primates, and brain organoids from human pluripotent stem cells. This evidence supports the notion that prenatal VPA exposure is a valid and current model to replicate an idiopathic ASD-like disorder in experimental animals. This review summarizes and describes the current features reported with this animal model of autism and the main neurobiological findings and correlates that help elucidate the pathophysiology of ASD. Finally, we discuss the general framework of the VPA model in comparison to other environmental and genetic ASD models.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Zarate-Lopez
- Laboratory of Neuroscience, School of Psychology, University of Colima, Colima 28040, México
- Physiological Science Ph.D. Program, School of Medicine, University of Colima, Colima 28040, Mexico
| | - Ana Laura Torres-Chávez
- Laboratory of Neuroscience, School of Psychology, University of Colima, Colima 28040, México
- Physiological Science Ph.D. Program, School of Medicine, University of Colima, Colima 28040, Mexico
| | - Alma Yadira Gálvez-Contreras
- Department of Neuroscience, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, University of Guadalajara, Guadalajara 44340, México
| | - Oscar Gonzalez-Perez
- Laboratory of Neuroscience, School of Psychology, University of Colima, Colima 28040, México
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3
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Li Y, Zhu M, Chen WX, Luo J, Li X, Cao Y, Zheng M, Ma S, Xiao Z, Zhang Y, Jiang L, Wang X, Tan T, Li X, Gong Q, Xiong X, Wang J, Tang M, Li M, Tang YP. A novel mutation in intron 1 of Wnt1 causes developmental loss of dopaminergic neurons in midbrain and ASD-like behaviors in rats. Mol Psychiatry 2023; 28:3795-3805. [PMID: 37658228 PMCID: PMC10730402 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-023-02223-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Revised: 08/02/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/03/2023]
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a group of neurodevelopmental disorders with a strong genetic liability. Despite extensive studies, however, the underlying pathogenic mechanism still remains elusive. In the present study, we identified a homozygous mutation in the intron 1 of Wnt1 via large-scale screening of ASD risk/causative genes and verified that this mutation created a new splicing donor site in the intron 1, and consequently, a decrease of WNT1 expression. Interestingly, humanized rat models harboring this mutation exhibited robust ASD-like behaviors including impaired ultrasonic vocalization (USV), decreased social interactions, and restricted and repetitive behaviors. Moreover, in the substantia nigra compacta (SNpc) and the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of mutant rats, dopaminergic (DAergic) neurons were dramatically lost, together with a comparable decrease in striatal DAergic fibers. Furthermore, using single-cell RNA sequencing, we demonstrated that the decreased DAergic neurons in these midbrain areas might attribute to a shift of the boundary of the local pool of progenitor cells from the hypothalamic floor plate to the midbrain floor plate during the early embryonic stage. Moreover, treatments of mutant rats with levodopa could attenuate the impaired USV and social interactions almost completely, but not the restricted and repetitive behaviors. Our results for the first time documented that the developmental loss of DAergic neurons in the midbrain underlies the pathogenesis of ASD, and that the abnormal progenitor cell patterning is a cellular underpinning for this developmental DAergic neuronal loss. Importantly, the effective dopamine therapy suggests a translational significance in the treatment of ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongyi Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, China
- Department of Pharmacology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, China
- Guangzhou Institute of Pediatrics, Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510623, China
| | - Mingwei Zhu
- Guangzhou Institute of Pediatrics, Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510623, China
| | - Wen-Xiong Chen
- Department of Neurology, Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510623, China
| | - Jing Luo
- School of Basic Medicine, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, 646000, China
| | - Xin Li
- Guangzhou Institute of Pediatrics, Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510623, China
- School of Basic Medicine, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, 646000, China
- Department of Pathology, Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, 646000, China
| | - Yangyang Cao
- Department of Child Health, Third Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China
| | - Meng Zheng
- Guangzhou Institute of Pediatrics, Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510623, China
| | - Shanshan Ma
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, China
- Department of Pharmacology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, China
| | - Zhilan Xiao
- Guangzhou Institute of Pediatrics, Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510623, China
| | - Yani Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510623, China
| | - Linyan Jiang
- Guangzhou Institute of Pediatrics, Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510623, China
| | - Xiumin Wang
- Guangzhou Institute of Pediatrics, Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510623, China
| | - Ting Tan
- Guangzhou Institute of Pediatrics, Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510623, China
| | - Xia Li
- Guangzhou Institute of Pediatrics, Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510623, China
| | - Qian Gong
- Guangzhou Institute of Pediatrics, Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510623, China
| | - Xiaoli Xiong
- Guangzhou Institute of Pediatrics, Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510623, China
| | - Jun Wang
- Department of Child Health, Third Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China
| | - Mingxi Tang
- Department of Pathology, Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, 646000, China.
| | - Mingtao Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, China.
- Department of Pharmacology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, China.
| | - Ya-Ping Tang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, China.
- Guangzhou Institute of Pediatrics, Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510623, China.
- Department of Child Health, Third Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China.
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Wolter JM, Jimenez JA, Stein JL, Zylka MJ. ToxCast chemical library Wnt screen identifies diethanolamine as an activator of neural progenitor proliferation. FASEB Bioadv 2022; 4:441-453. [PMID: 35812078 PMCID: PMC9254222 DOI: 10.1096/fba.2021-00163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Revised: 03/03/2022] [Accepted: 03/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous autism spectrum disorder (ASD) risk genes are associated with Wnt signaling, suggesting that brain development may be especially sensitive to genetic perturbation of this pathway. Additionally, valproic acid, which modulates Wnt signaling, increases risk for ASD when taken during pregnancy. We previously found that an autism-linked gain-of-function UBE3A T485A mutant construct hyperactivated canonical Wnt signaling, providing a genetic means to elevate Wnt signaling above baseline levels. To identify environmental use chemicals that enhance or suppress Wnt signaling, we screened the ToxCast Phase I and II libraries in cells expressing this autism-linked UBE3A T485A gain-of-function mutant construct. Using structural comparisons, we identify classes of chemicals that stimulated Wnt signaling, including ethanolamines, as well as chemicals that inhibited Wnt signaling, such as agricultural pesticides, and synthetic hormone analogs. To prioritize chemicals for follow-up, we leveraged predicted human exposure data, and identified diethanolamine (DEA) as a chemical that stimulates Wnt signaling in UBE3A T485A -transfected cells, and has a high potential for prenatal exposure in humans. DEA enhanced proliferation in primary human neural progenitor cell lines (phNPC), but did not affect expression of canonical Wnt target genes in NPCs or primary mouse neuron cultures. Instead, we found DEA increased expression of the H3K9 methylation sensitive gene CALB1, consistent with competitive inhibition of the methyl donor enzymatic pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin M. Wolter
- UNC Neuroscience CenterThe University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillNorth CarolinaUSA
- Department of Cell Biology and PhysiologyThe University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillNorth CarolinaUSA
- Carolina Institute for Developmental DisabilitiesThe University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillNorth CarolinaUSA
| | - Jessica A. Jimenez
- Curriculum in Toxicology & Environmental MedicineThe University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillNorth CarolinaUSA
| | - Jason L. Stein
- UNC Neuroscience CenterThe University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillNorth CarolinaUSA
- Department of GeneticsThe University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillNorth CarolinaUSA
| | - Mark J. Zylka
- UNC Neuroscience CenterThe University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillNorth CarolinaUSA
- Department of Cell Biology and PhysiologyThe University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillNorth CarolinaUSA
- Carolina Institute for Developmental DisabilitiesThe University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillNorth CarolinaUSA
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5
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Caracci MO, Avila ME, Espinoza-Cavieres FA, López HR, Ugarte GD, De Ferrari GV. Wnt/β-Catenin-Dependent Transcription in Autism Spectrum Disorders. Front Mol Neurosci 2021; 14:764756. [PMID: 34858139 PMCID: PMC8632544 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2021.764756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 10/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) is a heterogeneous group of neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by synaptic dysfunction and defects in dendritic spine morphology. In the past decade, an extensive list of genes associated with ASD has been identified by genome-wide sequencing initiatives. Several of these genes functionally converge in the regulation of the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway, a conserved cascade essential for stem cell pluripotency and cell fate decisions during development. Here, we review current information regarding the transcriptional program of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in ASD. First, we discuss that Wnt/β-catenin gain and loss of function studies recapitulate brain developmental abnormalities associated with ASD. Second, transcriptomic approaches using patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) cells, featuring mutations in high confidence ASD genes, reveal a significant dysregulation in the expression of Wnt signaling components. Finally, we focus on the activity of chromatin-remodeling proteins and transcription factors considered high confidence ASD genes, including CHD8, ARID1B, ADNP, and TBR1, that regulate Wnt/β-catenin-dependent transcriptional activity in multiple cell types, including pyramidal neurons, interneurons and oligodendrocytes, cells which are becoming increasingly relevant in the study of ASD. We conclude that the level of Wnt/β-catenin signaling activation could explain the high phenotypical heterogeneity of ASD and be instrumental in the development of new diagnostics tools and therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario O. Caracci
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
| | - Miguel E. Avila
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Agronomy, Nucleus of Applied Research in Veterinary and Agronomic Sciences (NIAVA), Institute of Natural Sciences, Universidad de Las Américas, Santiago, Chile
| | - Francisca A. Espinoza-Cavieres
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
| | - Héctor R. López
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
| | - Giorgia D. Ugarte
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
| | - Giancarlo V. De Ferrari
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
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6
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Bahado-Singh RO, Vishweswaraiah S, Aydas B, Radhakrishna U. Placental DNA methylation changes and the early prediction of autism in full-term newborns. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0253340. [PMID: 34260616 PMCID: PMC8279352 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0253340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2021] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is associated with abnormal brain development during fetal life. Overall, increasing evidence indicates an important role of epigenetic dysfunction in ASD. The placenta is critical to and produces neurotransmitters that regulate fetal brain development. We hypothesized that placental DNA methylation changes are a feature of the fetal development of the autistic brain and importantly could help to elucidate the early pathogenesis and prediction of these disorders. Genome-wide methylation using placental tissue from the full-term autistic disorder subtype was performed using the Illumina 450K array. The study consisted of 14 cases and 10 control subjects. Significantly epigenetically altered CpG loci (FDR p-value <0.05) in autism were identified. Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) was further used to identify molecular pathways that were over-represented (epigenetically dysregulated) in autism. Six Artificial Intelligence (AI) algorithms including Deep Learning (DL) to determine the predictive accuracy of CpG markers for autism detection. We identified 9655 CpGs differentially methylated in autism. Among them, 2802 CpGs were inter- or non-genic and 6853 intragenic. The latter involved 4129 genes. AI analysis of differentially methylated loci appeared highly accurate for autism detection. DL yielded an AUC (95% CI) of 1.00 (1.00-1.00) for autism detection using intra- or intergenic markers by themselves or combined. The biological functional enrichment showed, four significant functions that were affected in autism: quantity of synapse, microtubule dynamics, neuritogenesis, and abnormal morphology of neurons. In this preliminary study, significant placental DNA methylation changes. AI had high accuracy for the prediction of subsequent autism development in newborns. Finally, biologically functional relevant gene pathways were identified that may play a significant role in early fetal neurodevelopmental influences on later cognition and social behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ray O. Bahado-Singh
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Oakland University William Beaumont School of Medicine, Royal Oak, MI, United States of America
| | - Sangeetha Vishweswaraiah
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Oakland University William Beaumont School of Medicine, Royal Oak, MI, United States of America
| | - Buket Aydas
- Department of Healthcare Analytics, Meridian Health Plans, Detroit, MI, United States of America
| | - Uppala Radhakrishna
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Oakland University William Beaumont School of Medicine, Royal Oak, MI, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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7
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El Khouri E, Ghoumid J, Haye D, Giuliano F, Drevillon L, Briand-Suleau A, De La Grange P, Nau V, Gaillon T, Bienvenu T, Jacquemin-Sablon H, Goossens M, Amselem S, Giurgea I. Wnt/β-catenin pathway and cell adhesion deregulation in CSDE1-related intellectual disability and autism spectrum disorders. Mol Psychiatry 2021; 26:3572-3585. [PMID: 33867523 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-021-01072-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Revised: 03/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Among the genetic factors playing a key role in the etiology of intellectual disabilities (IDs) and autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), several encode RNA-binding proteins (RBPs). In this study, we deciphered the molecular and cellular bases of ID-ASD in a patient followed from birth to the age of 21, in whom we identified a de novo CSDE1 (Cold Shock Domain-containing E1) nonsense variation. CSDE1 encodes an RBP that regulates multiple cellular pathways by monitoring the translation and abundance of target transcripts. Analyses performed on the patient's primary fibroblasts showed that the identified CSDE1 variation leads to haploinsufficiency. We identified through RNA-seq assays the Wnt/β-catenin signaling and cellular adhesion as two major deregulated pathways. These results were further confirmed by functional studies involving Wnt-specific luciferase and substrate adhesion assays. Additional data support a disease model involving APC Down-Regulated-1 (APCDD1) and cadherin-2 (CDH2), two components of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, CDH2 being also pivotal for cellular adhesion. Our study, which relies on both the deep phenotyping and long-term follow-up of a patient with CSDE1 haploinsufficiency and on ex vivo studies, sheds new light on the CSDE1-dependent deregulated pathways in ID-ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- E El Khouri
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, Maladies génétiques d'expression pédiatrique, Département de Génétique médicale, Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Trousseau, Paris, France
| | - J Ghoumid
- Département de Génétique, Groupe Hospitalier Henri Mondor, Créteil, France.,Service de Génétique Clinique, Hôpital Jeanne de Flandre, CHU Lille, Lille, France
| | - D Haye
- Service de Génétique Médicale Centre, Hospitalo-Universitaire de Nice, Nice, France
| | - F Giuliano
- Service de Génétique Médicale Centre, Hospitalo-Universitaire de Nice, Nice, France
| | - L Drevillon
- Département de Génétique, Groupe Hospitalier Henri Mondor, Créteil, France.,CHU Caen Normandie, Caen, France
| | - A Briand-Suleau
- Département de Génétique, Groupe Hospitalier Henri Mondor, Créteil, France.,Service de Génétique et Biologie Moléculaires, Hôpital Cochin, INSERM UMR1266 - Institute of Psychiatry and Neuroscience of Paris (IPNP) and University of Paris, Paris, France
| | | | - V Nau
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, Maladies génétiques d'expression pédiatrique, Département de Génétique médicale, Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Trousseau, Paris, France
| | - T Gaillon
- Département de Génétique, Groupe Hospitalier Henri Mondor, Créteil, France
| | - T Bienvenu
- Service de Génétique et Biologie Moléculaires, Hôpital Cochin, INSERM UMR1266 - Institute of Psychiatry and Neuroscience of Paris (IPNP) and University of Paris, Paris, France
| | - H Jacquemin-Sablon
- INSERM UMR1053 Bordeaux Research in Translational Oncology, BaRITOn, Bordeaux, France
| | - M Goossens
- Département de Génétique, Groupe Hospitalier Henri Mondor, Créteil, France
| | - S Amselem
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, Maladies génétiques d'expression pédiatrique, Département de Génétique médicale, Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Trousseau, Paris, France
| | - I Giurgea
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, Maladies génétiques d'expression pédiatrique, Département de Génétique médicale, Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Trousseau, Paris, France. .,Département de Génétique, Groupe Hospitalier Henri Mondor, Créteil, France.
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8
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Yoon J, Mao Y. Dissecting Molecular Genetic Mechanisms of 1q21.1 CNV in Neuropsychiatric Disorders. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:5811. [PMID: 34071723 PMCID: PMC8197994 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22115811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Revised: 05/23/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathogenic copy number variations (CNVs) contribute to the etiology of neurodevelopmental/neuropsychiatric disorders (NDs). Increased CNV burden has been found to be critically involved in NDs compared with controls in clinical studies. The 1q21.1 CNVs, rare and large chromosomal microduplications and microdeletions, are detected in many patients with NDs. Phenotypes of duplication and deletion appear at the two ends of the spectrum. Microdeletions are predominant in individuals with schizophrenia (SCZ) and microcephaly, whereas microduplications are predominant in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and macrocephaly. However, its complexity hinders the discovery of molecular pathways and phenotypic networks. In this review, we summarize the recent genome-wide association studies (GWASs) that have identified candidate genes positively correlated with 1q21.1 CNVs, which are likely to contribute to abnormal phenotypes in carriers. We discuss the clinical data implicated in the 1q21.1 genetic structure that is strongly associated with neurodevelopmental dysfunctions like cognitive impairment and reduced synaptic plasticity. We further present variations reported in the phenotypic severity, genomic penetrance and inheritance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yingwei Mao
- Department of Biology, Eberly College of Science, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA;
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9
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The influence of circadian rhythms and aerobic glycolysis in autism spectrum disorder. Transl Psychiatry 2020; 10:400. [PMID: 33199680 PMCID: PMC7669888 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-020-01086-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2020] [Revised: 05/05/2020] [Accepted: 05/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Intellectual abilities and their clinical presentations are extremely heterogeneous in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The main causes of ASD remain unclear. ASD is frequently associated with sleep disorders. Biologic rhythms are complex systems interacting with the environment and controlling several physiological pathways, including brain development and behavioral processes. Recent findings have shown that the deregulation of the core clock neurodevelopmental signaling is correlated with ASD clinical presentation. One of the main pathways involved in developmental cognitive disorders is the canonical WNT/β-catenin pathway. Circadian clocks have a main role in some tissues by driving circadian expression of genes involved in physiologic and metabolic functions. In ASD, the increase of the canonical WNT/β-catenin pathway is enhancing by the dysregulation of circadian rhythms. ASD progression is associated with a major metabolic reprogramming, initiated by aberrant WNT/β-catenin pathway, the aerobic glycolysis. This review focuses on the interest of circadian rhythms dysregulation in metabolic reprogramming in ASD through the aberrant upregulation of the canonical WNT/β-catenin pathway.
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Alexander JM, Pirone A, Jacob MH. Excessive β-Catenin in Excitatory Neurons Results in Reduced Social and Increased Repetitive Behaviors and Altered Expression of Multiple Genes Linked to Human Autism. Front Synaptic Neurosci 2020; 12:14. [PMID: 32296324 PMCID: PMC7136516 DOI: 10.3389/fnsyn.2020.00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 03/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple human autism risk genes are predicted to converge on the β-catenin (β-cat)/Wnt pathway. However, direct tests to link β-cat up- or down-regulation with autism are largely lacking, and the associated pathophysiological changes are poorly defined. Here we identify excessive β-cat as a risk factor that causes expression changes in several genes relevant to human autism. Our studies utilize mouse lines with β-cat dysregulation in forebrain excitatory neurons, identified as cell types with a convergent expression of autism-linked genes in both human and mouse brains. We show that mice expressing excessive β-cat display behavioral and molecular changes, including decreased social interest, increased repetitive behaviors, reduced parvalbumin and altered expression levels of additional genes identified as potential risk factors for human autism. These behavioral and molecular phenotypes are averted by reducing β-cat in neurons predisposed by gene mutations to express elevated β-cat. Using next-generation sequencing of the prefrontal cortex (PFC), we identify 87 dysregulated genes that are shared between mouse lines with excessive β-cat and autism-like behaviors, but not mouse lines with reduced β-cat and normal social behavior. Our findings provide critical new insights into β-cat, Wnt pathway dysregulation in the brain causing behavioral phenotypes relevant to the disease and the molecular etiology which includes several human autism risk genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Michael Alexander
- Department of Neuroscience, Sackler School of Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Antonella Pirone
- Department of Neuroscience, Sackler School of Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Michele H Jacob
- Department of Neuroscience, Sackler School of Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
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11
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Peng C, Lu Y, Ren X, Wang Y, Zhang S, Chen M, Liu J, Fang F, Li T, Han J. Comprehensive bioinformatic analysis of Wnt1 and Wnt1-associated diseases. Intractable Rare Dis Res 2020; 9:14-22. [PMID: 32201670 PMCID: PMC7062594 DOI: 10.5582/irdr.2020.01018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Wnt1 is the first member of the Wnt family that was identified. It is phylogenetically conserved and essential for oncogenesis and multiple developmental processes. This study has summarized diseases and mutations related to Wnt1. Wnt1 is involved in various cancers, genetic type XV osteogenesis imperfecta, osteoporosis, and neurological diseases. The expression of Wnt1 in normal tissues and different types of cancers and the potential survival of cancer were analyzed using experiment-based bioinformatic analysis. Systematic analysis indicated that abnormal expression of Wnt1 is significantly associated with cancers, such as kidney renal carcinoma, hepatocellular carcinoma, thyroid carcinoma, head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, and uterine corpus endometrial carcinoma. GeneMANIA and STRING predicted that 32 proteins were involved with Wnt1 in Wnt signaling pathways and sorting and secretion of Wnts. These interacting molecules significantly co-occurred according to cBioPortal analysis. Thirty-three genes with an alteration frequency of more than 50% were observed in several cancers like esophageal squamous cell carcinoma, melanoma, and non-small cell lung cancer. Functional and experiment-based bioinformatics indicated that Wnt1 may act as a target of a potential biomarker for various types of human cancers. Wnt1 and other Wnt1-related proteins and signaling pathways may be ways to treat osteoporosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuanming Peng
- School of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Jinan, Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji'nan, China
- Key Laboratory for Biotech Drugs of the National Health Commission, Key Laboratory for Rare & Uncommon Diseases of Shandong Province, Shandong Medicinal Biotechnology Centre, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji'nan, China
| | - Yanqin Lu
- School of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Jinan, Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji'nan, China
- Key Laboratory for Biotech Drugs of the National Health Commission, Key Laboratory for Rare & Uncommon Diseases of Shandong Province, Shandong Medicinal Biotechnology Centre, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji'nan, China
- Address correspondence to:Yanqin Lu and Jinxiang Han, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, 18877 Jingshi Road, Ji'nan 250062, China. E-mail: ,
| | - Xiuzhi Ren
- Orthopaedic Surgery, The People's Hospital of Wuqing District, Tianjin, China
| | - Yanzhou Wang
- Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated with Shandong First Medical University, Ji'nan, China
| | - Shie Zhang
- School of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Jinan, Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji'nan, China
- Key Laboratory for Biotech Drugs of the National Health Commission, Key Laboratory for Rare & Uncommon Diseases of Shandong Province, Shandong Medicinal Biotechnology Centre, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji'nan, China
| | - Mei Chen
- Orthopaedic Surgery, The People's Hospital of Wuqing District, Tianjin, China
| | - Junlong Liu
- Orthopaedic Surgery, The People's Hospital of Wuqing District, Tianjin, China
| | - Fengling Fang
- Orthopaedic Surgery, The People's Hospital of Wuqing District, Tianjin, China
| | - Tianyou Li
- Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated with Shandong First Medical University, Ji'nan, China
| | - Jinxiang Han
- School of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Jinan, Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji'nan, China
- Key Laboratory for Biotech Drugs of the National Health Commission, Key Laboratory for Rare & Uncommon Diseases of Shandong Province, Shandong Medicinal Biotechnology Centre, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji'nan, China
- Address correspondence to:Yanqin Lu and Jinxiang Han, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, 18877 Jingshi Road, Ji'nan 250062, China. E-mail: ,
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12
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MicroRNAs and Child Neuropsychiatric Disorders: A Brief Review. Neurochem Res 2019; 45:232-240. [DOI: 10.1007/s11064-019-02917-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2019] [Revised: 10/23/2019] [Accepted: 11/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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13
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Bem J, Brożko N, Chakraborty C, Lipiec MA, Koziński K, Nagalski A, Szewczyk ŁM, Wiśniewska MB. Wnt/β-catenin signaling in brain development and mental disorders: keeping TCF7L2 in mind. FEBS Lett 2019; 593:1654-1674. [PMID: 31218672 PMCID: PMC6772062 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.13502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2019] [Revised: 06/13/2019] [Accepted: 06/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Canonical Wnt signaling, which is transduced by β-catenin and lymphoid enhancer factor 1/T cell-specific transcription factors (LEF1/TCFs), regulates many aspects of metazoan development and tissue renewal. Although much evidence has associated canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling with mood disorders, the mechanistic links are still unknown. Many components of the canonical Wnt pathway are involved in cellular processes that are unrelated to classical canonical Wnt signaling, thus further blurring the picture. The present review critically evaluates the involvement of classical Wnt/β-catenin signaling in developmental processes that putatively underlie the pathology of mental illnesses. Particular attention is given to the roles of LEF1/TCFs, which have been discussed surprisingly rarely in this context. Highlighting recent discoveries, we propose that alterations in the activity of LEF1/TCFs, and particularly of transcription factor 7-like 2 (TCF7L2), result in defects previously associated with neuropsychiatric disorders, including imbalances in neurogenesis and oligodendrogenesis, the functional disruption of thalamocortical circuitry and dysfunction of the habenula.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Bem
- Centre of New TechnologiesUniversity of WarsawPoland
| | - Nikola Brożko
- Centre of New TechnologiesUniversity of WarsawPoland
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14
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Bem J, Brożko N, Chakraborty C, Lipiec MA, Koziński K, Nagalski A, Szewczyk ŁM, Wiśniewska MB. Wnt/β-catenin signaling in brain development and mental disorders: keeping TCF7L2 in mind. FEBS Lett 2019. [PMID: 31218672 DOI: 10.1002/1873−3468.13502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/23/2023]
Abstract
Canonical Wnt signaling, which is transduced by β-catenin and lymphoid enhancer factor 1/T cell-specific transcription factors (LEF1/TCFs), regulates many aspects of metazoan development and tissue renewal. Although much evidence has associated canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling with mood disorders, the mechanistic links are still unknown. Many components of the canonical Wnt pathway are involved in cellular processes that are unrelated to classical canonical Wnt signaling, thus further blurring the picture. The present review critically evaluates the involvement of classical Wnt/β-catenin signaling in developmental processes that putatively underlie the pathology of mental illnesses. Particular attention is given to the roles of LEF1/TCFs, which have been discussed surprisingly rarely in this context. Highlighting recent discoveries, we propose that alterations in the activity of LEF1/TCFs, and particularly of transcription factor 7-like 2 (TCF7L2), result in defects previously associated with neuropsychiatric disorders, including imbalances in neurogenesis and oligodendrogenesis, the functional disruption of thalamocortical circuitry and dysfunction of the habenula.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Bem
- Centre of New Technologies, University of Warsaw, Poland
| | - Nikola Brożko
- Centre of New Technologies, University of Warsaw, Poland
| | | | | | - Kamil Koziński
- Centre of New Technologies, University of Warsaw, Poland
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15
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Kumar S, Reynolds K, Ji Y, Gu R, Rai S, Zhou CJ. Impaired neurodevelopmental pathways in autism spectrum disorder: a review of signaling mechanisms and crosstalk. J Neurodev Disord 2019; 11:10. [PMID: 31202261 PMCID: PMC6571119 DOI: 10.1186/s11689-019-9268-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2018] [Accepted: 05/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The development of an autistic brain is a highly complex process as evident from the involvement of various genetic and non-genetic factors in the etiology of the autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Despite being a multifactorial neurodevelopmental disorder, autistic patients display a few key characteristics, such as the impaired social interactions and elevated repetitive behaviors, suggesting the perturbation of specific neuronal circuits resulted from abnormal signaling pathways during brain development in ASD. A comprehensive review for autistic signaling mechanisms and interactions may provide a better understanding of ASD etiology and treatment. Main body Recent studies on genetic models and ASD patients with several different mutated genes revealed the dysregulation of several key signaling pathways, such as WNT, BMP, SHH, and retinoic acid (RA) signaling. Although no direct evidence of dysfunctional FGF or TGF-β signaling in ASD has been reported so far, a few examples of indirect evidence can be found. This review article summarizes how various genetic and non-genetic factors which have been reported contributing to ASD interact with WNT, BMP/TGF-β, SHH, FGF, and RA signaling pathways. The autism-associated gene ubiquitin-protein ligase E3A (UBE3A) has been reported to influence WNT, BMP, and RA signaling pathways, suggesting crosstalk between various signaling pathways during autistic brain development. Finally, the article comments on what further studies could be performed to gain deeper insights into the understanding of perturbed signaling pathways in the etiology of ASD. Conclusion The understanding of mechanisms behind various signaling pathways in the etiology of ASD may help to facilitate the identification of potential therapeutic targets and design of new treatment methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santosh Kumar
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Institute for Pediatric Regenerative Medicine of Shriners Hospitals for Children, University of California at Davis School of Medicine, 2425 Stockton Blvd, Sacramento, CA, 95817, USA.
| | - Kurt Reynolds
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Institute for Pediatric Regenerative Medicine of Shriners Hospitals for Children, University of California at Davis School of Medicine, 2425 Stockton Blvd, Sacramento, CA, 95817, USA
| | - Yu Ji
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Institute for Pediatric Regenerative Medicine of Shriners Hospitals for Children, University of California at Davis School of Medicine, 2425 Stockton Blvd, Sacramento, CA, 95817, USA
| | - Ran Gu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Institute for Pediatric Regenerative Medicine of Shriners Hospitals for Children, University of California at Davis School of Medicine, 2425 Stockton Blvd, Sacramento, CA, 95817, USA
| | - Sunil Rai
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Institute for Pediatric Regenerative Medicine of Shriners Hospitals for Children, University of California at Davis School of Medicine, 2425 Stockton Blvd, Sacramento, CA, 95817, USA
| | - Chengji J Zhou
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Institute for Pediatric Regenerative Medicine of Shriners Hospitals for Children, University of California at Davis School of Medicine, 2425 Stockton Blvd, Sacramento, CA, 95817, USA.
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16
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Vallée A, Vallée JN, Lecarpentier Y. PPARγ agonists: potential treatment for autism spectrum disorder by inhibiting the canonical WNT/β-catenin pathway. Mol Psychiatry 2019; 24:643-652. [PMID: 30104725 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-018-0131-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Revised: 05/24/2018] [Accepted: 06/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that is characterized by a deficit in social interactions and communication with repetitive and restrictive behavior. No curative treatments are available for ASD. Pharmacological treatments do not address the core ASD behaviors, but target comorbid symptoms. Dysregulation of the core neurodevelopmental pathways is associated with the clinical presentation of ASD, and the canonical WNT/β-catenin pathway is one of the major pathways involved. The canonical WNT/β-catenin pathway participates in the development of the central nervous system, and its dysregulation involves developmental cognitive disorders. In numerous tissues, the canonical WNT/β-catenin pathway and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) act in an opposed manner. In ASD, the canonical WNT/β-catenin pathway is increased while PPARγ seems to be decreased. PPARγ agonists present a beneficial effect in treatment for ASD children through their anti-inflammatory role. Moreover, they induce the inhibition of the canonical WNT/β-catenin pathway in several pathophysiological states. We focus this review on the hypothesis of an opposed interplay between PPARγ and the canonical WNT/β-catenin pathway in ASD and the potential role of PPARγ agonists as treatment for ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Vallée
- Paris-Descartes University; Diagnosis and Therapeutic Center, Hôtel-Dieu Hospital; AP-HP, Paris, France. .,Laboratoire de Mathématiques et Applications (LMA), UMR CNRS 7348, Université de Poitiers, Poitiers, France.
| | - Jean-Noël Vallée
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) Amiens Picardie, Université Picardie Jules Verne (UPJV), 80054, Amiens, France.,Laboratoire de Mathématiques et Applications (LMA), UMR CNRS 7348, Université de Poitiers, Poitiers, France
| | - Yves Lecarpentier
- Centre de Recherche Clinique, Grand Hôpital de l'Est Francilien (GHEF), 6-8 rue Saint-fiacre, 77100, Meaux, France
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17
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Bae SM, Hong JY. The Wnt Signaling Pathway and Related Therapeutic Drugs in Autism Spectrum Disorder. CLINICAL PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY AND NEUROSCIENCE 2018; 16:129-135. [PMID: 29739125 PMCID: PMC5953011 DOI: 10.9758/cpn.2018.16.2.129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2017] [Revised: 09/27/2017] [Accepted: 09/28/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a series of neurodevelopmental disorder with a large genetic component. However, the pathogenic genes and molecular mechanisms of ASD have not been clearly defined. Recent technological advancements, such as next-generation sequencing, have led to the identification of certain loci that is responsible for the pathophysiology of ASD. Three functional pathways, such as chromatin remodeling, Wnt signaling and mitochondrial dysfunction are potentially involved in ASD. In this review, we will focus on recent studies of the involvement of Wnt signaling pathway components in ASD pathophysiology and related drugs used in ASD treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seung Min Bae
- Department of Psychiatry, Gachon University Gil Medical Center, Gachon University College of Medicine, Incheon, Korea
| | - Ji Yeon Hong
- Department of Medicine, Severance Biomedical Science Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
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18
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DIXDC1 contributes to psychiatric susceptibility by regulating dendritic spine and glutamatergic synapse density via GSK3 and Wnt/β-catenin signaling. Mol Psychiatry 2018; 23:467-475. [PMID: 27752079 PMCID: PMC5395363 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2016.184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2016] [Revised: 08/30/2016] [Accepted: 09/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Mice lacking DIX domain containing-1 (DIXDC1), an intracellular Wnt/β-catenin signal pathway protein, have abnormal measures of anxiety, depression and social behavior. Pyramidal neurons in these animals' brains have reduced dendritic spines and glutamatergic synapses. Treatment with lithium or a glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK3) inhibitor corrects behavioral and neurodevelopmental phenotypes in these animals. Analysis of DIXDC1 in over 9000 cases of autism, bipolar disorder and schizophrenia reveals higher rates of rare inherited sequence-disrupting single-nucleotide variants (SNVs) in these individuals compared with psychiatrically unaffected controls. Many of these SNVs alter Wnt/β-catenin signaling activity of the neurally predominant DIXDC1 isoform; a subset that hyperactivate this pathway cause dominant neurodevelopmental effects. We propose that rare missense SNVs in DIXDC1 contribute to psychiatric pathogenesis by reducing spine and glutamatergic synapse density downstream of GSK3 in the Wnt/β-catenin pathway.
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Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disease which is characterized by a deficit in social interactions and communication with repetitive and restrictive behavior. In altered cells, metabolic enzymes are modified by the dysregulation of the canonical WNT/β-catenin pathway. In ASD, the canonical WNT/β-catenin pathway is upregulated. We focus this review on the hypothesis of Warburg effect stimulated by the overexpression of the canonical WNT/β-catenin pathway in ASD. Upregulation of WNT/β-catenin pathway induces aerobic glycolysis, named Warburg effect, through activation of glucose transporter (Glut), pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2), pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 1(PDK1), monocarboxylate lactate transporter 1 (MCT-1), lactate dehydrogenase kinase-A (LDH-A) and inactivation of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDH). The aerobic glycolysis consists to a supply of a large part of glucose into lactate regardless of oxygen. Aerobic glycolysis is less efficient in terms of ATP production than oxidative phosphorylation because of the shunt of the TCA cycle. Dysregulation of energetic metabolism might promote cell deregulation and progression of ASD. Warburg effect regulation could be an attractive target for developing therapeutic interventions in ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Vallée
- Laboratoire de Mathématiques et Applications (LMA), UMR CNRS 7348, CHU Poitiers, University of Poitiers, Poitiers, France
- Laboratoire de Mathématiques et Applications (LMA), UMR CNRS 7348, University of Poitiers, 11 Boulevard Marie et Pierre Curie, Poitiers, France
| | - Jean-Noël Vallée
- Laboratoire de Mathématiques et Applications (LMA), UMR CNRS 7348, University of Poitiers, 11 Boulevard Marie et Pierre Curie, Poitiers, France
- CHU Amiens Picardie, Université Picardie Jules Verne (UPJV), Amiens, France
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Mulligan KA, Cheyette BNR. Neurodevelopmental Perspectives on Wnt Signaling in Psychiatry. MOLECULAR NEUROPSYCHIATRY 2017; 2:219-246. [PMID: 28277568 DOI: 10.1159/000453266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Mounting evidence indicates that Wnt signaling is relevant to pathophysiology of diverse mental illnesses including schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and autism spectrum disorder. In the 35 years since Wnt ligands were first described, animal studies have richly explored how downstream Wnt signaling pathways affect an array of neurodevelopmental processes and how their disruption can lead to both neurological and behavioral phenotypes. Recently, human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC) models have begun to contribute to this literature while pushing it in increasingly translational directions. Simultaneously, large-scale human genomic studies are providing evidence that sequence variation in Wnt signal pathway genes contributes to pathogenesis in several psychiatric disorders. This article reviews neurodevelopmental and postneurodevelopmental functions of Wnt signaling, highlighting mechanisms, whereby its disruption might contribute to psychiatric illness, and then reviews the most reliable recent genetic evidence supporting that mutations in Wnt pathway genes contribute to psychiatric illness. We are proponents of the notion that studies in animal and hiPSC models informed by the human genetic data combined with the deep knowledge base and tool kits generated over the last several decades of basic neurodevelopmental research will yield near-term tangible advances in neuropsychiatry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly A Mulligan
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University, Sacramento, CA, USA
| | - Benjamin N R Cheyette
- Department of Psychiatry, Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
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21
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Kwan V, Unda BK, Singh KK. Wnt signaling networks in autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability. J Neurodev Disord 2016; 8:45. [PMID: 27980692 PMCID: PMC5137220 DOI: 10.1186/s11689-016-9176-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2016] [Accepted: 11/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Genetic factors play a major role in the risk for neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) and intellectual disability (ID). The underlying genetic factors have become better understood in recent years due to advancements in next generation sequencing. These studies have uncovered a vast number of genes that are impacted by different types of mutations (e.g., de novo, missense, truncation, copy number variations). Abstract Given the large volume of genetic data, analyzing each gene on its own is not a feasible approach and will take years to complete, let alone attempt to use the information to develop novel therapeutics. To make sense of independent genomic data, one approach is to determine whether multiple risk genes function in common signaling pathways that identify signaling “hubs” where risk genes converge. This approach has led to multiple pathways being implicated, such as synaptic signaling, chromatin remodeling, alternative splicing, and protein translation, among many others. In this review, we analyze recent and historical evidence indicating that multiple risk genes, including genes denoted as high-confidence and likely causal, are part of the Wingless (Wnt signaling) pathway. In the brain, Wnt signaling is an evolutionarily conserved pathway that plays an instrumental role in developing neural circuits and adult brain function. Conclusions We will also review evidence that pharmacological therapies and genetic mouse models further identify abnormal Wnt signaling, particularly at the synapse, as being disrupted in ASDs and contributing to disease pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vickie Kwan
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Stem Cell and Cancer Research Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1 Canada
| | - Brianna K Unda
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Stem Cell and Cancer Research Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1 Canada
| | - Karun K Singh
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Stem Cell and Cancer Research Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1 Canada
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22
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Kwan V, Meka D, White S, Hung C, Holzapfel N, Walker S, Murtaza N, Unda B, Schwanke B, Yuen R, Habing K, Milsom C, Hope K, Truant R, Scherer S, Calderon de Anda F, Singh K. DIXDC1 Phosphorylation and Control of Dendritic Morphology Are Impaired by Rare Genetic Variants. Cell Rep 2016; 17:1892-1904. [DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2016.10.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2016] [Revised: 09/02/2016] [Accepted: 10/14/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
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Benítez-Burraco A, Lattanzi W, Murphy E. Language Impairments in ASD Resulting from a Failed Domestication of the Human Brain. Front Neurosci 2016; 10:373. [PMID: 27621700 PMCID: PMC5002430 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2016.00373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2016] [Accepted: 08/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are pervasive neurodevelopmental disorders entailing social and cognitive deficits, including marked problems with language. Numerous genes have been associated with ASD, but it is unclear how language deficits arise from gene mutation or dysregulation. It is also unclear why ASD shows such high prevalence within human populations. Interestingly, the emergence of a modern faculty of language has been hypothesized to be linked to changes in the human brain/skull, but also to the process of self-domestication of the human species. It is our intention to show that people with ASD exhibit less marked domesticated traits at the morphological, physiological, and behavioral levels. We also discuss many ASD candidates represented among the genes known to be involved in the “domestication syndrome” (the constellation of traits exhibited by domesticated mammals, which seemingly results from the hypofunction of the neural crest) and among the set of genes involved in language function closely connected to them. Moreover, many of these genes show altered expression profiles in the brain of autists. In addition, some candidates for domestication and language-readiness show the same expression profile in people with ASD and chimps in different brain areas involved in language processing. Similarities regarding the brain oscillatory behavior of these areas can be expected too. We conclude that ASD may represent an abnormal ontogenetic itinerary for the human faculty of language resulting in part from changes in genes important for the “domestication syndrome” and, ultimately, from the normal functioning of the neural crest.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Wanda Lattanzi
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore Rome, Italy
| | - Elliot Murphy
- Division of Psychology and Language Sciences, University College London London, UK
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24
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Mullins C, Fishell G, Tsien RW. Unifying Views of Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Consideration of Autoregulatory Feedback Loops. Neuron 2016; 89:1131-1156. [PMID: 26985722 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2016.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the mechanisms underlying autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) is a challenging goal. Here we review recent progress on several fronts, including genetics, proteomics, biochemistry, and electrophysiology, that raise motivation for forming a viable pathophysiological hypothesis. In place of a traditionally unidirectional progression, we put forward a framework that extends homeostatic hypotheses by explicitly emphasizing autoregulatory feedback loops and known synaptic biology. The regulated biological feature can be neuronal electrical activity, the collective strength of synapses onto a dendritic branch, the local concentration of a signaling molecule, or the relative strengths of synaptic excitation and inhibition. The sensor of the biological variable (which we have termed the homeostat) engages mechanisms that operate as negative feedback elements to keep the biological variable tightly confined. We categorize known ASD-associated gene products according to their roles in such feedback loops and provide detailed commentary for exemplar genes within each module.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin Mullins
- Department of Neuroscience and Physiology, Neuroscience Institute, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Gord Fishell
- Department of Neuroscience and Physiology, Neuroscience Institute, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Richard W Tsien
- Department of Neuroscience and Physiology, Neuroscience Institute, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, NY 10016, USA.
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Association study of BCL9 gene polymorphism rs583583 with schizophrenia and negative symptoms in Japanese population. Sci Rep 2015; 5:15705. [PMID: 26494551 PMCID: PMC4616162 DOI: 10.1038/srep15705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2015] [Accepted: 09/29/2015] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
B-cell CLL/lymphoma 9 (BCL9) is located within the schizophrenia (SCZ) suspected locus chr1q21.1. A recent study reported that a single nucleotide polyphormism (SNP) within BCL9 (rs583583) is associated with negative symptoms of Schizophrenia, as measured by the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS), in the Caucasian population. We therefore investigated genetic association of rs583583, and its effect on negative symptoms in the Japanese patients. For association analysis, we used a Japanese sample set comprising 1089 SCZ and 950 controls (CON). Analysis of the effect of rs586586 on negative symptoms as examined by PANSS was investigated using 280 SCZ. Furthermore, for analysis of cognitive performance, we investigated 90 SCZ and 51 CON using the Continuous Performance Test (CPT-IP) and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) Keio version. We did not detect association between rs583583 and SCZ. Furthermore, rs583583 was not associated with PANSS negative scores or with CPT-IT or WCST cognitive tests. Considering the results of our previous study, combined with the results of the current study of rs583583, we argue that BCL9 most likely does not harbor a common genetic variant that can increase the risk for SCZ in the Japanese population.
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Huang F, Long Z, Chen Z, Li J, Hu Z, Qiu R, Zhuang W, Tang B, Xia K, Jiang H. Investigation of Gene Regulatory Networks Associated with Autism Spectrum Disorder Based on MiRNA Expression in China. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0129052. [PMID: 26061495 PMCID: PMC4462583 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0129052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2015] [Accepted: 05/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) comprise a group of neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by deficits in social and communication capacities and repetitive behaviors. Increasing neuroscientific evidence indicates that the neuropathology of ASD is widespread and involves epigenetic regulation in the brain. Differentially expressed miRNAs in the peripheral blood from autism patients were identified by high-throughput miRNA microarray analyses. Five of these miRNAs were confirmed through quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) analysis. A search for candidate target genes of the five confirmed miRNAs was performed through a Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) biological pathways and Gene Ontology enrichment analysis of gene function to identify gene regulatory networks. To the best of our knowledge, this study provides the first global miRNA expression profile of ASD in China. The differentially expressed miR-34b may potentially explain the higher percentage of male ASD patients, and the aberrantly expressed miR-103a-3p may contribute to the abnormal ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis observed in ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fengzhen Huang
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, P. R. China
- Department of Neurology at University of South China, The First People’s Hospital of Chenzhou, Chenzhou, Hunan, 423000, P. R. China
- Institute of Translational Medicine at University of South China, The First People’s Hospital of Chenzhou, Chenzhou, Hunan, 423000, P. R. China
| | - Zhe Long
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, P. R. China
| | - Zhao Chen
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, P. R. China
| | - Jiada Li
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics of China, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan,410078, P. R. China
| | - Zhengmao Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics of China, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan,410078, P. R. China
| | - Rong Qiu
- School of Information Science and Engineering, Central South University, Hunan, 410083, P. R. China
- Hunan Engineering Laboratory for Advanced Control and Intelligent Automation, Hunan, 410083, P. R. China
| | - Wei Zhuang
- Department of Thoracic surgery, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, P. R. China
| | - Beisha Tang
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics of China, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan,410078, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Hunan Province in Neurodegenerative Disorders, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, P. R. China
| | - Kun Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics of China, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan,410078, P. R. China
| | - Hong Jiang
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics of China, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan,410078, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Hunan Province in Neurodegenerative Disorders, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, P. R. China
- * E-mail:
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Zhang Y, Yang C, Yuan G, Wang Z, Cui W, Li R. Sulindac attenuates valproic acid-induced oxidative stress levels in primary cultured cortical neurons and ameliorates repetitive/stereotypic-like movement disorders in Wistar rats prenatally exposed to valproic acid. Int J Mol Med 2014; 35:263-70. [PMID: 25384498 DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2014.1996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2014] [Accepted: 10/31/2014] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Accumulating evidence suggests that anti-inflammatory agents and antioxidants have neuroprotective properties and may be beneficial in the treatment of neurodevelopental disorders, such as autism. In the present study, the possible neuroprotective properties of sulindac, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), were investigated in vitro using cultured cortical neurons with valproic acid (VPA)-induced neurotoxicity, as well as in vivo through the behavioral analysis of rats prenatally exposed to VPA as a model of autism. VPA induced 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) expression, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and decreased cell viability in primary cultured cortical neurons established from timed-pregnant (embryonic day 18) Wistar rat pups. However, co-incubation of the neurons with VPA and sulindac reduced oxidative stress and increased cell viability. The rats were administered an intraperitoneal injection with one of the following: VPA, sulindac, VPA and sulindac, or physiological saline, and their offspring were subjected to the open field test. During the test trials, repetitive/stereotypic-like movements for each rat were recorded and analyzed. The results revealed that treatment with both sulindac and VPA reduced the VPA-induced repetitive/stereotypic-like activity and the sulindac and VPA-treated animals responded better in the open field test compared to the VPA-treated animals. The results from the present study demonstrate that the antioxidant properties of sulindac may prove to be beneficial in the treatment of autism, suggesting that the upregulation of the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway disrupts oxidative homeostasis and facilitates susceptibility to autism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yinghua Zhang
- Department of Human Anatomy, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, Henan 453003, P.R. China
| | - Cailing Yang
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Xinxiang Medical University, Weihui, Henan 453100, P.R. China
| | - Guoyan Yuan
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Xinxiang Medical University, Weihui, Henan 453100, P.R. China
| | - Zhongping Wang
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China
| | - Weigang Cui
- Department of Human Anatomy, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, Henan 453003, P.R. China
| | - Ruixi Li
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China
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Adenomatous polyposis coli protein deletion leads to cognitive and autism-like disabilities. Mol Psychiatry 2014; 19:1133-42. [PMID: 24934177 PMCID: PMC4317257 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2014.61] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2013] [Revised: 04/16/2014] [Accepted: 04/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Intellectual disabilities (IDs) and autism spectrum disorders link to human APC inactivating gene mutations. However, little is known about adenomatous polyposis coli's (APC's) role in the mammalian brain. This study is the first direct test of the impact of APC loss on central synapses, cognition and behavior. Using our newly generated APC conditional knock-out (cKO) mouse, we show that deletion of this single gene in forebrain neurons leads to a multisyndromic neurodevelopmental disorder. APC cKO mice, compared with wild-type littermates, exhibit learning and memory impairments, and autistic-like behaviors (increased repetitive behaviors, reduced social interest). To begin to elucidate neuronal changes caused by APC loss, we focused on the hippocampus, a key brain region for cognitive function. APC cKO mice display increased synaptic spine density, and altered synaptic function (increased frequency of miniature excitatory synaptic currents, modestly enhanced long-term potentiation). In addition, we found excessive β-catenin levels and associated changes in canonical Wnt target gene expression and N-cadherin synaptic adhesion complexes, including reduced levels of presenilin1. Our findings identify some novel functional and molecular changes not observed previously in other genetic mutant mouse models of co-morbid cognitive and autistic-like disabilities. This work thereby has important implications for potential therapeutic targets and the impact of their modulation. We provide new insights into molecular perturbations and cell types that are relevant to human ID and autism. In addition, our data elucidate a novel role for APC in the mammalian brain as a hub that links to and regulates synaptic adhesion and signal transduction pathways critical for normal cognition and behavior.
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