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Mourdikoudis S, Menelaou M, Fiuza-Maneiro N, Zheng G, Wei S, Pérez-Juste J, Polavarapu L, Sofer Z. Oleic acid/oleylamine ligand pair: a versatile combination in the synthesis of colloidal nanoparticles. NANOSCALE HORIZONS 2022; 7:941-1015. [PMID: 35770698 DOI: 10.1039/d2nh00111j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
A variety of colloidal chemical approaches has been developed in the last few decades for the controlled synthesis of nanostructured materials in either water or organic solvents. Besides the precursors, the solvents, reducing agents, and the choice of surfactants are crucial for tuning the composition, morphology and other properties of the resulting nanoparticles. The ligands employed include thiols, amines, carboxylic acids, phosphines and phosphine oxides. Generally, adding a single ligand to the reaction mixture is not always adequate to yield the desired features. In this review, we discuss in detail the role of the oleic acid/oleylamine ligand pair in the chemical synthesis of nanoparticles. The combined use of these ligands belonging to two different categories of molecules aims to control the size and shape of nanoparticles and prevent their aggregation, not only during their synthesis but also after their dispersion in a carrier solvent. We show how the different binding strengths of these two molecules and their distinct binding modes on specific facets affect the reaction kinetics toward the production of nanostructures with tailored characteristics. Additional functions, such as the reducing function, are also noted, especially for oleylamine. Sometimes, the carboxylic acid will react with the alkylamine to form an acid-base complex, which may serve as a binary capping agent and reductant; however, its reducing capacity may range from lower to much lower than that of oleylamine. The types of nanoparticles synthesized in the simultaneous presence of oleic acid and oleylamine and discussed herein include metal oxides, metal chalcogenides, metals, bimetallic structures, perovskites, upconversion particles and rare earth-based materials. Diverse morphologies, ranging from spherical nanoparticles to anisotropic, core-shell and hetero-structured configurations are presented. Finally, the relation between tuning the resulting surface and volume nanoparticle properties and the relevant applications is highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanos Mourdikoudis
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technicka 5, 16628 - Prague 6, Czech Republic.
| | - Melita Menelaou
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Geotechnical Sciences and Environmental Management, Cyprus University of Technology, 3036 Limassol, Cyprus.
| | - Nadesh Fiuza-Maneiro
- CINBIO, Universidade de Vigo, Materials Chemistry and Physics, Department of Physical Chemistry, Campus Universitario Lagoas Marcosende, 36310 Vigo, Spain.
| | - Guangchao Zheng
- School of Physics and Microelectronics, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
| | - Shuangying Wei
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technicka 5, 16628 - Prague 6, Czech Republic.
| | - Jorge Pérez-Juste
- CINBIO, Universidade de Vigo, Departamento de Química Física, Campus Universitario As Lagoas, Marcosende, 36310 Vigo, Spain
- Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), 36310 Vigo, Spain
| | - Lakshminarayana Polavarapu
- CINBIO, Universidade de Vigo, Materials Chemistry and Physics, Department of Physical Chemistry, Campus Universitario Lagoas Marcosende, 36310 Vigo, Spain.
| | - Zdeněk Sofer
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technicka 5, 16628 - Prague 6, Czech Republic.
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Sharifi Dehsari H, Harris RA, Ribeiro AH, Tremel W, Asadi K. Optimizing the Binding Energy of the Surfactant to Iron Oxide Yields Truly Monodisperse Nanoparticles. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2018; 34:6582-6590. [PMID: 29726684 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.8b01337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Despite the great progress in the synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles (NPs) using a thermal decomposition method, the production of NPs with low polydispersity index is still challenging. In a thermal decomposition synthesis, oleic acid (OAC) and oleylamine (OAM) are used as surfactants. The surfactants bind to the growth species, thereby controlling the reaction kinetics and hence playing a critical role in the final size and size distribution of the NPs. Finding an optimum molar ratio between the surfactants oleic OAC/OAM is therefore crucial. A systematic experimental and theoretical study, however, on the role of the surfactant ratio is still missing. Here, we present a detailed experimental study on the role of the surfactant ratio in size distribution. We found an optimum OAC/OAM ratio of 3 at which the synthesis yielded truly monodisperse (polydispersity less than 7%) iron oxide NPs without employing any post synthesis size-selective procedures. We performed molecular dynamics simulations and showed that the binding energy of oleate to the NP is maximized at an OAC/OAM ratio of 3. The optimum OAC/OAM ratio of 3 is allowed for the control of the NP size with nanometer precision by simply changing the reaction heating rate. The optimum OAC/OAM ratio has no influence on the crystallinity and the superparamagnetic behavior of the Fe3O4 NPs and therefore can be adopted for the scaled-up production of size-controlled monodisperse Fe3O4 NPs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Richard Anthony Harris
- Department of Physics , University of the Free State , Bloemfontein 9300 , Republic of South Africa
| | | | - Wolfgang Tremel
- Department of Chemistry , Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz , Mainz 55122 , Germany
| | - Kamal Asadi
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research , Ackermannweg 10 , Mainz 55128 , Germany
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3
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Belaïd S, Stanicki D, Vander Elst L, Muller RN, Laurent S. Influence of experimental parameters on iron oxide nanoparticle properties synthesized by thermal decomposition: size and nuclear magnetic resonance studies. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2018; 29:165603. [PMID: 29485102 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/aaae59] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
A study of the experimental conditions to synthesize monodisperse iron oxide nanocrystals prepared from the thermal decomposition of iron(III) acetylacetonate was carried out in the presence of surfactants and a reducing agent. The influence of temperature, synthesis time and surfactant amounts on nanoparticle properties is reported. This investigation combines relaxometric characterization and size properties. The relaxometric behavior of the nanomaterials depends on the selected experimental parameters. The synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles with a high relaxivity and a high saturation magnetization can be obtained with a short reaction time at high temperature. Moreover, the influence of surfactant concentrations determines the optimal value in order to produce iron oxide nanoparticles with a narrow size distribution. The optimized synthesis is rapid, robust and reproductive, and produces nearly monodisperse magnetic nanocrystals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Belaïd
- Department of General, Organic and Biomedical Chemistry, NMR and Molecular Imaging Laboratory, University of Mons, B-7000 Mons, Belgium
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4
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Alkaline Metal Reagent-Assisted Synthesis of Monodisperse Iron Oxide Nanostructures. METALS 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/met8020107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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5
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Galarreta I, Insausti M, Gil de Muro I, Ruiz de Larramendi I, Lezama L. Exploring Reaction Conditions to Improve the Magnetic Response of Cobalt-Doped Ferrite Nanoparticles. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2018; 8:E63. [PMID: 29370104 PMCID: PMC5853696 DOI: 10.3390/nano8020063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2017] [Revised: 01/11/2018] [Accepted: 01/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
With the aim of studying the influence of synthesis parameters in structural and magnetic properties of cobalt-doped magnetite nanoparticles, Fe3-xCoxO₄ (0 < x < 0.15) samples were synthetized by thermal decomposition method at different reaction times (30-120 min). The Co ferrite nanoparticles are monodisperse with diameters between 6 and 11 nm and morphologies depending on reaction times, varying from spheric, cuboctahedral, to cubic. Chemical analysis and X-ray diffraction were used to confirm the composition, high crystallinity, and pure-phase structure. The investigation of the magnetic properties, both magnetization and electronic magnetic resonance, has led the conditions to improve the magnetic response of doped nanoparticles. Magnetization values of 86 emu·g-1 at room temperature (R.T.) have been obtained for the sample with the highest Co content and the highest reflux time. Magnetic characterization also displays a dependence of the magnetic anisotropy constant with the varying cobalt content.
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Affiliation(s)
- Itziar Galarreta
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, University of the Basque Country, UPV/EHU, Bº Sarriena, 48970 Leioa, Spain.
| | - Maite Insausti
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, University of the Basque Country, UPV/EHU, Bº Sarriena, 48970 Leioa, Spain.
- BCMaterials, Basque Center for Materials, Applications & Nanostructures, UPV/EHU Science Park, Bº Sarriena, 48970 Leioa, Spain.
| | - Izaskun Gil de Muro
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, University of the Basque Country, UPV/EHU, Bº Sarriena, 48970 Leioa, Spain.
- BCMaterials, Basque Center for Materials, Applications & Nanostructures, UPV/EHU Science Park, Bº Sarriena, 48970 Leioa, Spain.
| | - Idoia Ruiz de Larramendi
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, University of the Basque Country, UPV/EHU, Bº Sarriena, 48970 Leioa, Spain.
| | - Luis Lezama
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, University of the Basque Country, UPV/EHU, Bº Sarriena, 48970 Leioa, Spain.
- BCMaterials, Basque Center for Materials, Applications & Nanostructures, UPV/EHU Science Park, Bº Sarriena, 48970 Leioa, Spain.
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6
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Abdulwahab KO, Malik MA, O'Brien P, Vitorica-Yrezabal IJ, Timco GA, Tuna F, Winpenny REP. The synthesis of a monodisperse quaternary ferrite (FeCoCrO 4) from the hot injection thermolysis of the single source precursor [CrCoFeO(O 2C tBu) 6(HO 2C tBu) 3]. Dalton Trans 2018; 47:376-381. [PMID: 29218346 DOI: 10.1039/c7dt03302h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Monodisperse cobalt chromium ferrite (FeCoCrO4) nanoparticles have been synthesised using the trimetallic pivalate cluster [CrCoFeO(O2CtBu)6(HO2CtBu)3]. The precursor was thermolysed in oleylamine and oleic acid, with diphenyl ether as the solvent at 260 °C. The effect of time and the concentration of the precursor on the stoichiometry of the phase formed and/or the morphology of the nanoparticles was studied. The reaction time was investigated by withdrawing aliquots at different times. No products were formed after 5 minutes and aliquots withdrawn at reaction times of less than 1 hour contain traces of iron oxide (Fe2O3); only cubic cobalt chromium ferrite (FeCoCrO4) was obtained after one hour. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) showed that more monodisperse spherical ferrite nanoparticles (4.0 ± 0.4 nm) were obtained at higher precursor concentrations. Magnetic measurements revealed that all the ferrite particles are superparamagnetic at room temperature but showed large hysteresis at low temperature. The nanoparticles were characterised by Powder X-Ray Diffraction (p-XRD) and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). A Superconducting Quantum Interference Device (SQUID) was used to analyse the magnetic properties of the nanoparticles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khadijat O Abdulwahab
- School of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK.
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7
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Effenberger FB, Couto RA, Kiyohara PK, Machado G, Masunaga SH, Jardim RF, Rossi LM. Economically attractive route for the preparation of high quality magnetic nanoparticles by the thermal decomposition of iron(III) acetylacetonate. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2017; 28:115603. [PMID: 28192283 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/aa5ab0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The thermal decomposition (TD) methods are among the most successful in obtaining magnetic nanoparticles with a high degree of control of size and narrow particle size distribution. Here we investigated the TD of iron(III) acetylacetonate in the presence of oleic acid, oleylamine, and a series of alcohols in order to disclose their role and also investigate economically attractive alternatives for the synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles without compromising their size and shape control. We have found that some affordable and reasonably less priced alcohols, such as 1,2-octanediol and cyclohexanol, may replace the commonly used and expensive 1,2-hexadecanediol, providing an economically attractive route for the synthesis of high quality magnetic nanoparticles. The relative cost for the preparation of Fe3O4 NPs is reduced to only 21% and 9% of the original cost when using 1,2-octanediol and cyclohexanol, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando B Effenberger
- Departamento de Química Fundamental, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, 05508-000 são Paulo, SP, Brazil
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8
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Lu LT, Dung NT, Tung LD, Thanh CT, Quy OK, Chuc NV, Maenosono S, Thanh NTK. Synthesis of magnetic cobalt ferrite nanoparticles with controlled morphology, monodispersity and composition: the influence of solvent, surfactant, reductant and synthetic conditions. NANOSCALE 2015; 7:19596-610. [PMID: 26542630 DOI: 10.1039/c5nr04266f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
In our present work, magnetic cobalt ferrite (CoFe2O4) nanoparticles have been successfully synthesised by thermal decomposition of Fe(III) and Co(II) acetylacetonate compounds in organic solvents in the presence of oleic acid (OA)/ oleylamine (OLA) as surfactants and 1,2-hexadecanediol (HDD) or octadecanol (OCD-ol) as an accelerating agent. As a result, CoFe2O4 nanoparticles of different shapes were tightly controlled in size (range of 4-30 nm) and monodispersity (standard deviation only at ca. 5%). Experimental parameters, such as reaction time, temperature, surfactant concentration, solvent, precursor ratio, and accelerating agent, in particular, the role of HDD, OCD-ol, and OA/OLA have been intensively investigated in detail to discover the best conditions for the synthesis of the above magnetic nanoparticles. The obtained nanoparticles have been successfully applied for producing oriented carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and they have potential to be used in biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Le T Lu
- Institute for Tropical Technology -Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, 18 Hoang Quoc Viet, CauGiay, Hanoi, Vietnam.
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9
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Moya C, Morales MDP, Batlle X, Labarta A. Tuning the magnetic properties of Co-ferrite nanoparticles through the 1,2-hexadecanediol concentration in the reaction mixture. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2015; 17:13143-9. [DOI: 10.1039/c5cp01052g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
This work reports on the effect of the 1,2-hexadecanediol content on the structural and magnetic properties of CoFe2O4 nanoparticles synthesized by thermal decomposition of metal–organic precursors in 1-octadecene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Moya
- Departament de Física Fonamental
- Institut de Nanociència i Nanotecnologia
- Universitat de Barcelona
- Barcelona
- Spain
| | | | - Xavier Batlle
- Departament de Física Fonamental
- Institut de Nanociència i Nanotecnologia
- Universitat de Barcelona
- Barcelona
- Spain
| | - Amílcar Labarta
- Departament de Física Fonamental
- Institut de Nanociència i Nanotecnologia
- Universitat de Barcelona
- Barcelona
- Spain
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10
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Menelaou M, Georgoula K, Simeonidis K, Dendrinou-Samara C. Evaluation of nickel ferrite nanoparticles coated with oleylamine by NMR relaxation measurements and magnetic hyperthermia. Dalton Trans 2014; 43:3626-36. [DOI: 10.1039/c3dt52860j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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11
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Orbaek AW, Owens AC, Crouse CC, Pint CL, Hauge RH, Barron AR. Single walled carbon nanotube growth and chirality dependence on catalyst composition. NANOSCALE 2013; 5:9848-9859. [PMID: 23974219 DOI: 10.1039/c3nr03142j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Vertical arrays of single walled carbon nanotubes (VA-SWNTs) were grown using bi-metallic nanoparticle pro-catalysts. Iron oxide particles were doped with varying quantities of first row transition metals (Mn, Co, Ni, and Cu) for a comparative study of the growth of nanotubes. VA-CNT samples were verified using scanning electron microscopy, and characterized using resonance Raman spectroscopy. The length of the VA-CNTs is used as a measure of catalyst activity: the presence of dopants results in a change in the CNT length and length distribution. Cross correlation of the Raman spectra reveal variations in the distribution of radial breathing mode peaks according to the pro-catalyst composition. The formation of various chirality nanotubes is constant between repetitive runs with a particular catalyst, but may be controlled by the identity and concentration of the metal dopants within the iron catalyst. These results demonstrate that the composition of the catalyst is a major driving force toward type selective growth of nanotubes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alvin W Orbaek
- Department of Chemistry, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA.
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12
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Diiminic Schiff Bases: An Intriguing Class of Compounds for a Copper-Nanoparticle-Induced Fluorescence Study. Chemistry 2012; 18:15845-55. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201201242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2012] [Revised: 08/15/2012] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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13
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Pan D, Cai X, Yalaz C, Senpan A, Omanakuttan K, Wickline SA, Wang LV, Lanza GM. Photoacoustic sentinel lymph node imaging with self-assembled copper neodecanoate nanoparticles. ACS NANO 2012; 6:1260-7. [PMID: 22229462 PMCID: PMC3289744 DOI: 10.1021/nn203895n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Photoacoustic tomography (PAT) is emerging as a novel, hybrid, and non-ionizing imaging modality because of its satisfactory spatial resolution and high soft tissue contrast. PAT combines the advantages of both optical and ultrasonic imaging methods. It opens up the possibilities for noninvasive staging of breast cancer and may replace sentinel lymph node (SLN) biopsy in clinic in the near future. In this work, we demonstrate for the first time that copper can be used as a contrast metal for near-infrared detection of SLN using PAT. A unique strategy is adopted to encapsulate multiple copies of Cu as organically soluble small molecule complexes within a phospholipid-entrapped nanoparticle. The nanoparticles assumed a size of 80-90 nm, which is the optimum hydrodynamic diameter for its distribution throughout the lymphatic systems. These particles provided at least 6-fold higher signal sensitivity in comparison to blood, which is a natural absorber of light. We also demonstrated that high SLN detection sensitivity with PAT can be achieved in a rodent model. This work clearly demonstrates for the first time the potential use of copper as an optical contrast agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dipanjan Pan
- AUTHOR ADDRESS (Nanoparticle) AND (Photoacoustics)
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14
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Niu W, Wu S, Zhang S. Utilizing the amidation reaction to address the “cooperative effect” of carboxylic acid/amine on the size, shape, and multicolor output of fluoride upconversion nanoparticles. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1039/c1jm10985e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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15
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Alvarez NT, Hamilton CE, Pint CL, Orbaek A, Yao J, Frosinini AL, Barron AR, Tour JM, Hauge RH. Wet catalyst-support films for production of vertically aligned carbon nanotubes. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2010; 2:1851-1856. [PMID: 20540507 DOI: 10.1021/am100128m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
A procedure for vertically aligned carbon nanotube (VA-CNT) production has been developed through liquid-phase deposition of alumoxanes (aluminum oxide hydroxides, boehmite) as a catalyst support. Through a simple spin-coating of alumoxane nanoparticles, uniform centimer-square thin film surfaces were coated and used as supports for subsequent deposition of metal catalyst. Uniform VA-CNTs are observed to grow from this film following deposition of both conventional evaporated Fe catalyst, as well as premade Fe nanoparticles drop-dried from the liquid phase. The quality and uniformity of the VA-CNTs are comparable to growth from conventional evaporated layers of Al(2)O(3). The combined use of alumoxane and Fe nanoparticles to coat surfaces represents an inexpensive and scalable approach to large-scale VA-CNT production that makes chemical vapor deposition significantly more competitive when compared to other CNT production techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noe T Alvarez
- Department of Chemistry, The Richard E. Smalley Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, Rice University, MS 222, 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, USA
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Brege JJ, Hamilton CE, Crouse CA, Barron AR. Ultrasmall copper nanoparticles from a hydrophobically immobilized surfactant template. NANO LETTERS 2009; 9:2239-2242. [PMID: 19432406 DOI: 10.1021/nl900080f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Ultrasmall copper nanoparticles are produced by N,N,N',N'-tetramethyl-p-phenylenediamine (TMPDA) reduction of aqueous Cu(2+) on a hydrophobically immobilized sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate (SDBS) surfactant template in the presence of sodium citrate at room temperature. Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) act as a scaffold controlling the size of the SDBS micelle, which in turn confines a limited number of copper ions near the nanotube surface. TMPDA reduction forms copper nanoparticles as confirmed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and electron diffraction, whose size was determined by atomic force microscopy and transmission electron microscopy to be approximately 2 nm. Particles formed in the absence of the SWNT immobilizer range from 2 to 150 nm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan J Brege
- Richard E. Smalley Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, an Department of Chemistry, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, USA
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